Electric Refe Booj

Electrical, Electronics
Engineering Department
Solve problems in complex

polyphase power circuits
Volume 1 of 1
UEUNEEG049B
Version No 1 2 3 4 5
Date 12/2008 06/2009 05/10
Refer to: DMcR DK DK
Chisholm Institute of TAFE

Dandenong Campus
Stud Road
DANDENONG 3175
Tel: +61 3 9212 5200
Fax: +61 3 9212 5232
SOLVE PROBLEMS IN COMPLEX POLYPHASE POWER CIRCUITS
2
Required Skills and Knowledge
E2.8.9.3 Polyphase power circuit analysis
Evidence shall show an understanding of polyphase circuit analysis to an extent indicated by

the following aspects:
a) Complex power 1 and 3

b) Balanced, unbalanced 3
c) Impedance of 3 loads
d) Measurement in 3 circuits
e) Line voltage drops
f) Neutral current
T2.11.49 Polyphase circuit analysis
Evidence shall show an understanding of polyphase systems and its application towards the
calculation of circuits conditions to an extent indicated by the following aspects:
Structure of a three phase system encompassing:

Components
Sequence of phases
Balanced and unbalanced load conditions
Calculations of phase and line voltages for a specified phase sequence
Calculation of voltage, current, power, power factor in a three phase system
encompassing:
Balanced three phase systems
Unbalanced delta connected loads
Unbalanced four-wire star connected loads
Unbalanced three-wire star connected loads
Unbalanced four-wire star connected systems
Calculation of the neutral displacement voltage in unbalanced three-wire star connected
systems
Selection and connection of meters to confirm calculations
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Table of contents
Required Skills and Knowledge .............................................................................................3
Unit 1 Complex Power Waveforms .....................................................................................7

Introduction .................................................................................................................7
Revision of basic ac theory .........................................................................................8
Objectives .................................................................................................................11
Power measurement fundamentals........................................................................... 11
Complex power waveforms ....................................................................................... 12
Student Exercise 1.................................................................................................... 15
Inductive circuit ......................................................................................................... 17
Capacitive circuit....................................................................................................... 19
Resistive-inductive circuits and resistive-capacitive circuits ...................................... 22
Review ......................................................................................................................29
Power factor and power wave frequency .................................................................. 30
Complex power components..................................................................................... 31
Reactive power ......................................................................................................... 32
Power triangle ........................................................................................................... 36
Summary ..................................................................................................................39
Calculation of complex power from voltage and current phasors .............................. 41
Review ......................................................................................................................46
Power measurement fundamentals........................................................................... 47
The wattmeter ........................................................................................................... 48
High voltage and high current power measurement connections .............................. 55
Determining the power factor .................................................................................... 59
Student Exercise 10 .................................................................................................. 61
Review ......................................................................................................................62
Check your progress 1 .............................................................................................. 63
Unit 2 - Three Phase Systems ............................................................................................. 65

Introduction ...............................................................................................................65
Objectives ................................................................................................................. 66
Phasor notation......................................................................................................... 67
Three-phase voltage generation ............................................................................... 75
Comparison of three-phase and single-phase systems ............................................. 82
Review ......................................................................................................................84
Phase sequence ....................................................................................................... 85
Dangers of changing phase sequence ...................................................................... 89
Review ......................................................................................................................91
Check your progress 2 .............................................................................................. 92
Glossary of terms...................................................................................................... 93
Formulae ..................................................................................................................94
5
Unit 3 - Three phase four wire star connected balanced loads ............................................ 97
Introduction ...............................................................................................................97
Objectives .................................................................................................................98
Three-phase four wire star-connected balanced loads ............................................... 99
Calculation of currents in star-connected balanced loads......................................... 100
One-line equivalent circuits for star-connected balanced loads .............................. 104
Three-phase three wire star-connected balanced loads.......................................... 105
Student Exercise 1.................................................................................................. 108
Effect of phase reversal on star load currents ......................................................... 109
Calculation of power in star-connected balanced loads ............................................ 112
Reverse phase sequence ....................................................................................... 114
Review .................................................................................................................... 116
Three-phase delta-connected balanced loads ........................................................ 117
Calculation of currents in delta-connected balanced loads ........................................ 118
Effect of phase reversal on delta load currents ....................................................... 126
Calculation of power in delta-connected balanced loads ........................................... 131
Review .................................................................................................................... 134
Check your progress 3 ............................................................................................ 135
Glossary of terms.................................................................................................... 136
Formulae ................................................................................................................ 137
6
Unit 1 Complex Power Waveforms
Introduction
In this section we are going to look at power in single phase alternating current ac circuits
and the ways it differs from power in dc circuits.
We will develop and use formulae for calculating power in circuits with combinations of the
basic components of resistance, capacitance and inductance.
From these calculations we will be able to derive the three related concepts of power in ac
circuits, that is, real power, reactive power and apparent power.
We also examine the use of power triangles and the calculation of power factor, and the
principles and calculations of power measurement.
The section notes will cover these points in more detail, however, a textbook can be used to
great advantage if it has worked examples and examples with answers, which you should
look at if you have difficulties with any particular topic.
The use of calculus is not necessary for this subject and your section notes will show you
how to handle these topics without calculus, and show you the depth to which each topic
should be covered.
Before we start to understand the concepts of power in ac circuits, you must have a good
working knowledge of basic ac theory which you have studied in previous modules.
This basic ac theory is also covered in textbooks.
Topics of particular importance are:
sinusoidal current and voltage
complex numbers
complex impedance
series and parallel circuits using complex impedances
Before commencing this section, try the following Revision of basic ac theory exercises
which will help you revise this work.
Note
In this module, the symbol (t) has been used to emphasise the fact that a particular quantity
is time dependent. For example, the expression for a voltage may be given as
v(t) = 100 sin 314t volts.
In some texts, the (t) symbol is omitted and the expression would simply be shown as
v = 100 sin 314t rather than v(t) = 100 sin 314t volts.
You should treat the two forms of the expression as being the same.
Also, where instantaneous voltages or current are expressed in the form
v(t) = Vm sin ( t + ), the phase angle has on some occasions been expressed in
degrees for convenience eg. v(t) = 100 sin (314t + 30). It is important to remember that
before calculating instantaneous values that all phase angles expressed in degrees should
be converted to radians.
The magnitude of all phasor quantities are expressed in rms
7
Revision of basic ac theory
1 The current in the circuit of Figure 1 is i(t) = 2 sin 500 t amperes.
Calculate the total applied voltage v(t).
2 A series circuit of two components has the following

applied voltage and resulting current:
v(t) = 150 cos (200t - 30) volts

i(t) = 4.48 cos (200t - 56.6) amperes
Find the value of the two components of the circuit.
3 Convert the following complex numbers from polar to rectangular form,
4 Convert the following complex numbers from

rectangular form to polar form.
8
5 Solve, giving answers in rectangular form:
6 Three impedances,
Z1 = 5 + j5 ohms
Z2 = -j8 ohms
Z3 = 4 ohms
are connected in series to an unknown voltage source V as shown in Figure 2.
Find I and V if the voltage drop across Z3 is:
9
7 A four branch parallel circuit has
Z1 = j5 ohms
Z2 = 5 + j8.66 ohms
Z3 = 15 ohms
Z4 = j10 ohms
and a supply voltage of volts, as shown in Figure 3.
Find the total current from the supply and the equivalent impedance of the circuit.
10
Objectives
The following list of objectives is for your guidance when learning the work in this
section. Do not be concerned if there are terms or concepts stated here which you do
not understand. These will become dear as you progress through the section. At the
completion of the section, review these objectives, you should understand them and be
able to perform the tasks set out here.
Sketch voltage, current and power waveforms for resistive, capacitive, inductive,
resistive-capacitive and resistive-inductive circuits.
Explain and calculate the frequency of the power wave.
Write the equation of the power wave in the time domain form, given the current and
voltage expressions.
Resolve the power waveform into its average and alternating components.
Explain the significance of the area under the power waveform.
Explain the meaning of the terms real and average power, reactive power, apparent power
and power factor.
Calculate the values of real, reactive and apparent power and power factor for single
phase ac circuits.
Construct power triangles for single phase ac circuits.
Power measurement fundamentals

Describe the construction and principle of operation of the electrodynamic instrument.
Calculate the meter constant of a wattmeter when used with voltage and current
instrument transformers.
Calculate the power factor of an ac circuit form the readings of the wattmeter,
voltmeter and ammeter.
11
Complex power waveforms
Resistive circuit
Consider the circuit in Figure 4
Figure 4
If the voltage v(t) is a time function, then the current in the circuit will be a time function also.
As in the case of dc circuits, where the power was equal to the product of the voltage and
current in the circuit, so it is with ac circuits except that the voltage and current vary with
time.
So with ac power, the product of voltage and current at any instant of time is called the
instantaneous power and is expressed as
p = vi watts
where v = instantaneous value of voltage
i = instantaneous value of current

Depending on the signs of v and i, the value of p may be positive or negative.
We consider that if the instantaneous value of p is positive then there is a transfer of
energy from the supply to the load.
If the instantaneous value of p is negative then there is a transfer of energy from the load
to the source.
12
Now let us consider the power expression p = v i applied to the circuit in Figure 4 with
v(t) = Vm sin volts, where Vm is the maximum value of voltage.
The resulting current will be:
where 1m = maximum value of current.
Note:
Remember expresses the cyclic nature of the sine and cosine wave as an angular
velocity in radians per second.
Since 2 radians correspond to 1 cycle frequency (f) is linked to angular velocity by
the relationship
= 2 f
Substituting v(t) and i(t) into p = vi, we have:
p(t) = Vm sin t x Im sin t

= Vm Im sin2 t watts
Since sin2x = (1 - cos 2 x),
This expression for p has two terms:
a constant
and a sinusoidal variable
Let us look at this expression for instantaneous power in graphic form
13
Figure 5
From Figure 5 we can see that the wave of i(t) is in phase with the wave of v(t) as the
load is a pure resistance.
The resulting power wave, shown as a broken line, is produced by multiplying the
instantaneous values of the current wave and the voltage wave together.
When the current and voltage waves are at a maximum, so is the power wave and
when the current and voltage waves are negative then their product produces a positive
value for the power wave.
Thus the power wave in the resistive case always remains positive.
Note: You must memorise the explanation and shapes of the waves in Figure 5 to the
point where you can redraw the waves and explain their relationship to one another.
Now try Student Exercise 1.
14
Student Exercise 1
Sketch the curves of v(t) = 10 sin 20t and i(t) = 5 sin 20t on the same axes.
Calculate the values of instantaneous power for;
and sketch the corresponding power wave on the same axes.
Average power (resistive circuit)

Let us now determine the average value of the instantaneous power in a resistive circuit.
From the expression
the first term has a constant value;
the second term is a cosine wave having an average value of

zero.
The negative sign indicates that it is an inverted cosine wave.
Therefore the average power in the circuit is watts.
Note: You must memorise this expression for average power for the resistive circuit.
15
Example
A circuit has a voltage supply of v(t) = 280 sin (314t) connected across a 20 ohm
resistance.
What is the current in the circuit and the average power?
Solution
Average power = 280x14

2
= 1960 watts
As most ammeters and voltmeters are calibrated to indicate rms (root mean square)
values, it is useful to convert the peak values of V and I to rms values to calculate
average power.
Since and
From Ohm's law, Vrms = IrmsR.

Therefore:
P = I2rmsR watts
Now calculate the average power of the above example using rms values for V and I. You
should get the same answer.
16
Inductive circuit
Suppose we replace the resistor in Figure 4 with a pure inductance with the same
voltage v(t) = Vm sin t across it.
Now the current in the circuit will lag the voltage by 90 or radians.
The resulting current will have the form:
This result can only be obtained in theory as all practical coils have some resistance.
The effect of this resistance will be discussed later.
We can now use the same expression for instantaneous power:
Where
17
Figure 6 shows, graphically, the expression for instantaneous power for a purely inductive
circuit.
Figure 6
Note that:
When the instantaneous value of either v(t) or i(t) is negative then the value of p(t) is
negative.
When the instantaneous value of both v(t) and i(t) is negative then the value of p(t) is
positive.
When either value of v(t) or i(t) is zero then the value of p(t) is zero.
In this case the power wave swings equally in the positive and negative directions.
For the half-cycle of the wave that is positive, power is being delivered to the inductance
from the supply.
For the negative half-cycle the energy stored in the magnetic field is released back to
the supply.
Thus the net power transfer to the load in the ideal inductive case is zero.
The average value of is zero.
Note that the value of p(t) is negative.
If you look at Figure 6 you will see that the power wave is an inverted sine wave, hence
the negative sign.
Note: You must memorise the explanation and shapes of the waves in Figure 6 to the
point where you can redraw the waves and explain their relationship with one another.
18
Student Exercise 2
Sketch the curves of on

the same axes.
Calculate the values of instantaneous power at the positions:
Capacitive circuit
Suppose we replace the resistor in Figure 4 with a capacitor with the same voltage v(t)
= Vm sin t volts across it.
Then the resulting current in the circuit will lead the voltage by 90 or radians.
The expression for the current will be:
lf we use the expression for instantaneous power p = vi, then
Using the proof as in the inductive case, the resulting power equation is:
19
Figure 7 shows graphically the expression for instantaneous power for the capacitive
circuit.
Figure 7
For the capacitive circuit the power wave again swings equally in the positive and
negative directions.
In the positive half-cycle the capacitor absorbs energy from the supply and in the
negative half-cycle the stored energy in the capacitor is released back to the supply.
The net power transfer to the capacitor is zero.
As before for the inductance, the average value of
Note:
You must memorise the explanation and shapes of the waves in Figure 7 to the point
where you can redraw the waves and explain their relationship to one another.
20
Student Exercise 3
Sketch the curves of on the same axes.
Calculate the values of instantaneous power at the positions:
21
Resistive-inductive circuits and resistive-capacitive circuits
The circuits I have discussed have been single element loads, either resistive, inductive
or capacitive.
Circuit components are usually a combination of the three basic elements.
A coil has resistance and inductance and circuits are usually made up of a combination
of components, so you must be able to calculate the power in these combined circuits.
If a voltage v(t) is connected across a circuit containing resistance and inductance as
shown in Figure 8, then the resulting current will lag the voltage by an angle which is
more than 0 and less than 90 or radians.
Figure 8
If the same voltage v(t) is connected across a circuit containing resistance and
capacitance, in place of the inductance, then the resulting current will lead the voltage
by more than 0 and less than 90.
In either case let us call this angle (theta) and consider it a negative angle for a
resistive -inductive circuit and a positive angle for a resistive-capacitive circuit.
Then for any circuit combination with a voltage of v(t) = Vm sin t volts across the
terminals, there is a current flow of i(t) = Im sin ( t+ ) amps.
22
For the power in this circuit,
p = vi watts
p(t) = Vm sin t x Im sin ( t+ ) watts
This formula reduces down to:
The value of p(t) has two terms:
a constant of
a sinusoidal term of
Note that the second component has a peak to peak value of
which is the same as for the purely resistive, inductive and capacitive circuits.
As for the previous circuits, the sinusoidal term has an average value of zero.
Therefore the average power in a combination circuit is:
Note:
You must memorise the formula
23
Figure 9 shows the waveforms of voltage, current and power for a resistivecapacitive
circuit where = 45.
Figure 9
The power wave differs from the previous circuits as it is neither all on the positive side of
the horizontal axis nor half above and half below the axis.
The position of the wave between these two extremes is determined by the ratio of the
reactance, either capacitive or inductive, to the resistance of the circuit.
In Figure 9, the angle is 45 lead and cos 45 = 0.707.
You will recall that the average power in the circuit is:
But
Then,
In this case, since cos = 0.707,
Then
This indicates that the average power is 70.7% of the product of rms voltage and rms
current.
If you examine Figure 9 you will see that where either the current wave or voltage wave is
zero, so too is the power wave.
24
If the angle between I and V becomes greater, then the power wave becomes lower and
the value of cos is less.
Figure 10 shows the waveforms for = 60 - note the change in the position of the power
wave.
Figure 10
These principles apply to both resistive-inductive and resistivecapacitive circuits.

The power wave for such circuits (which are 'passive circuits) can only be between the
resistive case (above the horizontal axis) and the purely reactive case (half above and half
below the horizontal axis).
If the power wave had more negative area than positive area, then this would mean the
load was supplying average power to the source, which is impossible for a passive load.
Note:
You must memorise the explanation and shapes of the waves in Figure 9 so that you can
redraw the waves and explain their relationship to one another.
Since readings taken by meters of ac voltages and currents are rms values, it is more
convenient to have the power formula with rms values.
Note:
You must memorise the formula P = EI cos using rms values.
This is used for both capacitive and inductive circuits.
As cos - = cos , both positive values and negative values of will give a positive
value of power.
However it is important to know the sign of the angle for the particular circuit.
25
Student Exercise 4
Sketch the curves of v(t) = 10 sin 20t and i(t) = 5 sin (20 -45) on the same axes.
Calculate the values of instantaneous power at the positions of:
Using P = VI cos , calculate the average power.
Let us now work through the following example.
Example
Find the power delivered by the supply in the circuit shown
in Figure 11.
Figure 11
26
Solution
Step 1: Convert circuit to ohms impedances.
Figure 12
Step 2: Find the total impedance of the circuit.
That is, the resultant Z has an inductive component.
Step 3: From Ohm`s law,
Hence I lags E by 21.4.
Step 4:
27
Student Exercise 5
1 A circuit has a supply voltage of v(t) = 150 sin t volts and a current of
i(t) = 10 sin ( t- 30) amperes
What is the average power in the circuit?
2 A circuit consists of a 10 ohm resistance in series with a capacitor of -j5 ohms.
What is the average power in the circuit if the supply voltage is v(t) = 200 sin314t
volts?
3 A circuit has a coil with a resistance of 35 ohms and an inductance of 3 henry.

A voltage of v(t) = 100 sin300t volts is connected to the coil.
What is the average power taken by the coil?
28
Review
So far in this section you have covered the topics which have explained the form of
complex power.
These concepts have been demonstrated through the explanation of power waveforms for
the various types and combinations of circuit components.
The circuits covered were the resistive, capacitive and inductive circuits and the
combinations of resistivecapacitive and resistiveinductive circuits.
In each case you have covered the construction of the complex power wave and the
formula which represented each wave.
You have learnt that in the resistive circuit the power expression is;
which indicates a constant or dc component and an alternating component at twice the

supply frequency.
By firstly examining the inductive and capacitive cases, which have only alternating
components, you finally analysed the most common case of combined circuits of
resistance-inductance and resistance- capacitance.
These combined circuits produced the most important formula which you will use in ac
power calculations:
In the remainder of this section we will be covering the topics of power factor, real (true)
power, reactive power and apparent power.
29
Power factor and power wave frequency
Power factor
In the formula P = VI cos the term cos has great significance.

It is called the power factor, abbreviated pf.
The angle is the angle between the current and the voltage, and the sign of the angle
indicates whether the circuit is inductive with a lagging current or capacitive with a leading
current.
Note:
Memorise the following conditions.
When the angle is -ve, I lags V, circuit is inductive.
When the angle is +ve, I leads V, circuit is capacitive.
Power wave frequency
When we derived the formula for the power wave in the resistive circuit, we arrived at the
formula:
This formula has a second term of:
This term has a frequency of 20 radians/ second which is twice the supply voltage
frequency of radians / second.
The same condition exists in the inductive and capacitive circuits.
We can say then that the frequency of all ac power waves is twice the frequency of the
supply voltage.
For example,
If the supply frequency was 50 Hz then the power wave frequency would be 100 Hz.
30
Complex power components
Apparent power
In previous subjects you have learnt that power in a dc circuit is the product of V and I.
You have now learnt that average power in a resistive ac circuit is the product of the
rms values V and I.
But since this product is not the average power in all ac circuits, it is referred to as the
apparent power.
In reactive circuits, the average power is less than the apparent power.
The symbol S is used for apparent power and its section is the volt ampere or VA.
S = VI volt ampere or VA
Since
V = IZ
then
Real or true power
In the section on power in a resistive-inductive circuit we have shown that the average
power in an ac circuit is:
P = VI cos watts
An alternative method of calculation would be:

P = I2R watts
This average power is also known as the real power or true power, as it is the actual
power dissipated in the circuit and is equivalent to the dc circuit power.
Real power has the symbol P and its unit is the watt.
31
Reactive power
The reactive power is that power which circulates between the supply and the reactive
component during each positive part of the power wave and returns to the source during
each negative part of the wave.
The symbol for reactive power is Q and the unit is the volt ampere reactive (VAr).
The component of power that is reactive is caused by the reactive component of current
whose phasor is at right angles to the resistive component of current.
Thus the expression for Q contains Itotal sin , the reactive componentof current.
Refer to Figure 13, which illustrates the case of an RC circuit.
Figure 13
Reactive power Q = VI sin volt amperes reactive
The reactive power is sometimes called a quadrature component as it results from the
reactive component of current which leads or lags the voltage by 90hence the use of
the letter Q as the symbol.
32
Figure 14 below shows that the voltage VX across the reactive component in a series RL
or RC circuit can be expressed as V sin .
Then;
Q = VI sin
= I X VX
= Ix D( (where X is either XL or XC)
Q =12X VAr
In this case you must remember that I is the total current.
Figure 14
Example
A load whose impedance is ohms is supplied by a source whose
voltage is
Find:
(a) the apparent power supplied to load
(b) the real power supplied to load
(c) the reactive power supplied to load.
33
Solution
We must find the current in the circuit by Ohms law,
(a) Apparent power

S = VI
= 300 X 3
= 900 VA
(b) Real power

P = VI cos
Where = -36.9
P = 300 x 3 x cos -36.9

= 300 x 3 x 0.7997
= 719.7 W
Alternatively, we can find the real power P using the formula P = I2R.
Therefore R = 80 and X = 60 .
P = 32 X 80
= 720 W
(c) Reactive power

Q = VI sin
= 300 x 3 x sin -36.9
= 300 x 3 x 0.600
= -540 VAr
[Neglect the minus sign for the moment, this will be discussed later.]
Alternatively, we can find the reactive power Q using the formula Q = I2X.
From part (b), X = 60

Q = (3)x60
= 540 VAr
[This approach gives only the magnitude of Q and neglects the sign.]
34
Student Exercise 6
Using the formulae given to you in the last section, 'Complex power components',
calculate the answers for the following and check with the results given at the end of the
section.
1 Find the apparent power, true power and reactive power when a voltage of
volts is supplying a load whose impedance is Z = 10 + j20 ohms.
2 Find the apparent power, true power and reactive power when a current of
amperes is measured in a circuit whose impedance is Z = 35 + j25
ohms.
35
Power triangle
In the previous three sections you have learnt of the three types of power in an ac circuit:
apparent power
true power
reactive power
As shown in Figure 14 the voltages across the components cannot be added

arithmetically to obtain the total voltage V.
Similarly the resulting complex power components cannot be added arithmetically.
Firstly let us consider a circuit containing resistance and inductance, as shown in Figure
15.
Note that the three power forms are scalar quantities ie. They have magnitude only and
are not directional.
However, for any particular circuit the relative values for true, reactive and apparent power
can be represented on a power triangle.
Figure 15
36
The phasor relationship between the voltage V and the current I is shown in Figure 16
with I lagging V by the angle .
Figure 16
Let us now take the phasor I and, using V as a 0 reference, draw the horizontal and
vertical components as shown in Figure 17.
Figure 17
We will now take the component phasors of Figure 17 and multiply each by the voltage V
with the resulting diagram in Figure 18.
Figure 18
37
From the previous work we can recognise that the horizontal component VI cos is P,
the real power.
The vertical component VI sin is Q, the reactive power and the inclined phasor VI is S,
the apparent power.
This construction for an inductive circuit can be repeated for a capacitive circuit with a
leading current and the results are shown in Figure 19.
Figure 19
The reactive power, or quadrature power, in both Figure 18 and 19 is at right angles to
the real power.
38
Summary
You need to memorise the following three formulae.
Real power = Voltage X in-phase component of current
P = VI cos watts
Apparent power = Voltage X current
S = VI volt amperes
Reactive power = Voltage X quadrature component of current
Q = VI sin volt amperes reactive
Note:
The explanation of the power triangle used here is different to that used in the result being
that inductive VAr are shown in a downwards direction and capacitive VAr in an upwards
direction.
A number of texts use this approach.
However, other texts use an alternative approach which results in the opposite convention
for reactive VAr. (If you take the impedance triangle and multiply all sides by I2 you will see
that this indicates that inductive VAr are upwards and capacitive VAr are downwards.)
Both conventions are acceptable.
The result will be the same whichever convention is used, as long as the same convention
is used throughout the problem.
For the remainder of this section, and in subsequent sections, I will use the convention
that inductive VAr have positive values and are represented in an upward direction in the
power triangle.
I suggest that you follow the same convention as you work through the sections.
39
Now lets examine the relationships of S, Q and P.
We can consider S as the complex power and as it is represented as a phasor, it can be

also represented in both rectangular and polar forms.
For inductive load:
For capacitive load:
From Figure 19 we can derive the following relationships:
We can also derive the following two relationships from Figure 19:
Note:
You need to memorise the relationships between S, Q and P.
40
Calculation of complex power from voltage and current phasors
To obtain the relationship between the complex power S and the voltage and current
phasors we must consider the voltage phasor and the resulting current phasor caused by
the load Z.
For an inductive load:
where I Z I represents the modulus of Z and is positive for a lagging power factor.
We can represent the current in the load by the phasor I, where

'
The voltage phasor across the load is
This is shown in Figure 20.
Figure 20
41
The magnitude of the apparent power, S, is the product of the magnitudes of V and I.
The phase angle associated with the value of S is the angle, , between V and I, that is,
the difference between the angles GV and Bi in Figure 20.
If the current and voltage phasors were multiplied in the normal way, the resultant angle
would be the sum of the individual angles, not the difference.
Therefore, to obtain the correct result, the sign of the current phase angle is reversed
(ie the conjugate, I* , of the current is used).
The resultant phase angle for S now becomes the difference between the
angles of V and I, that is .
Therefore, using the conjugate of the current in the calculation of S leads to the correct
phase angle for S and the correct values for the true power and reactive power
components of S.
Referring now to Figure 20, the conjugate of the current

Phasor,
S = VI* VA
Note:
You must memorise this expression.
In the expression for the complex power S, a positive imaginary part (+jQ) corresponds to
a positive impedance angle , and represents the reactive power in an inductive load
with a lagging power factor.
If the imaginary part of the complex power S is negative (-jQ), it corresponds to a negative
impedance angle, , and represents the reactive power in a capacitive load with a
leading power factor.
42
Example
A network has an equivalent impedance Z = 3 + j4 and an applied voltage v(t) = 42.5 sin
(1000t + 30).
Find:
(a) the apparent power, S
(b) the real power, P
(c) the reactive power, Q
(d) the power factor
43
Since is a positive angle the current must lag the voltage and the power factor is
"lagging".
1 The complex power S used the conjugate of I, thus the current angle used was +23.1.
If we hadn`t used the conjugate of I, then the resulting angle would have been
30 23.1 = 6.9.
Since the correct value for impedance angle, is 53.1, we would get the wrong
answers for P and Q if we used 6.9.
3 The real and reactive powers were obtained directly from the rectangular form of the
4 complex power S.
5 The power factor must indicate whether it is leading or lagging.

This is determined by the sign of the angle in the polar form of the complex power S.
ln this case the angle is +23.1 so the power factor is lagging.
If it had been -23 then the power factor would be leading.
Now try answering Student Exericse 7.
44
Student Exercise 7
45
Review
In the second part of this section you have covered the topics of power factor, apparent
power, real power and reactive power.
These topics will be used extensively in your work in the further study of ac theory.
The understanding of power factor and hence therelationships of current with voltage in ac
systems will be essential in both power and electronic subjects.
Your understanding of the formulae for;
apparent power S = VI volt amps
real power P = VI cos watts
reactive power Q = VI sin VAr
will be important in further sections and other subjects covering ac machines, transformers
and power electronics to name a few.
You could say that these concepts with respect to ac circuits are as important as Ohms
law is to dc circuits.
At this stage it would be to your advantage to review the objectives at the beginning of this
section to ensure you can perform the tasks listed.
46
Power measurement fundamentals
Introduction
In the previous part you learnt about power in variously configured ac circuits and how to
resolve the power into its components of apparent power, true power and reactive
power.
The concept of power factor was also explained and you learnt how to calculate its value
in various circuits.
This unit develops ac complex power from the practical side by firstly discussing
measurement of complex power using wattmeters, ammeters and voltmeters.
You will then learn the application of these meters i.n circuits which have high levels of
voltage, current and power as occurs in high-voltage industrial and commercial supply
systems.
In these larger applications you will learn of the significance of the power factor of
installations and power supply systems and how to calculate its value from meter
readings.
The need to improve efficiency of the power system by correcting the power factor will be
explained and you will finally leam how to combine various ac circuits to determine the
overall complex power used from the supply.
Many texts, which you may have or may be able to borrow from a library, have information
on wattmeters and power measurement, but the notes given in this unit should be
sufficient for the requirements of this subject.
By all means, however, consult:
Electric Circuit Analysis by S A Boctor

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits by David A Bell.
47
The wattmeter
The wattmeter is the instrument used to measure the average power dissipated in a given
load. It contains two coils, with a pair of terminals for each coil.
One terminal of each of the coils, designated respectively as the voltage and current coils,
is marked with a t polarity mark.
Figure 21 illustrates the general arrangement of such a wattmeter.
Figure 21: Electrodynamic wattmeter
These instruments are called electrodynamic or dynamometer instruments.
They are similar to a permanent magnet moving-coil instrument, except that the
permanent magnet is replaced by a coil which forms an electromagnet.
The action of this type of instrument depends upon the magnetic force exerted between
the fixed and moving coils carrying current.
ln Figure 22 the upper diagram shows a sectional elevation through fixed coils FF and the
lower diagram represents a sectional plan on the line XX.
The moving coil M is carried by a spindle S and the controlling torque is exerted by spiral
hairsprings H, which also serve to lead the current into and out of the moving coil.
48
The deflecting torque is due to the interaction of the magnetic fields produced by the
currents in the fixed and unmoving coils.
Figure 23 shows the magnetic field due to current flowing through the fixed coils which are
arranged with half the turns in each side, to give an even flux in the vicinity of the
moving coil.
Figure 24 shows the magnetic field due to the current flowing in the moving coil only.
By combining these magnetic fields you can see that when currents flow simultaneously
through the fixed and moving coils, the resultant magnetic field is distorted as shown in
Figure 25 and the effect is to exert a clockwise torque on the moving coil.
49
Since the moving coil is carrying current at right angles to the magnetic field produced by
the fixed coils, the deflecting force on each side of the moving coil M is proportional to:
(current in M) x (density of magnetic field due to current in F)
That is, the force is proportional to:

current in M x current in F
Thus the deflecting torque is proportional to the mean value of the product of the current in
the fixed coils (which represents the current being measured) and the current in the
moving coil (which represents the voltage being measured).
The fixed coils are connected in series with the load and the moving coil is connected in
series with a non-inductive resistor R which is similar to the multiplying resistor in a dc
voltmeter.
This series circuit is connected across the supply so that the current through the moving
coil is proportional to and practically in phase with the supply voltage V.
These connections are shown in Figure 26.
50
If we again consider the forces acting on the moving coil, the instantaneous force on each
side of the moving coil M is proportional to:
(instantaneous current through F) x (instantaneous current through M); therefore
(instantaneous current through load) x (instantaneous p.d. across load); therefore
instantaneous power taken by load.
This means that the average deflecting force on M is proportional to the average value of
the power.
Note: When the instrument is used in an ac circuit, the moving coil, due to its inertia,
takes up a position where the average deflecting torque over one cycle is balanced by the
restoring torque of the spiral springs.
Hence the instrument can be calibrated to read the average value of the power in
an ac circuit.
At the beginning of this section on wattmeters, I mentioned that the connections to the
meter have been polarity marked.
If the incorrect polarity is used between the current coil and the voltage coil, then the
magnetic fields will produce a torque in the reverse direction which will force the
meter needle in the wrong direction.
If this happens when reading power in a single-phase circuit, it is necessary only to

reverse the connection to one coil to obtain a reading.
Reversing both coil connections will result in the reverse direction of both the fields.
In three-phase connections, the polarity of the coils is far more important, and this will be
discussed in detail in later units.
51
Note: For correct connection of the wattmeter, the current must enter the current coil
polarity marked t at the same time that the voltage coil polarity marked i is connected to
the higher potential point of the load, usually the active lead.
General notes on wattmeters

They usually have a good level of accuracy (typically 1%).
Readings are not affected by different wave shapes, as they read average values.
Readings are not affected by frequency of the supply up to 400 Hz.
They are called transfer instruments since they will work satisfactorily on ac and dc
supplies.
They can be affected by stray magnetic fields.
They have low sensitivity at low scale readings.
They have to be specially made for low power factor readings below 0.3 pf as these low
power factors give inaccurate readings on ordinary wattmeters.
The low power factor wattmeter has a weaker control torque (usually provided by a
hairspring or a taut band).
Electrodynamic type wattmeters are now being replaced by electronic digital meters which
have the same input requirements but usually have better flexibility and accuracy than the
mechanical types.
Precautions
When using wattmeters, because the reading is a function of both voltage and current, it is
very easy to burn out the coils by overloading them accidentally.
Always make sure that the meter voltage range is greater than the supply voltage.
If you are reading 300 volt supply, for example, do not use the 250 volt range, use the 500
volt range.
Always know what the current is in the circuit you are measuring.
Use an ammeter in series with the wattmeter current coil.
Do not use a current range less than the current in the circuit. For example, if the ammeter
is reading 3 amperes then you must use the 5 amperes range.
You can make a mistake if the power factor is low so that, although you may be using the
correct current and voltage ranges, the wattmeter reading is low.
To make the reading more readable up the scale, you will be tempted to decrease the
current or voltage ranges, which will increase the percentage reading but will overload the
coils in the
instrument.
Do not be tempted.
52
Wattmeter meter constants
Most laboratory wattmeters, depending on their manufacturer, have the following current
and voltage ranges:
current ranges: 5 A, 2.5 A, 1.25 A

voltage ranges: 500 V, 250 V, 100 V, 50 V, 25 V
The scale on the instrument is divided into 100 equal divisions.
Note: To interpret the instrument reading, the ranges for voltage and current must be
multiplied together to obtain a scale constant, and this must be multiplied by the
percentage of scale.
On some wattmeters a table of scale constants is presented on the instrument itself, or on

the lid of the instrument case.
Example
A wattmeter has its voltage range set at 250 V and current range set at 2.5 A.
The reading on the scale is 67 on the 0-100 scale.
Scale constant = voltage range x current range

= 250 x 2.5
= 625
Actual reading = scale constant x % of full scale reading 67
= 625 x
= 418.8 watts
Now try student exercise 8.
53
Student Exercise 8
1 Meter ranges are 500 volts and 1.25 amperes and the meter reads 35% full scale.
What is the actual reading in watts?
2 Meter ranges are 100 volts and 5 amperes and the meter reads 98% full scale.
What is the actual reading in watts?
3 Meter ranges are 250 volts and 2.5 amperes and the actual power in the load is
400 watts. What is the percentage scale reading on the meter?
54
High voltage and high current power measurement connections
In the previous section the ranges on a common wattmeter were stated.
The maximum ranges were 5 amperes and 500 volts. For most laboratory or domestic
installations these ranges are adequate, but for commercial and industrial loads or for
electricity supply systems, they are totally inadequate.
We must extend the ranges of the meters to accommodate the higher levels of voltage
and currents used. To make larger coils for higher current and higher voltages is not
practical and would be very expensive.
It is not economical to extend the range of ac meters using current shunts and voltmeter
multipliers.
The methods which can be used to extend the ranges are as follows.
High voltage measurement
11,000 volts is a popular voltage for distributing power in cities and to large industrial
consumers.
We use a small transformer with its primary connected to the 11 000 volts and its
secondary, which has a voltage of 110 volts, connected to the meter.
Provided the ratio of the transformer is taken into consideration when calculating the
power, the problem of the high voltage is overcome.
The transformer used is called a voltage transformer (VT) or a potential transformer (PT).
The term voltage transformer is the name common in modern textbooks, and will be used
in these units.
The connection diagram showing polarity markings, which must be correct as mentioned
in the previous section, is shown in Figure 27.
55
Note:
Most voltage transformers use 110 volts on their secondary in order to standardise meter
ratings.
This means that the same meter can be used in many different primary voltage
applications.
High current measurement

Most applications require current in excess of 5 amperes, and the device used to extend
the range of the 5 A meter is called a current transformer (CT).
This transformer differs from the voltage transformer as it has a very few turns (sometimes
even only one) on the primary and many turns on the secondary.
The ratio of the current transformer is always given as the current ratio.
Secondary current outputs depend on the type of current transformer, but are usually 5
ampere or 1 ampere.
Primary currents can be from tens of amperes to thousands of amperes, depending on the
application.
An example of a current transformer would be one having a 500:5 ratio.
Again, the ratio must be considered when the power in the circuit is calculated.
The connection diagram showing polarity markings, which must be correct as mentioned
in the previous section, is shown in Figure 28.
56
Precaution
lf a current transformer is inadvertently disconnected on the secondary side (meter
removed) while current is flowing in the primary side (in the main circuit), then a very high
voltage (up to thousands of volts) can be generated across the secondary terminals.
This creates a serious safety hazard and can damage equipment.
The secondary must always be short-circuited to allow current to circulate.
The lower the resistance in the secondary circuit, the better is the performance of the
current transformer.
Example
The wattmeter is connected as shown in Figure 29.
The meter has a current range of 5 amperes and a voltage range of 110 volts.
The scale is 0-100 and has a reading of 45%.
Now try the exercise in Student Exercise 9.
57
Student Exercise 9
In Figure 30, the wattmeter has a voltage range of 250 volts and a current range of 1
ampere. The scale reading is 27% of full scale.
What is the power dissipated in the load?
58
Determining the power factor
In the earlier part of this section you learnt how to calculate the power factor of a load
either by knowing the complex impedance of the load, that is the resistance and the
reactance, or by knowing the phase angle by which the current either lags or leads the
voltage.
In practice the complex impedance of the load may not be known.
Meters which measure phase angles are not common, so we must use another method.
In most instances you will have available a voltmeter, an ammeter and a wattmeter, and
from the formula P = VI cos you can calculate the power factor.
Since P = VI cos ,
Power factor, cos

Where: P = true power = wattmeter reading
V = rms voltage = voltmeter reading
I = rms current = ammeter reading
Example
In Figure 31, the voltmeter reads 240 volts, the ammeter reads 5.4 amperes and the
wattmeter reads 960 watts.
Determine the power factor of the load.
59
Note: This result does not indicate whether the power factor is leading or lagging.
This information can only be gained by having some knowledge of the type of load.
If the load is all induction motors then it can be deduced that the power factor is lagging.
lf the load is a mixed load, both capacitive and inductive, then the lead or lag of the power
factor cannot be determined directly.
In the section Power measurement in three phase circuits, (Section 6), a method for
determining the lead or lag in this unknown case is detailed.
60
Student Exercise 10
Figure 32
In Figure 32 the voltmeter reading is 270 volts, the ammeter reading is 8.7 amperes and
the wattmeter reading is 1470 watts.
What is the power factor of the load?
In Figure 33 the ammeter on the 0-5 ampere scale shows a reading of 80% full scale
deflection.
The voltmeter on the 110 volt range shows 100% full scale deflection.
The wattmeter is set on the 150 volt range and the 5 ampere range and indicates 42% of
the full scale deflection.
Determine:
(a) the power absorbed by the load
(b) the load power factor
(c) the component values of R and L of the load.
61
Review
In the latter part of this section we have covered the construction and use of the
wattmeter.
It is important to understand the reasons for taking precautions when using the wattmeter
so as not to overload either the voltage coil or the current coil.
The application of the wattmeter to high levels of current and voltage through the use of
current transformers and voltage transformers has been explained.
You must be familiar with the circuit connections of the various components for the
measurement of power in high current and voltage systems.
You must also understand and be able to calculate meter constants using the various
ratios
so that you can calculate the power on these systems.
An important aspect of the use of wattmeters was shown in the calculation of the power
factor of a circuit.
You must understand the application of the formula as it provides a useful

method of calculating power factor from the readings of a voltmeter, ammeter and
wattmeter.
ln a later section of this module we will be covering the concept of power factor correction,
and the calculations involved in the combining of different complex loads into a single total
load, to work out the total complex power.
62
Check your progress 1
1 A circuit has an impedance of Z = 10+ j6

and an applied voltage of v(t) = 50 sin 314t volts.
Draw the power triangle by determining the values of P, Q, S and the power factor.
2 A circuit consists of R = 10 ohms in parallel with ohms and has a

total supply current of 5 amperes rms.
Find the complete power triangle by determining the values of P, Q, S and the power
factor.
3 An impedance carries a current of 18 amperes rms which results in 3500 VA and a

power factor of 0.76 lagging. Find the impedance.
4 (a) Determine the total watts, VAr and VA of a system which has the following loads
connected:
Load 1: 250 VA at 0.5 pf lagging
Load 2: 180 W at 0.8 pf leading
Load 3: 300 VA and 100 VAr lagging
(b) Determine the circuit's overall pf.
5 For the circuit in Figure 34, calculate the total power delivered to the load and the load
power factor.
Voltmeter reads 100 V on 110 V range
Ammeter reads 3.8 A on 5 A range
Wattmeter reads 25% on 250 V and 5 A ranges
63
64
Unit 2 - Three Phase Systems
Introduction
In this and subsequent sections you will be introduced to topics related to three-phase
supply systems.
In this particular section you will cover the basic concepts of phasor notation which will
explain the convention of phasors which will be used in subsequent sections in three-
phase calculations.
The generation of three-phase voltages will be described so that you will understand the
advantages of a three-phase supply system.
By using phasor diagrams, you will be shown how to construct three-phase voltage
phasors for use in later sections.
Phase rotation will be detailed and the dangers of reversing or using incorrect rotation
with three-phase electrical equipment, particularly three-phase motors, will be outlined.
In conclusion, we will examine the types of phase sequence indicators which may be used
to check phase rotation to avoid danger to yourself and to equipment.
In this section and further sections the letters A, B and C will be used to describe the three-
phase voltages in calculations.
Some texts use the colour code red, white and blue, or R, W and B. It does not matter
what notation is used provided the theory is correctly applied when doing calculations.
65
Objectives
section.
Do not be concerned if there are terms or concepts stated here you do not
understand.
These will become clear as you progress through the section.
At the completion of this section, review these objectivesyou should be able to
understand them and:
discuss the advantages of polyphase over single-phase supply systems;
describe the advantages of three-phase systems in commercial applications (eg

motor starting, sizes of three-phase equipment, noise, vibration, cost);
discuss the application of phasor notation and its double subscript notation;
state the convention for positive and negative phase sequence;
describe the standard ABC phase rotation sequence and the effect of changing
phase sequence on rotating machinery;
describe the methods of indicating phase sequence, and the use of phase rotation
indicator;
explain the dangers of connecting incorrect phase sequence to SCR control

equipment and some machine drives such as compressors, fans conveyors, lathes,
drills.
66
Phasor notation
Until now you have probably referred to voltages with respect to the component with
which they are associated. But voltages always reflect potential differences between any
two points or nodes in a circuit.
If you have denoted these according to the name of the element as shown in Figure 1,
then the voltage would be V1 or VR across R1.
The voltage can also be denoted according to the symbols given to the two points. In the
case of Figure 1, VAB is the voltage at point A with respect to B.
This indicates that, if VAB is positive, then the potential at A is higher than the potential at B.
This is called the double subscript notation.
In an ac circuit the notation is applied by assuming that the voltage is in the positive half
cycle and the current is flowing from source to load.
In some circuits it may be convenient to choose one point in the circuit as a reference
point, and refer all voltages to this common reference point.
If this point is assigned the reference voltage value of 0 volts, some points in the circuit will
have voltages above this point and some below this point.
This point is called the earth point. In some textbooks it is called the ground point. In these
cases in double subscript notation the second subscript is zero and in some cases is
omitted,
leaving a single subscript which assumes the reference to be earth or zero potential.
In the cases we will be discussing in later sections on three-phase systems, a common
reference point is called the neutral which may or may not be connected to earth or zero
potential.
This will be detailed in later sections.
Double subscript notation also gives us a logical system of seeing how voltages
sum together. Let us examine Figure 2.
67
If you consider the current is entering point A so that A is considered at higher

potential than point D, then using double subscript notation:
This is Kirchhoff s voltage law. To be correct the first letter of the sequence on the left
side of the equation must be the first letter on the right side.
Also the last letter on the last voltage on the left side must be the last letter on the
right side.
Note: Because we have assumed that the voltage VAD is positive, as point A is higher
than point D, then:
V A D = -V D A
This applies to any other voltage in this sequence or any voltage indicated by the
double subscript notation. Also
where VA and VD are both earth referred. Figure 3 shows the phasor relationship
of this concept.
Graphical representation
If we wish to solve the first equation by graphical methods or even simply to display the
relationships between voltages, there are two methods available:
funicular diagram
polar diagram.
Without being given the formal name, you have already used both diagrams before, but the
construction and uses of each diagram will now be explained.
68
Funicular diagram
This is the diagram you used when adding together the power triangles in Section 1.
The basic construction is to take each phasor and place the tail of the next phasor to the head
of the previous phasor as in the sequence of Figure 4.
Polar diagram
The polar diagram will give the same answer as the funicular diagram except that,
because of the different construction, other benefits are available.
Taking the same phasors as Figure 4, use the method of the polar diagram in Figure 5.
The first stage is to sum the first two phasors using the parallelogram of addition.
Using the resultant of that, add it to the third phasor to obtain the resultant.
The last diagram shows the complete polar diagram without the construction lines.
69
Advantages of funicular and polar diagrams

Let us now examine the differences between the two diagrams to determine the
advantages and so be in a position to decide which one to use in a problem.
If a resultant value is all that is required as was the case with power triangles, the funicular
diagram is simple, clear and has adequate information for the problem.
So, if you want a resultant of several phasors, use the funicular diagram.
When examining the last diagrams of Figure 4 and Figure 5, you will be able to see a
significant advantage of the polar diagram.
This advantage is that the relationship of each phasor with any other phasor or the
resultant, in both magnitude and angle, is far more obvious than it is with the funicular
diagram.
At this stage this may not appear very useful but in the next section, when we become
involved with three-phase diagrams, the difference will become very obvious.
70
Note:
The convention used to indicate angular displacement is the same in any diagram. We
always use positive angles from the horizontal right-hand side of the origin in a counter-
clockwise direction (see Figure 6).
Example 1
Solution
Draw VAB at
Then draw VCD connecting D to B since both C and A are considered as the higher
potentials. Then resultant is the diagonal of the parallelogram, shown as VEF in
Figure 7.
71
Example 2
If V AN = 240 <0 volts and VBN = 240 <-120 volts Using a polar diagram find VAB if N
is common to both original voltages.
Solution
-VBN may be represented by a phasor which is 180 phase displaced from V NB .
The polar summation of VAN VBN is illustrated in Figure 8.
72
Example 3
A simple similar example is to find the length between two points, one at 10 metres from
a zero point and the other at 5 metres in the opposite direction, or -5 metres. The
distance is 10 - (-5) = 15 metres.
Now have a look at Figure 9 to see how it is done graphically.
73
Student Exercise 1
Construct a phasor diagram of the two vectors VCN = 200 <l20 volts and VBN = 200 <-
1200 volts where N is common to both original voltages.
Find the magnitude and angle of voltage VBC.
74
Three-phase voltage generation

One method of generating three voltages for use in a three-phase system is to use
three separate generators coupled to a single prime mover.
The prime mover could be a diesel engine, steam turbine or the like, as shown in
Figure 10. The generators would be connected to the shaft and mechanically
displaced from one another by 120, so that the voltages are not in phase but spaced
evenly around the 360 of rotation.
To provide a common reference point, one side of each generator winding would be
earthed.
This system could be combined so that the return line is only one conductor as shown in
Figure 11.
This method would be expensive and physically largethe normal method to generate
three-phase voltage is to have one generator with three separate windings spaced at
120 so that they are balanced around the 360 of rotation.
These angles are usually called 'electrical degrees' as this allows for a generator to be a
multipole type, meaning that each winding would occupy a smaller physical angle in the
generator. One revolution (360) of a six-pole generator would produce one cycle of
voltage for each phase, each one being displaced from its adjacent voltages by 120.
75
This single generator with three-phase windings is represented diagrammatically in Figure

12.
Star connection
If the windings are located at 120 apart around the generator the voltages will be
spaced at 120 in their phase relationship as shown in Figure 13.
76
The centre point is called the neutral point and if earthed, is considered at zero voltage.
These voltage phasors when displayed as a time function of e = Em sin ( t + ) are
shown in Figure 14.
In Figure 14 the wave shapes for each phase are identical but displaced by 120. If you
take a value of at any point along the horizontal axis, the addition of the instantaneous
value of the three voltages will equal zero.
Consider the phasors in Figure 13:
Refer to Section 1 for revision of polar to rectangular conversion:
The connection shown in Figure 12 is called a star connection. Some textbooks use the term
'wye (Y) connection'. In this module the term 'star connection' will be used.
77
Phase-to-phase voltages
These voltages are sometimes referred to as 'line-to-line voltages' or simply 'line
voltages', as they are usually measured on the lines or conductors supplying a load. If we
again consider Example 2 detailed in the previous section, with Figure 8 as the method,
and reproduce this figure for each phase voltage in a three-phase diagram, we will obtain
a result shown in Figure 15.
78
The complete diagram of phase-to-neutral and phase-to-phase (line) voltages is shown

in Figure 16.
Delta connection
The connection we have considered has been the star connection. If we call each
phase winding, A to A1 B to B1 and C to C1 in the star connection, we joined
together A1 and B1 and C1 to form the star point.
If we now connect each phase in turn to the next so that A1 is connected to B, and
Bl connected to C, and C1 connected to A, we have a complete loop called a delta
as shown in Figure 17.
79
If we connect a wire to each point of the delta we have a three-phase supply with the
same wave shapes as Figure 15. This system has only phase-to-phase (line) voltages
EAB EBC ECA as the phase voltages are equal to the line voltages.
The phase relationship of the line voltages remains the same as the star connection and
are shown in Figure 18.
Note:
Where a three-phase system is referred to as a particular voltage, for example a 415 V
system, the value of voltage referred to is always the phase-to-phase (line) voltage.
This applies to star or delta load connections or generator connection. To calculate

the phase-to-neutral value you must divide by Vs.
Now try the exercises in Student Exercise 2.
80
Student Exercise 2
1 Sketch a three-phase supply voltage phasor diagram and then sketch the
resulting voltage wave shape with respect to time, indicating the phase
differences and letter the individual phases.
2 Sketch a three-phase star-connected generator connection diagram and

name all voltages.
3 Sketch a three-phase delta-connected generator connection diagram and

name all voltages.
81
Comparison of three-phase and single-phase systems

In the comparison of three-phase and single-phase systems three basic areas will be
covered:
generation
distribution
utilisation.
Generation
Three-phase generators for the same output power use less copper in their conductors
and less iron in their magnetic circuits and are hence cheaper than single-phase
generators.
When a single-phase generator is producing power from its prime mover it can only
generate power in pulses. You will recall the power wave for a resistive load in Section 1,
particularly in Figure 5.
This wave showed a power pulse at twice the supply voltage frequency.
This means that the prime mover must supply power to the generator in the same
manner.
his means that there is considerable stress put on the machinery, shafts and bearings,
causing vibration and noise.
In the three-phase generator, there is power being generated from all three phases,
evenly distributed around the shaft.
The result is a continuous flow of power from the prime mover to the generator since
total power of the three phases at any instant is constant, so there is much less
vibration and noise.
Less vibration means less wear on the generator, prime mover and associated
equipment.
Distribution
There is less copper or aluminium used in power lines in a three-phase system to
transfer the same amount of power than in a single-phase system.
Utilisation
Industrial, commercial and domestic customers purchase the power from electricity
supply authorities and use it for their own purposes.
The first main advantage in the three-phase system is the availability of two voltage
levels without the need of transformers. In the normal supply system we have 415 volts
between any two phases, or 240 volts between any phase and neutral.
This means that in small loads, such as domestic supply to houses, 240 volts is
adequate to service the house. 240 volts is considered a reasonably safe voltage if used
sensibly, compared with a higher voltage such as 415 volts.
At the same time if a factory or shopping centre needs supply, then there is three-phase
415 volts available to operate large machinery and the like.
The second main advantage of the three-phase system is the fact that there is a rotating
magnetic field available.
82
For motors this means that the motor is self-starting. Single-phase motors require
auxiliary starting windings and switches which increase their cost and size.
The rotating magnetic field, rather than a pulsating magnetic field in the single-phase
case, gives a constant torque to the motor.
This constant torque means that machinery being driven by the motors does not suffer
vibration so it is much smoother in operation and is quieter.
For the same shaft output power, a three-phase motor is smaller, more efficient, runs
at a better power factor, and is cheaper and quieter than a single-phase motor.
Also a three-phase motor usually has a higher starting torque.
83
Review
So far in this section you have covered the topic of phasor notation and its double
subscript.
This concept is particularly important in calculations related to three-phase systems
so that the precise relationships of voltages and currents are known/ and to
reduce ambiguity.
The use of phasors was developed further with the explanation of funicular and
polar diagrams.
Three-phase voltage generation followed, with a description of the connection of
generators in two basic methods.
The first is the star connection where the common ends of the three windings are
connected to form a star with 120 spacing between the voltages, resulting in a
phase-to-phase
voltage of Vs times the phase-to-neutral voltage.
The second connection is the delta, where a loop is formed of the windings which
leads to a set of three voltages 120 apart, having only phase-to-phase values.
The need for three-phase systems was described by emphasising the differences
between three-phase systems and single-phase systems.
These differences were covered under the headings of generation, distribution and
utilisation.
In the remainder of this section you will cover the concept of phase sequence and
the precautions to be taken when the phase sequence is reversed.
84
Phase sequence
You will recall the phasor diagram of Figure 14 where all phase-to-neutral voltages
and phase-to-phase voltages were shown.
This diagram is reproduced with less construction detail in Figure 19.
In the section 'Phaser notation' where this diagram was explained, no mention was
made of the sequence, in which the phasors reached their maximum value.
If we consider that the rotation of these phasors is anticlockwise as shown by the

arrow, then if you were positioned at the top right-hand corner as indicated, the
phase-to-neutral phasors would reach their maximum value in the order of EAN,
EBN, ECN or ABC.
You will also notice that the phase-to-phase voltages pass in a sequence of EAB, EBC
and ECA or AB, BC, CA which has the same repeating relationships as ABC. This
sequence by convention, is called the positive phase sequence.
Now let us consider the same phasors in Figure 19 but if the prime mover of the
generator is rotated in the opposite direction then the arrow would be in the
clockwise direction. The phasors would then appear to you as passing in the
sequence of E^, ECN and EBN or ACB. This is called the reverse or negative phase
sequence.
Because the generators on the power system cannot be run in reverse, but the
actual phase conductors can be interchanged either by accident or by design, the
reverse or negative phase sequence can be achieved by exchanging (transposing)
any two phases. You can see this result with the phasors in Figure 20 where EBN
and ECN have changed positions from where they were in Figure 19.
85
In Figure 20 the direction of rotation is still anti-clockwise, but because B and C have
been interchanged, the phase sequence is EAN, ECN and EBN or ACB.
Some textbooks refer to the negative phase sequence as CBA, which is the same
sequence as ACB since the series can begin with any letter provided the overall
sequence is the same. For example,
Let us now construct the phase-to-phase voltages from the phase-to-neutral

voltages shown in Figure 20 with negative phase sequence:
Then EAB = EAN - EBN as for positive phase sequence. But taking the above
values for EAN and EBN then
The magnitude of EAB is the same as the positive sequence but the angle is now
negative.
86
For the negative phase sequence phase-to-phase voltages, all the angles have
changed relative to the positive sequence phase-to-phase voltages.
All the negative phase sequence voltages are shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21
These results apply irrespective of which two phases are transposed. You must also
note that the phase-to-phase voltages also now have a reverse or negative sequence.
When drawing the phasor diagram for phase-to-neutral and phase-to-phase voltages in
ABC sequence and CBA sequence, a simple way to remember where the phase-to-
phase voltage EAB is with respect to E^ is as follows:
In positive phase sequence ABC EAB has a positive angle to EAN (see Figure 19).
In negative phase sequence CBA, EAB has a negative angle to EAN (see Figure 21).
87
Student Exercise 3
Draw the phasor diagram of the three-phase voltages if EAN = 300 <0 and the
phase sequence is negative.
Determine the magnitudes and angles of all three phase-to-phase voltages.
88
Dangers of changing phase sequence

Motors
Most machinery must run in the designed direction of rotation.
If you reverse the direction of a drill, the drill bit will not cut the material. A power
saw, if run in the reverse direction, will not cut. With most machinery, if the direction
is reversed, a significant level of danger exists to the machine itself and the
operators, or just people in the area where the machine is in operation.
If a pump is reversed, the flow may be reversed and pressures might build up to
dangerous levels.
If you replace a three-phase motor or even just disconnect a motor, and then
reconnect it to the supply, it is essential that before you couple the motor to the
load, the direction of rotation is checked.
This can be done by momentarily switching the motor on, if it is safe to do so, and
checking the shaft rotation.
A more satisfactory way is to check the phase rotation of the supply at the motor
before disconnection with a phase rotation indicator.
When reconnecting the motor the phase rotation is again checked to see if it is the
same as before.
Note: If it is found that the three-phase motor is running in the incorrect direction,
transposing any two-phase connections will reverse the phase sequence of the
supply to the motor and so will reverse the direction of the motor.
Silicon controlled rectifiers
More use is now being made of silicon controlled rectifiers in controlling the speed of
large motors.
In the control circuits of these devices, voltages are used which are derived from other
phase voltages than the one the device is actually controlling.
The chosen phase relationship of these control voltages with the main phase voltages
is essential to the control system operation.
If the phase sequence is changed/ then the wrong voltages are used to control the
SCRs so that the devices cease to operate correctly, with possible damage to the
control equipment or the machinery involved.
89
Phase rotation indicator

The use of a phase rotation indicator has been mentioned.
These instruments vary between manufacturers but they are basically a meter which
has three leads colour coded, for example, red, white, blue, so that the leads can be
recognised.
On the instrument some form of indication of the rotation of the phases is shown.
The earlier types had a small meter in the form of a very small motor with a disc on the
shaft which had an arrow in it.
When the leads were connected the disc would rotate to indicate the direction of the
phase rotation.
Later types have two lamps on the front, one with ABC or RWB beside it, the other with
CBA or RBW beside it. When the leads are connected, one of the lamps would light up
indicating phase direction.
These two meters are shown in Figure 22.
90
Review
In the second part of this section you have covered the topic of phase sequence.
Standard conventions regarding phase sequence and the definition of positive
phase sequence (ABC) were discussed.
The reverse sequence of CBA was demonstrated and the effect of changing the
phase sequence on rotating machinery and SCR controlled equipment was
explained.
Because of the obvious need to know the phase sequence, the operation and use
of phase sequence indicators was explained.
The correct use of these indicators should ensure that the dangers associated with
inadvertent phase reversal can be avoided.
At this stage it would be to your advantage to review the objectives at the
beginning of this section to ensure that you can perform the tasks listed.
91
1 Using a funicular diagram, determine the sum of the following three phasors:
Check the result using a mathematical method.
2 A three-phase generator has a phase-to-neutral voltage on A phase of EAN = 150 <0 .
(a) It is connected in star. Draw the complete voltage phasor diagram of the
generator showing magnitudes and angles of all voltages. The phase sequence is
positive.
(b) The same generator is connected in delta. Draw a complete phasor diagram of all
voltages showing magnitudes and angles. The phase sequence is positive.
3 Repeat Question 2 for a negative phase sequence.
4 List the possible dangers if the following loads

have t heir motor connected with a reverse phase
sequence:
(a) a pump with non-return valves

(b) a conveyor belt
(c) a bench grinder
(d) automatic controlled lathe.
92
Glossary of terms
angular displacement the angular difference between two phasors

expressed in degrees or radians
delta connection three-phase connection involving a closed loop of all

three phases
double subscript notation a notation used to identify the voltage between a

particular point in a circuit and the point of reference
for that voltage
earth point usually the frame of an appliance or a stake in the

ground. It is considered as having zero volts.
funicular diagram a method of adding phasors in a polygon to find the

resultant.
ground point see earth point.
neutral the terminal or conductor in an electrical system with

respect to which the voltages of all active conductors
are of equal magnitude in normal operation. In MEN
systems the neutral is earthed (at zero voltage).
phase one voltage of a multi-voltage system.
phase rotation set by the direction of rotation of the generators and

the sequence of the voltages of the three phases.
phase rotation indicator an instrument to measure the phase rotation on a

supply system.
phase-to-phase voltage the voltage between the line terminals of a

polyphase generator or load.
line voltage same as phase-to-phase voltage.
Phasor a line drawn to represent a sinusoidally varying

quantity in magnitude and relative phase.
polar diagram a method of adding or displaying phasors where

all phasors emanate from a single point.
prime mover the device which supplies motive power to a

generator (eg a diesel engine, a steam turbine
etc).
star connection a connection in which corresponding ends

of the three phases are connected together
at one point forming a three-point star.
vector a value which has magnitude and direction
93
Formulae
Three-phase generated voltage
Calculation of phase-to-phase (line) voltages
- in a star system
- in a balanced three-phase system star-connected:
- in a balanced three-phase system delta-connected:
94
95
96
Unit 3 - Three phase four wire star connected balanced

loads
Introduction
In Section 2, the previous section, you learnt of the generation of and the advantages of
three-phase voltages.
In this section you will learn of the connection of three-phase loads to the voltage
systems previously covered.
There were two basic connection of voltages in the three-phase system you have
covered. They were the star and delta connections.
In this section you will cover the same two connections, star and delta, as they apply to
loads.
The main consideration in this section is that the loads used are all balanced. This
means they have the same impedance in each phase.
This is important to realise as, when you progress to Sections 4 and 5, the loads will be
unbalanced and will require more work to calculate the results.
This section has two main parts: the first will cover star-connected systems, and the
second will cover delta-connected systems.
Each part will cover the calculation of currents in the loads and then investigate the
effects of reversing the phase sequence.
Each part is completed with the description and calculation of the power consumed by
the respective loads.
As was mentioned in Section 2, for three-phase calculations it is important to always
refer to a reference voltage when describing voltages and currents in the load.
The most common reference given is the phase-to-neutral voltage on A phase given as
VAN = 0.
You should remember that the use of this reference is not compulsory as any reference
can be used and in some textbooks various references are used.
It will not alter the results but the answers will not be exactly the same if a difference
reference is used, as the angles will refer to a different position.
When supply voltages are referred to in a three-phase system, they are always
assumed to be phase-to-phase voltages.
If a system is said to be a three-phase star connected 400 volt system, the 400 volts
would be a phase-to-phase voltage.
Do not be concerned if, when in the course of calculations, in this and subsequent
sections, your answers are not exactly the same as those given.
When calculations are performed, answers are usually rounded up to two decimal
places and this can lead to small differences in final results.
97
Objectives
section.
Do not be concerned if there are terms or concepts stated here you do not
understand.
These will become clear as you progress through the section.
At the completion of this section, review these objectivesyou should understand
them and be able to:
draw and describe the connections to the three-phase three and four wire star-
connected balanced loads;
calculate the phase and line currents for star-connected balanced loads;
draw the phasor diagrams showing graphical representation of voltages and
currents for three-phase star-connected balanced loads;
show the effect of phase rotation reversal ABC to CBA on star-connected
balanced loads;
calculate the power in a star-connected balanced load using 3(EphIph cos )
and * El cos ;
draw and describe the connections of the three-phase three wire delta-connected
balanced loads;
calculate the load and line currents for delta-connected balanced loads;
draw the phasor diagrams showing graphical representation of voltages and
currents of three-phase delta-connected balanced loads;
show the effect of phase rotation reversal ABC to CBA on delta-connected
balanced load;
calculate the power in a delta-connected balanced load using 3(EphIph cos )
and El cos .
98
Three-phase four wire star-connected balanced loads

In Section 2 you learnt the connections for a star-connected generator. A star-connected
load has the same connections and the voltage drops across the impedances form a
set of phasors in the same way as the generated voltages.
In this section we are only going to consider balanced loads.
These are loads which have the same impedances in each phase.
They may be resistive or a combination of resistance and inductance or capacitance.
The only essential feature is that the same impedance exists in each phase.
For our purposes a three-phase motor is a balanced load as it is assumed that each
phase has the same number of coils, so the resistance and inductance is the same in
each phase.
In Figure 1 we are going to consider a three-phase balanced load connected to a
generator with three-phase conductors and a neutral conductor joining the star points of
the generator and the load.
Figure 1
In Section 2 you were shown how three electrically independent generators could be
combined to supply the load in the same way as the load is connected in Figure 1.
We can make the assumption with a balanced load that what is happening in each phase
does not affect what is happening in any other phase.
We can also say that whatever happens in A phase will occur in B phase 120 later and
again in C phase 240 later, assuming a positive phase sequence.
The last condition that is taken is that there is no resistance in the connecting conductors
(including the neutral conductor).
This means that the two neutral points or star points are at the same potential.
99
Calculation of currents in star-connected balanced loads
We will now consider what the current values are in the circuit in Figure 2.
Figure 2
If we consider each phase in isolation for the calculation of each current, the result is as
follows:
100
Now if we add , the resultant should flow in the neutral conductor

since all three phases are flowing to the neutral point of the load.
This is demonstrated in the finicular diagram in Figure 3.
Figure 3
IA,IB and IC form a balanced set of phasors of equal magnitude and at 120 spacing
since the angle of 6 is the same for each.
The resultant must be zero.
This condition of balanced currents can only exist for equal impedances in the load.
You will notice that the current in each phase is the same current in the line
supplying it so that the line currents are equal to the phase currents.
Example 1
A four wire three-phase supply is connected to a balanced three-phase load, the
connections being the three phases plus a neutral conductor.
If VAN = 240 <0 and ZA = 10 and the phase sequence is ABC, find IA IB and IC and
IN
(the current in the neutral).
101
Solution
Figure 4
102
Phasor Diagram
Figure 5
Power factor
The power factor in a three-phase system must have the same meaning as the power
factor in a single-phase system.
It must be the cosine of the angle which the current lags or leads the voltage which
causes that current.
Because of the number of voltages both phase-to-neutral and phase-to-phase in a
three-phase circuit,
we must be particularly careful that we use the correct voltage with the current for which
we are trying to find the power factor.
In all cases we use the phase voltage and the respective phase current to determine the
angle. In the previous example if we use IA and VAN the angle is 30.
So the power factor is cos 30 or 0.866 lag. If we had used the line voltage VAB as shown
in Figure 5 the angle would be 60.
This would give the wrong answer.
Note:
The power factor of any load can be determined by the impedance angle of the load. In
this example, the impedance was 10 <30. The impedance angle was 30 so the power
factor is cos 30 or 0.866.
A positive impedance angle indicates an inductive load so the power factor must be
lagging.
103
One-line equivalent circuits for star-connected balanced loads

We showed in the first part of this section that all the currents can be obtained by
considering each phase separately.
Since each current was equal in magnitude and only varied in angle, then, if we are
given one current and the phase sequence, we can calculate the other two currents.
Example 2
Consider the previous Example 1 as a one-line equivalent circuit.
Solution
Figure 6
104
Three-phase three wire star-connected balanced loads

In the previous calculations we found that for a balanced load
This means that for all balanced loads there will be no current in the neutral. If the
neutral conductor is removed, then the circuit will not act any differently than it did
when the neutral was connected.
This is not the case, as you will see in later sections, with a load which is unbalanced
(ie where there are different impedances in different phases).
Example 3
A 300 V three-phase three wire star-connected load has an impedance of
18 <-20 Q in each phase. Find the line currents and draw the phasor diagram.
The phase sequence is ABC.
Solution
Figure 7
105
We must use phase-to-neutral voltages.

The 300 volts given is the phase-to-phase value.
106
Figure 8
In this example there was no difference to the previous example where there was a
neutral conductor connected.
The three wire system on a balanced load behaves the same as a balanced four wire
system.
107
Student Exercise 1
1 Three identical impedances of 17 <-30 Q are connected to a 415 volt three- phase
four wire supply.
The load is connected in star and the phase sequence is ABC. Use VAN as
reference. Find the line currents and draw the phasor diagram.
2 Three identical impedances are connected in star to a 500 volt three-phase,

three wire supply.
The line current for phase A is 15 <-30 A. Find the value of the impedance and
the value of the two components which are connected in series to make up the
impedance in each phase.
The system is ABC phase sequence and the system frequency is 50 Hz.
108
Effect of phase reversal on star load currents
All the examples given have been using the positive phase sequence of ABC. We can
now consider the effect on a three-phase four wire star-connected load with a negative
phase sequence of CBA.
Example 4
Consider Example 1 with a negative phase sequence. The supply voltage of VAN = 240
<0 volts and ZA = 10 <30 .
Solution
Figure 9
109
IA in both positive and negative sequence is the same phasor.
IB and Ic are in the reverse positions which is consistent with the voltage EB and Ec
being in the reverse positions.
The conclusion is that reversing the phase sequence on a balanced star-connected
load does not alter the magnitudes of the currents, only that the currents appear in
the same order as the voltage sequence (see Figure 10).
Figure 10
110
Student Exercise 2
Three identical impedances of 17 <-30 are connected to a 415 volt three-phase four
wire supply.
The load is connected in star and the phase sequence is CBA. Use VAN as reference.
Find the line currents and draw the phasor diagram.
Three identical impedances are connected in star to a 500 volt three-phase, three wire
supply.
The line current is 15 <-30 A in each line.
Find the value of the impedance and the value of the two components which are
connected in series to make up the impedance in each phase.
The system is CBA phase sequence and the system frequency is 50 Hz.
111
Calculation of power in star-connected balanced loads
If you look at Figure 11 you will notice that the wattmeter is connected in one leg of the
star load to measure the power in that leg.
Figure 11
Since we have assumed that the load is balanced, then the
power dissipated in ZA (called Pph) will be
Then the wattmeter uses IA the line current, which is equal to the phase current and VAN
the phase-to-neutral voltage.
112
Remember, Z is the impedance angle of load in A phase. This is the angle between
the current in A phase, IA and the phase-to-neutral voltage VAN. This applies if it is a
three wire without a neutral connection or a four wire with a neutral connection on a
balanced load.
From Section 1 we can now say for a three-phase load that the apparent power
and the reactive power is
113
Reverse phase sequence

We found in the previous section that when we reverse the phase sequence the current remains
the same for the individual phase. Then the power formula is unaffected by phase reversal in the
case of the star-connected balanced load.
Example 5
In Example 1 we found that the phase currents were
The phase voltages were
Find the power in each phase and then prove that total power
Solution
Checking
Note: In each case the angle used was the angle between the phase current and the
respective phase-to-neutral voltage.

114
Student Exercise 3
1 Calculate the power in each phase and the total power using
P = ELIL cos Z using the results you obtained in Student Exercise 1,
Question 1.
2 Calculate the power in each phase and the total power, using
P = ELIL cos Z using the information in Student Exercise 1, Question 2.
115
Review
So far in this section you have covered the analysis of three-phase three wire and four wire
star-connected balanced loads.
You were shown how to draw and describe the connections of these loads. We followed this
part with the calculation of the currents in the lines and phases of the two systems and
because of the balanced loads, found that the currents were of equal value and spaced at
120 apart.
One other important feature of a balanced load was found to be that the three currents
summed to zero, so there was no current in the neutral wire.
This resulted in the same currents for both the three and four wire systems.
The simplified, and shorter, approach using a single-phase diagram was demonstrated and
the construction of the phasor diagram showed a valuable method of displaying the results
of the calculations.
The effect of phase reversal on both systems only resulted in the current angles changing,
so that they remained in the same angular relationship to the phase voltages which were
causing them.
When calculating the power in the star-connected balanced load, it was shown that the
power per phase, which is one third of the total power, may be calculated from the formula
The angle 6 is always the impedance angle of the load. In the remainder of this section we
will be covering the explanation of the delta-connected balanced load.
I will show you how to calculate the line and phase currents, how to calculate power and
power factor in the delta connection.
The effects of phase reversal on the line and phase currents will also be analysed.
116
Three-phase delta-connected balanced loads
In the first two parts of this section you were shown the star-connected load. In this part
we can assume that the supply voltages are the same as for the star three wire case.
Let us consider Figure 12.
Figure 12
The most significant difference with voltages for the balanced delta load is that there is
no neutral point, so there are only phase-to-phase voltages. Each voltage is across one
leg of the delta but it is also across two other legs in parallel with the first leg. For
example, VAB is across ZAB which is in parallel with ZCA and ZBC. This point will be further
considered when we calculate the currents flowing in the delta phases and the lines
connected to the delta.
When we consider the supply voltage phasor diagram as in Figure 13, we do not have
phase-to-phase voltages. But it is convenient at times to use the same reference in the
diagrams as we did with the star-connected loads. We can use VAN the phase-to-
neutral voltage of A phase. This voltage does not strictly exist on a delta, but to use the
reference point on the vector diagram can be convenient to keep the diagrams
consistent with star and delta loads, as both may be connected to a single supply. These
multiple load calculations will not be required in this course but we will maintain the
convention.
Figure 13
117
Calculation of currents in delta-connected balanced loads
When we consider the delta-connected load, there is a significant difference to the star-
connected load. In the star-connected load the line currents and the phase current were
equal as they were the same currents.
We now compare the star case with the delta by looking at Figure 14.
Figure 14
Let us look at this diagram in individual sections: firstly, the supply voltages which cause
currents to flow through the impedances.
These phase currents also form a balanced set of phasors as they did in the star
connection. They have equal magnitudes and are out of phase with each other by
120.
118
The line currents are obtained by using Kirchoff's current laws at each node of the
delta.
The relationships of IA, IB and IC must be memorised. In memorising these relationships,

you will note that there is a very good symmetry about each. When finding IA the other
two vectors start and finish with letter A and have the sequence B and C in the middle.
The other groups have the same relationship IB has B at the beginning and end, and C
and A in the middle.
We have said that as this is also a balanced load as in the connection considered,
To find the relationship between IA and IAB, that is the relationship between the line current
and the phase current in a delta load, consider the following,
119
These are phase currents in the load.

Now consider Figure 15.
Figure 15
Then in general, the expression is
As we will see in the next part, the phase sequence will determine the
angle between the line and phase currents.
The general expression IL = Iph must be memorised.
Let us now consider an example of a delta-connected load.
Example 6
A three-phase three wire 415 volt ABC system supplies a delta-connected load
whose phase impedance is 60 <45 .
Find the phase currents and line currents in this system and draw the phasor
diagrams,
120
Firstly, let us draw the connection diagram.
Figure 16
Now let us consider the following diagram (Figure 17) of voltages supplying
the load using an "imaginary" VAN as reference.
121
Figure 17
To calculate the phase currents IAB, IBC and ICA.
122
To find the line currents
The phasor diagram for all currents is shown in Figure 18.
Figure 18
123
Consequently once finding IA you could follow the same procedure, giving:
This method is far quicker and achieves the same results.

Note: We will discuss the effect of changing the phase sequence in the next part.
Power factor
For the same reasons as when we calculated power factor in the star-connected
load, we must consider the voltage which causes the current in the load. With a
delta load there is only one voltage, the phase-to-phase voltage, but there are
two currents.
If we consider the impedance in A phase then we have VAB as the voltage which
causes IAB to flow and you will recall the formula:
So the angle of the power factor is the angle between V AB

and I AB As in the star case and for a single-phase circuit the impedance angle
z will give the current its angular relationship with the applied voltage. Thus
the power factor for a delta circuit can be determined by considering the
impedance angle and applying the power factor formula
124
Student Exercise 4
1 A three-phase three wire 300 volt ABC phase sequence system supplies a
balanced delta load. Each phase impedance is made up of a resistance of 35
ohms and an inductance of 0.25 henrys in series. The system frequency is 50 Hz.
Use VAN as reference.
Draw the diagram of the load connections.
Determine the phase currents, line currents and draw the complete phasor
diagram.
2 A three-phase star-connected generator having phase sequence ABC and a

phase-to-neutral voltage VAN of 200 volts supplies a balanced delta load. The
phase impedance of the delta load is 35 <-20 .
Determine the phase currents, line currents and power factor and draw the
complete phasor diagram.
125
Effect of phase reversal on delta load currents
In the previous two parts of this section you have only considered the phase sequence
ABC or the positive phase sequence. Now let us consider the results of reversing the phase
sequence on the currents flowing in the delta load.
Firstly consider the voltages in Figure 13 but apply the phase sequence CBA or negative
sequence. These phasors are shown in Figure 19.
Figure 19
You were shown in Section 2 how to construct the phasors of Figure 19. If you are
unsure of the construction refer to the part, 'Phase Sequence', in Section 2 to refresh
your memory. These voltage constructions are important as you will get the wrong
currents if you use the wrong voltages.
To determine the effect of phase reversal on the currents we must consider the effect of
the angular change of the voltage.
The phase-to-phase voltages are now
To find the relationship between IA and IAB with the reverse phase sequence in the
delta load, consider the following discussion which is the same as for the positive
sequence case.
126
If we let
then in CBA sequence
and
These are the phase currents in the load. If we now consider Figure 20
Figure 20
We will now solve Example 7 using only the short method. Example 7 is the same as
Example 6 except that the phase sequence is reversed.
Example 7
A three-phase three wire 415 volt CBA system supplies a delta-connected load whose phase
impedance is 60 <45
Find the phase currents and line currents in this system and draw the phasor diagram.
127
Solution
The voltage phasor diagram is as shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21
128
The phasor diagram of voltages and currents is shown Figure 22.
Figure 22
Note that the line current IA is now leading the phase current IAB by 30. All other magnitudes are
the same as the ABC case.
129
Student Exercise 5
A three-phase three wire 300 volt CBA phase sequence system supplies a balanced
delta load whose phase impedances are made up of a resistance of 35 ohms and an
inductance of 0.25 henrys in series. The system frequency is 50 Hz. Use VAN as
reference.
Draw the diagram of the load connections.
Determine the phase currents, line currents and draw the complete phasor diagram.
130
Calculation of power in delta-connected balanced loads

With delta-connected loads, as it was with star-connected loads, the average power
dissipated in each phase is the same and is called Pph.
The total power dissipated by the three phase balanced load is
P = 3Pph
The wattmeter is connected as shown in Figure 23 to measure the single-phase power.
Figure 23
131
Also we know that Z is the impedance angle of the load Z.
This formula is identical to the formula used to calculate the three-phase balanced star
load total power.
So, providing we know the line current and phase-to-phase (line) voltage and the
impedance angle, we can calculate the power of the load without having to know how it
is connected.
Example 8
Calculate the power dissipated in the load of Example 7.
Solution
Power dissipated in each phase
132
Student Exercise 6
1 Calculate the phase power and total power dissipated in the load of Question 1 of
Student Exercise 4.
2 Calculate the phase power and total power in the load of Question 2 of Student
Exercise 4
133
Review
In the second part of this section we have covered the basic topic of delta-connected
balanced loads. In that coverage I described the connection of a three-phase three
wire delta-connected balanced load. Using this connection, the formula for the phase
and line currents were developed which were found to be in the basic form of
In constructing the phasor diagrams the above formulae were illustrated

graphically. It was shown that phase sequence reversal from ABC to CBA
affected the phase relationship of the line currents with the phase-to-phase
voltages. Again, the magnitudes of the currents were unchanged by the phase
reversal. The power in the delta was shown to have the same formula
as the star relationship, taking care to select the line currents, phase-to-phase voltage
and the impedance angle of the load.
At this stage it would be to your advantage to review the objectives at the beginning of
this section to ensure that you can perform the tasks listed.
134
A three-phase star-connected balanced load with a phase impedance of 22 <40 ohms is

connected to a three-phase four wire supply of 440 volts, 50 Hz, CBA phase sequence.
Calculate:
(a) the phase and line currents

(b) power in each phase
(c) the total power using two methods
(d) the power factor.
Draw the connection diagram and complete phasor diagram. Use VAN as reference.
A supply of 220 volts, 50 Hz, ABC phase sequence supplies a delta load which has a
phase impedance consisting of a resistance of 15 ohms in series with an inductance of
0.1 henrys. Calculate:
(a) the phase and line currents

(b) power consumed by the load by two different methods.
Draw the connection diagram and complete phasor diagram. Use VAN as reference.
Calculate the phase and line currents of Question 2 if the phase sequence is reversed.
135
Glossary of terms
Balanced loads a three-phase load which has the same impedance

in each phase.
equivalent circuit a circuit which has the same effect on a supply but
usually has different components and component
arrangements to the original circuit.
Kirchhoff's current law the algebraic sum of currents at a node is zero.
phase power the power consumed in one phase of a three-phase

load.
total power the sum of the powers in the three phases of a

three-phase circuit.
136
Formulae
Star connection
Delta connection
The power formulae are the same as for star connection.
137

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Electrical, Electronics

Solve problems in complex

Chisholm Institute of TAFE

Required Skills and Knowledge

E2.8.9.3 Polyphase power circuit analysis

Evidence shall show an understanding of polyphase circuit analysis to an extent indicated by

a) Complex power 1 and 3

T2.11.49 Polyphase circuit analysis

Structure of a three phase system encompassing:

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Required Skills and Knowledge .............................................................................................3

Unit 1 Complex Power Waveforms .....................................................................................7

Unit 2 - Three Phase Systems ............................................................................................. 65

Unit 1 Complex Power Waveforms

The magnitude of all phasor quantities are expressed in rms

Revision of basic ac theory

1 The current in the circuit of Figure 1 is i(t) = 2 sin 500 t amperes.

Calculate the total applied voltage v(t).

2 A series circuit of two components has the following

v(t) = 150 cos (200t - 30) volts

Find the value of the two components of the circuit.

3 Convert the following complex numbers from polar to rectangular form,

4 Convert the following complex numbers from

5 Solve, giving answers in rectangular form:

are connected in series to an unknown voltage source V as shown in Figure 2.

Find I and V if the voltage drop across Z3 is:

7 A four branch parallel circuit has

and a supply voltage of volts, as shown in Figure 3.

Explain and calculate the frequency of the power wave.

Explain the significance of the area under the power waveform.

Construct power triangles for single phase ac circuits.

Power measurement fundamentals

Complex power waveforms

where v = instantaneous value of voltage

i = instantaneous value of current

The resulting current will be:

where 1m = maximum value of current.

Substituting v(t) and i(t) into p = vi, we have:

p(t) = Vm sin t x Im sin t

Since sin2x = (1 - cos 2 x),

This expression for p has two terms:

and a sinusoidal variable

Let us look at this expression for instantaneous power in graphic form

Now try Student Exercise 1.

and sketch the corresponding power wave on the same axes.

Average power (resistive circuit)

From the expression

the first term has a constant value;

the second term is a cosine wave having an average value of

The negative sign indicates that it is an inverted cosine wave.

Therefore the average power in the circuit is watts.

Average power = 280x14

From Ohm's law, Vrms = IrmsR.

The resulting current will have the form:

The average value of is zero.

Note that the value of p(t) is negative.

Sketch the curves of on

Calculate the values of instantaneous power at the positions:

and sketch the corresponding power wave on the same axes.

The expression for the current will be:

lf we use the expression for instantaneous power p = vi, then

The net power transfer to the capacitor is zero.

As before for the inductance, the average value of

Now try Student Exercise 3.