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Department
Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Beth Israel
Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA
Susan R. Wilcox, MD
Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care, and Pain Medicine,
Abstract Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA
Peer Reviewers
Shock is a state of acute circulatory failure leading to decreased organ Rachel Garvin, MD
perfusion, with inadequate delivery of oxygenated blood to tissues Assistant Professor, Neurosurgery and Emergency Medicine, University
and resultant end-organ dysfunction. The mechanisms that can result of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, San Antonio, TX
in shock are divided into 4 categories: (1) hypovolemic, (2) distribu- Scott D. Weingart, MD, FCCM
Associate Professor of Emergency Medicine, Director, Division of ED
tive, (3) cardiogenic, and (4) obstructive. While much is known re- Critical Care, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
garding treatment of patients in shock, several controversies continue CME Objectives
in the literature. Assessment begins with identifying the need for
Upon completion of this article, you should be able to:
critical interventions such as intubation, mechanical ventilation, or 1. Analyze available clinical data to be able to distinguish between
obtaining vascular access. Prompt workup should be initiated with the distinct pathophysiologic mechanisms that cause shock.
laboratory testing (especially of serum lactate levels) and imaging, as 2. Describe and apply the initial resuscitative and therapeutic steps
in the management of a patient presenting with undifferentiated
indicated. Determining the intravascular volume status of patients shock.
in shock is critical and aids in categorizing and informing treatment 3. Compare and contrast focused therapeutic interventions for the
decisions. This issue reviews the 4 primary categories of shock as well distinct pathophysiologic categories of shock.
as special categories, including shock in pregnancy, traumatic shock, 4. Discuss the evidence-based clinical approach to hemorrhagic
shock due to trauma.
septic shock, and cardiogenic shock in myocardial infarction. Adher-
ence to evidence-based care of the specific causes of shock can opti- Prior to beginning this activity, see Physician CME Information on the
mize a patients chances of surviving this life-threatening condition. back page.
Editor-In-Chief of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Research Editor
Andy Jagoda, MD, FACEP York, NY PA Sinai, New York, NY Michael Guthrie, MD
Professor and Chair, Department of Michael A. Gibbs, MD, FACEP Charles V. Pollack, Jr., MA, MD, Scott Silvers, MD, FACEP Emergency Medicine Residency,
Emergency Medicine, Icahn School Professor and Chair, Department FACEP Chair, Department of Emergency Icahn School of Medicine at Mount
of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Medical of Emergency Medicine, Carolinas Professor and Chair, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL Sinai, New York, NY
Director, Mount Sinai Hospital, New Medical Center, University of North Emergency Medicine, Pennsylvania
York, NY Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hospital, Perelman School of Corey M. Slovis, MD, FACP, FACEP International Editors
Hill, NC Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Professor and Chair, Department
Peter Cameron, MD
Associate Editor-In-Chief Philadelphia, PA of Emergency Medicine, Vanderbilt
Academic Director, The Alfred
Steven A. Godwin, MD, FACEP University Medical Center; Medical
Kaushal Shah, MD, FACEP Professor and Chair, Department Michael S. Radeos, MD, MPH Emergency and Trauma Centre,
Associate Professor, Department of Director, Nashville Fire Department and
of Emergency Medicine, Assistant Assistant Professor of Emergency International Airport, Nashville, TN Monash University, Melbourne,
Emergency Medicine, Icahn School Dean, Simulation Education, Medicine, Weill Medical College Australia
of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New University of Florida COM- of Cornell University, New York; Stephen H. Thomas, MD, MPH
York, NY George Kaiser Family Foundation Giorgio Carbone, MD
Jacksonville, Jacksonville, FL Research Director, Department of Chief, Department of Emergency
Emergency Medicine, New York Professor & Chair, Department of
Editorial Board Gregory L. Henry, MD, FACEP
Hospital Queens, Flushing, NY Emergency Medicine, University of Medicine Ospedale Gradenigo,
William J. Brady, MD Clinical Professor, Department of Oklahoma School of Community Torino, Italy
Professor of Emergency Medicine Emergency Medicine, University Ali S. Raja, MD, MBA, MPH Medicine, Tulsa, OK Amin Antoine Kazzi, MD, FAAEM
and Medicine, Chair, Medical of Michigan Medical School; CEO, Director of Network Operations and Associate Professor and Vice Chair,
Emergency Response Committee, Medical Practice Risk Assessment, Business Development, Department Ron M. Walls, MD Department of Emergency Medicine,
Inc., Ann Arbor, MI of Emergency Medicine, Brigham Professor and Chair, Department of
Medical Director, Emergency University of California, Irvine;
and Womens Hospital; Assistant Emergency Medicine, Brigham and
Management, University of Virginia John M. Howell, MD, FACEP American University, Beirut, Lebanon
Professor, Harvard Medical School, Womens Hospital, Harvard Medical
Medical Center, Charlottesville, VA Clinical Professor of Emergency
Boston, MA School, Boston, MA Hugo Peralta, MD
Peter DeBlieux, MD Medicine, George Washington Chair of Emergency Services,
University, Washington, DC; Director Robert L. Rogers, MD, FACEP, Scott D. Weingart, MD, FCCM
Professor of Clinical Medicine, Hospital Italiano, Buenos Aires,
of Academic Affairs, Best Practices, FAAEM, FACP Associate Professor of Emergency
Interim Public Hospital Director Argentina
Inc, Inova Fairfax Hospital, Falls Assistant Professor of Emergency Medicine, Director, Division of
of Emergency Medicine Services,
Church, VA Medicine, The University of ED Critical Care, Icahn School of Dhanadol Rojanasarntikul, MD
Louisiana State University Health
Maryland School of Medicine, Medicine at Mount Sinai, New Attending Physician, Emergency
Science Center, New Orleans, LA Shkelzen Hoxhaj, MD, MPH, MBA
Baltimore, MD York, NY Medicine, King Chulalongkorn
Francis M. Fesmire, MD, FACEP Chief of Emergency Medicine, Baylor Memorial Hospital, Thai Red Cross,
Professor and Director of Clinical College of Medicine, Houston, TX Alfred Sacchetti, MD, FACEP Senior Research Editors Thailand; Faculty of Medicine,
Research, Department of Emergency Eric Legome, MD Assistant Clinical Professor, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
Department of Emergency Medicine, James Damilini, PharmD, BCPS
Medicine, UT College of Medicine, Chief of Emergency Medicine,
Thomas Jefferson University, Clinical Pharmacist, Emergency Suzanne Peeters, MD
Chattanooga; Director of Chest Pain Kings County Hospital; Professor of
Philadelphia, PA Room, St. Josephs Hospital and Emergency Medicine Residency
Center, Erlanger Medical Center, Clinical Emergency Medicine, SUNY Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ Director, Haga Hospital, The Hague,
Chattanooga, TN Downstate College of Medicine, Robert Schiller, MD The Netherlands
Brooklyn, NY Chair, Department of Family Joseph D. Toscano, MD
Nicholas Genes, MD, PhD Chairman, Department of Emergency
Medicine, Beth Israel Medical
Assistant Professor, Department of Keith A. Marill, MD Medicine, San Ramon Regional
Center; Senior Faculty, Family
Emergency Medicine, Icahn School Research Faculty, Depatment of Medical Center, San Ramon, CA
Medicine and Community Health,
Emergency Medicine, University of
Case Presentation Equation 2
MAP = CO x SVR
You are working in the ED late one evening when an 82-year-
old man is brought in by his son. His son reports that earlier Abbreviations: CO, cardiac output; MAP, mean arte-
today, his father had been in his usual state of health, but this rial pressure; SVR, systemic vascular resistance.
evening he found his father confused, with labored breath-
ing. On arrival, the patient has the following vital signs: As noted in Equation 3, cardiac output is deter-
temperature, 38C; heart rate, 130 beats/min; blood pressure, mined by stroke volume and heart rate, and stroke
110/60 mm Hg; respiratory rate, 34 breaths/min; and oxygen volume is affected by preload, afterload, and con-
saturation, 89% on room air. He is delirious and unable to tractility. The concept of preload influencing stroke
answer questions. A focused physical examination demon- volume (and thereby affecting cardiac output and
strates tachycardia without extra heart sounds or murmurs, DO2) is a core physiologic aspect of the assessment
right basilar crackles on lung auscultation, a benign abdomen, and management of patients in shock.
and 1+ lower extremity pitting edema. You establish intrave-
nous access with a peripheral catheter and send basic labs. A Equation 3
further history obtained from the son reveals that his father has CO = HR x SV
congestive heart failure with a low systolic ejection fraction,
as well as a history of several prior myocardial infarctions that Abbreviations: CO, cardiac output; HR, heart rate;
were treated with stent placement. SV, stroke volume.
As you consider this case, you ask yourself whether
this patient is in shock, and if he is, what are the specific Changes in preload, stroke volume, system
causative pathophysiologic mechanisms? You review vascular resistance, and cardiac output can result in
which diagnostic tests are indicated to assist with the dif- impaired tissue and organ perfusion. The impaired
ferential diagnosis of shock and you consider options for delivery of oxygen to peripheral cells that occurs in
the initial management of this patient. shock results in a transition from aerobic to anaerobic
cellular metabolism. Anaerobic metabolism generates
Introduction lactate via metabolism of glucose to pyruvate, and
lactate can be used as a surrogate marker for tissue
Shock is a state of acute cardiovascular or circulatory hypoxemia and the severity of shock. Cells can en-
failure. It leads to decreased delivery of oxygenated gage in anaerobic metabolism for a limited time, but
blood to the body's organs and tissues or impaired persistent cellular hypoxia results in cell death and
oxygen utilization by peripheral tissues, resulting in tissue necrosis, leading to multiorgan system dys-
end-organ dysfunction.1 The physiologic mechanism function and failure. The saturation of venous oxygen
of oxygen delivery to peripheral tissues (DO2) is measured from central vessels (such as the superior
described in the formula in Equation 1. vena cava), is another biochemical marker of periph-
eral oxygen uptake and can be used diagnostically to
Equation 1 help with prognosis in the comprehensive assessment
DO2 = (cardiac output) x [(hemoglobin concentra- of patients presenting in shock.
tion) x SaO2 x 1.39] + (PaO2 x 0.003) The pathophysiologic mechanisms that can re-
sult in shock are divided into 4 separate (but poten-
Abbreviations: DO2, oxygen delivery; PaO2; partial tially overlapping) categories: (1) hypovolemic, (2)
oxygen pressure; SaO2, arterial oxygen saturation. distributive, (3) cardiogenic, and (4) obstructive.2
Definitive treatment for patients in shock de-
Blood pressure is not included in this formula; pends on the specific etiology; however, this may
while shock is frequently associated with hypoten- not be immediately clear on initial presentation to
sion, patients may present with cryptic shock in the emergency department (ED). As with much of
which they have a blood pressure typically consid- emergency medicine, the initiation of therapy and
ered to be within normal ranges, yet they have patho- patient stabilization may occur simultaneously with
physiologic signs of shock (particularly early in their evaluation. The goals in treating patients in shock
clinical course). Many patients in shock ultimately are restoring adequate organ perfusion and oxygen
develop hypotension, but a high index of suspicion is delivery while considering/treating the possible
necessary to identify patients with shock and normal cause(s) of shock.
blood pressures during their initial presentation. In early shock, compensation occurs by modu-
Equation 2 demonstrates the influence that car- lation of cardiac output and vascular tone by the
diac output has on blood pressure (as evidenced by autonomic nervous system.1 Carotid baroreceptors
mean arterial pressure). A mean arterial pressure that respond to decreased blood pressure by triggering
decreases below a critical threshold will result in de- increased sympathetic signaling. This autonomic
creased cardiac output and, thereby, decreased DO2. nervous system-mediated sympathetic response
symptomatic bradycar-
systemic vascular resistance in distributive shock
SVR
CO dia, valvular disease, include increased cardiac output, tachycardia, and
heart blocks, end-stage hyperdynamic left ventricular systolic contraction.4,7
heart failure In addition, decreased systemic vascular resistance
Obstructive preload Pulmonary embolism, and increased venous capacitance results in de-
(See Table 2.) For more information on cardiogenic Aortic stenosis or regurgitation
l
Dilated Cardiomyopathy
shock due to myocardial infarction, see the "Special Thyroid disease
Ischemic
l
Viral/bacterial
l
Pheochromocytoma
Abnormal heart rates can also cause cardio-
l
Toxin-induced
l
Congenital
genic shock. Bradyarrhythmias can result in a low
l
Rheumatologic
l
Peripartum
cardiac output, and tachyarrhythmias can result in
l
l
Sarcoidosis
decreased preload due to decreased diastolic filling Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
time (resulting in a critically compromised stroke Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
Myocarditis
volume and decreased cardiac output). The pri-
Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy
mary systemic compensatory response to decreased
Atrial Myxoma
cardiac output is an autonomic nervous system- Orthotopic Transplant Rejection
mediated increase in systemic vascular resistance. Cardiac Trauma
This increase in systemic vascular resistance causes Blunt
l l
Penetrating
the common finding of cold and clammy extremities Atrial Myxoma
in patients with cardiogenic shock. Orthotopic Transplant Rejection
Junctional bradycardia
outflow obstruction.2,12 Extracardiac processes that
l
Tachyarrhythmias
tive shock by decreasing cardiac compliance and l
Atrial fibrillation/flutter
l
Ventricular tachycardia
interrupting venous return by compressing the infe- l
Reentrant atrial tachycardia
l
Ventricular fibrillation
Evaluate volume status and preload (Class II) Continue resuscitation and initiate appropriate targeted therapies
Physical examination (Indeterminate) (Class II)
Ultrasound (Class II)
Passive leg raise (Class II)
Noninvasive cardiac output monitors (Class III)
NO
YES
Further diagnostics
Laboratory tests including CBC, chemistries, liver function tests, tropo-
nin, ABG/VBG, lactate (Class II), central venous oxygen (Class II)
Imaging with chest x-ray, CT scan
Abbreviations: ABG, arterial blood gas; CBC, complete blood count; CT, computed tomography; IV, intravenous; VBG, venous blood gas.
For class of evidence definitions, see page 11.
This clinical pathway is intended to supplement, rather than substitute for, professional judgment and may be changed depending upon a patients individual
needs. Failure to comply with this pathway does not represent a breach of the standard of care.
Copyright 2014 EB Medicine. 1-800-249-5770. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any format without written consent of EB Medicine.
Abbreviations: ECG, electrocardiogram; SIRS, systemic inflammatory Abbreviations: pRBCs, packed red blood cells; SBP, systolic blood
response syndrome; FAST, focused assessment with sonography for pressure; ScvO2, central venous oxygen saturation; SIRS, systemic
trauma. inflammatory response syndrome.
1. His blood pressure is normal. He cant be in 4. It could be a myocardial infarction, but lets
shock. wait for the troponin to come back before call-
Focusing on blood pressure alone as an indicator ing cardiology.
of shock can lead to missing signs of occult Time-to-revascularization is one of the primary
shock. Impaired organ perfusion, as evidenced determinants of survival in patients with
by acute renal failure, altered mental status and/ cardiogenic shock due to acute coronary
or increased serum lactate concentration, is a syndromes. Delaying time to catheterization and
sign of shock pathophysiology and obligates revascularization will increase patient morbidity
early, aggressive clinical management. and mortality. When cardiogenic shock is
possible, early consultation with cardiology and
2. Lets get the chest CT scan before deciding activation of the catheterization laboratory are
whether to give antibiotics or not. necessary to optimize patient outcomes.
Failure to give antibiotics within 1 hour of
presentation for all cases of possible septic shock 5. Lets give a fifth liter of saline and see if her
may result in increased mortality. Early empiric mean arterial pressure comes up to at least 60
antibiotic coverage is indicated for suspected mm Hg
septic shock with a target of administering Starting vasopressors without adequately
(not just ordering) antibiotics within 1 hour of volume resuscitating a patient while following
presentation. markers of tissue perfusion and intravascular
volume status is inappropriate (see pitfall #3);
3. Her ejection fraction is 30%, so lets start nor- however, not recognizing that vasopressors need
epinephrine instead of giving a second liter of to be started for patients who are not volume
fluid. responsive is also inappropriate. Patients with
Adequate volume resuscitation for hypovolemic a pathologically decreased systemic vascular
patients is critical. Markers of tissue perfusion resistance may require vasopressors to maintain
such as lactate clearance, ScvO2, pulse pressure mean arterial pressure even after volume resus-
variation with passive leg raise, and ultrasono- citation and normalization of intravascular vol-
graphic measures of intravascular volume are ume status. Continuing to administer fluids and
appropriate determinants of the need for further not recognizing the need for vasopressors can
volume resuscitation. A history of a low ejection result in perpetuating complications of shock.
fraction or other hypothetical concerns may lead
clinicians to underresuscitate hypovolemic pa-
tients and may result in inappropriate initiation
of vasopressors.
6. She has a fever and hypoxemia. Her hypoten- vascular resistance usually results in a drop
sion is probably due to sepsis from pneumo- in the mean arterial pressure of 5 mm Hg to
nia. 10 mm Hg from normal prepregnancy levels.
Failure to consider obstructive shock on the Mean arterial pressures < 60 mm Hg, however,
differential diagnosis can lead to inappropriate should raise awareness of the possibility of
clinical management, such as treating a pulmo- pathophysiologic processes contributing to
nary embolism with antibiotics. Maintaining hypotension.
a broad differential diagnosis and considering
obstructive pathophysiologic causes of shock, 9. Lets try bilevel positive airway pressure
when clinically appropriate, can lead to more and see if his pneumonia gets better after
rapid diagnosis and treatment. antibiotics.
Recognition of multiorgan system failure and
7. I read that a hemoglobin of 7 gm/dL is the hypotension from septic shock that requires
evidence-based transfusion trigger, so lets early intubation and mechanical ventilation is
hold off on giving this hypotensive trauma critically important. Failure to intubate early
patient blood. in the course of care for critically ill patients
While conservative transfusion thresholds are in septic shock can perpetuate the cycle of
appropriate for critically ill patients without impaired oxygen uptake, deficient oxygen
active hemorrhage, prompt resuscitation with delivery to peripheral tissues, and increased
blood products is critically important for metabolic demand from increased work of
patients presenting with hemorrhagic shock. breathing. Furthermore, recognizing that a
Furthermore, the hemoglobin concentration patients disease process will take days, rather
will not reflect the degree of blood loss early than hours, to resolve prioritizes intubation
in such a patients presentation, obligating the above noninvasive mechanical ventilation.
emergency clinician to identify possible acute
hemorrhage based on the patients clinical 10. I know how to treat sepsis: antibiotics, fluids
circumstances. and pressors. I dont need a protocol.
Aggressive, protocolized, and bundled clinical
8. Her mean arterial pressure of 50 mm Hg is management of patients in septic shock results
probably just because shes pregnant. in improved initial resuscitation and improved
Numerous physiologic changes occur during patient outcomes. Adherence to institutional
pregnancy, including increased cardiac output, guidelines for the initial treatment of septic
increased heart rate, and decreased systemic shock is an important component of the acute
vascular resistance. The decrease in systemic care of severe sepsis and septic shock.
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