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Bimetal thermometers consist of two metals bonded together which have different
coefficients of expansion. Bending occurs as one metal expands more than the other.
To amplify the mechanical movement of the deflection, the bimetallic device is generally
wound into a spiral or helical form.
Advantages
Inexpensive
Simple construction
Disadvantages
Limited accuracy
Indication or simple switching only
Localised measurement only
Easily decalibrated due to
mechanical shock Advantages Disadvantages
Hysteresis Good sensitivity Bulky in size and fragile
Uses standard copper wire Slow thermal response time due to bulk
Copper RTDs minimize thermocouple effect Self heating problems
More susceptible to electrical noise
More expensive to test and diagnose
Thermocouples consist of two wires of dissimilar metals, such as iron and constantan, Thermistors semiconductor devices formed from metal oxides
electrically connected at one end resistance changes with temperature
Applying heat to the junction of the two metals produce a voltage (emf) between the two have a much higher temperature coefficient than RTD's, so a small temperature change is
wires that is proportional to temperature. easier to detect ; however, thermistors do not have the accuracy of RTD's
A thermocouple requires a reference junction, placed in series with the sensing junction. Advantages Disadvantages
As the two junctions are at different temperatures a thermal emf is generated. The reference Small size Unstable due to drift and decalibration (especially at high
junction is used to correct the sensing junction measurement. Fast response temperatures)
Very high sensitivity Not easily interchangeable
(Selected range) Nonlinear
No cold junction Narrow span
compensation Fragile
Inexpensive High resistance, noise problems
Polarity insensitive
Wide selection of sensors
Pyrometers use the electromagnetic radiation that is emitted from a material. The emitted Elastic-element methods bellows, bourdon gauges, diaphragms
radiation is proportional to the temperature applied pressure causes displacement, which is measured by some form of displacement
infrared measure the amount of energy radiated from an object in order to determine its transducer
temperature
acoustic principle that the speed of sound in a gas is dependent on the nature of the gas
and its temperature
Pressure sensors
Liquid-Column Methods (manometers) passive instruments that give a visual indication of
pressure values
mainly used for spot checks or for calibration
used for low range measurements, as higher measurements require mercury
Advantages
Simple operation and
construction
Inexpensive
Disadvantages
Low pressure range (water) Electrical methods
Higher pressure range requires Strain gauges contain a metal wire or semiconductor chip to measure changes in
mercury pressure
Readings are localised A change in pressure causes a change in resistance as the metal is deformed. This
deformation is not permanent as the pressure (applied force) does not exceed the elastic
limit of the metal.
If the elastic limit is exceeded, then permanent deformation will occur.
mechanically-actuated
Advantages Disadvantages
Wide range (7.5kPa 1400 MPa) Unstable due to bonding material
Inaccuracy of 0.1% Temperature sensitive
Small in size Thermoelastic strain causes
hysteresis
Stable devices with fast response
Most have no moving parts
Good over-range capability
Level involve determining the location of the interface between two fluids, separable by magnetic-activated
gravity, with respect to a fixed datum plane
Head devices The hydrostatic pressure due to a liquid is directly proportional to its depth
Level sensors and hence to the level of its surface.
Float-actuated devices simplest level sensors Error: imprecise knowledge of the liquid density (liquid solutions and mixtures), especially
operate based on the principle of buoyancy (subject to false actuations) hydrocarbons, and in some cases only an estimate of density is available.
generally limited to liquid-gas interface
suitable for a wide variety of liquids (including corrosives) except for thick liquids
and materials with contaminants
mechanically-actuated a float is connected to an arm which activates a limit switch
whenever the liquid level rises
magnetic-activated similar to the mechanically-actuated float, but instead of an arm, a
rod with a permanent magnet is attached to the float
Thermal methods level measurements are based on temperature differences of the fluids
as related to thermal resistance or conductivity
usually encountered in liquid-air and liquid-vapor systems
Sonic methods energy from an ultrasonic source above the liquid is reflected back from the
liquid surface into an ultrasonic energy detector
As the speed of sound is known, the transit time is measured and the distance can be
calculated.
Ultrasonic measurement generally measures the distance between the contents and the
top of the vessel.
The height from the bottom is deduced as the difference between this reading and the
total height of the vessel.
Electrical methods primarily used for high and low level detection
The electrode or conductivity probe uses the conductivity of a fluid to detect the presence Advantages
of the fluid at the sensing location (on/off signal). Non contact with product
When the fluid is not in contact with the probe, the electrical resistance between the Suitable for wide range of liquids and bulk products
probe and the vessel will be very high or even infinite. Reliable performance in difficult service
When the level of the fluid rises to cover the probe and complete the circuit between the No moving parts
probe and the vessel, the resistance in the circuit will be reduced. Measurement without physical contact
Unaffected by density, moisture content or conductivity
Advantages Accuracy of 0.25% with temperature compensation and self-calibration
Very simple and inexpensive Disadvantages
No moving parts Product must give a good reflection and not absorb sound
Good for dual point control (level switching control) in Product must have a good distinct layer of measurement and not be obscured by foam or
one instrument bubbling
Good for high pressure applications Not suitable for higher pressures or in a vacuum
Disadvantages Special cable is required between the transducer and electronics
Contamination of probe with adhering materials can The temperature is limited to 170C
affect results
Limited application for products of varying conductivity Flow in terms of mass or volumetric flow rate
Intrinsic safety designs need to be specified if required could be laminar or turbulent, or Newtonian or non-Newtonian
Restricted to conductive and non-coating processes
Possible electrolytic corrosion Flow sensors
Head flowmeters (differential pressure) operate on the principle of placing a restriction in
the line to cause a differential pressure head, which is converted to a flow measurement
When such a restriction is placed in a pipe, the velocity of the fluid through the restriction
increases and the pressure decreases. The volume flow rate is then proportional to the
square root of the pressure difference across the obstruction.
Orifice meter a smooth disc with a round, sharp-edged inflow aperture and mounting Rotameter consists of a metal float and a conical glass tube, constructed such that the
rings diameter increases with height
The shape of the opening and its location do vary widely, depending on the material A balance is achieved between the force of the flow stream and the weight of the float.
being measured. The float positions itself vertically within the measuring tube such that the resistance value is
balanced.
Advantages
Inexpensive
Wide range of applications
Very basic operation
Easy installation and simple to replace
Disadvantages
Limited accuracy
Subject to density, viscosity and temperature
Fluid must be clean, no solids content
Erosion of device (wear and tear)
Can be expensive for large diameters
Advantages Disadvantages Operate in vertical position only
Simple construction Inaccuracy, typically 1% Viscosity > 200 cP
Inexpensive Low Rangeability (typically 4:1)
Easily fitted between flanges Accuracy is affected by density, pressure and viscosity
No moving parts fluctuations Turbine meter consists of rotor-mounted blades that rotate when a fluid pushes against
Large range of sizes and opening Erosion and physical damage to the restriction affects them.
ratios measurement accuracy works on the reverse concept to a propeller system (i.e. the flow drives and rotates the
Suitable for most gases and Cause some unrecoverable pressure loss propeller)
liquids Viscosity limits measuring range The rotational speed of the turbine is proportional to the velocity of the fluid.
Well understood and proven Require straight pipe runs to ensure accuracy is
Price does not increase maintained
dramatically with size Pipeline must be full (typically for liquids)
Venturi meter the fluid is accelerated through a nozzle shaped inflow piece (converging
cone) which induces a local pressure drop.
After passing through the cylindrical restriction, it is released through an expanding
section (diffuser) where it returns the flow to near its original pressure.
Advantages Disadvantages
Less significant pressure drop across More expensive
restriction Bulky (requires large section for
Less unrecoverable pressure loss installation)
Requires less straight pipe up and
downstream
Advantages
High accuracy, repeatability, and rangeability for a defined viscosity and measuring range
Temperature range of fluid measurement: -220C to +350C
Very high-pressure capability: 9300 psi
Measurement of non-conductive liquids
Capability of heating measuring device
Suitable for very low flow rates
Disadvantages
Not suitable for high viscous fluids
Viscosity must be known
10 diameter upstream and 5 diameter downstream of straight pipe is required
Not effective with swirling fluids
Only suitable for clean liquids and gases Magnetic flowmeters use Faradays law of electromagnetic induction to sense the velocity
Pipe system must not vibrate of fluid flow
Specifications critical for measuring range and viscosity moving a conductive material at right angles through a magnetic field induces a voltage
Vortex-shedding flowmeters Vortex shedding occurs when an obstruction (bluff body) is proportional to the velocity of the conductive material (fluid)
placed in the flowing stream.
The shedding frequency of these alternately shed vortices is proportional to the fluid
velocity past the body.
Ultrasonic flowmeters
Transit time measurement sends pulses of ultrasonic energy diagonally across the pipe
The transit-time is measured from when the transmitter sends the pulse to when the
receiver detects the pulse.
Doppler effect relies on objects with varying density in the flow stream to return the
ultrasonic energy
Portions of this ultrasonic energy are reflected back from particles in the stream of
varying density. Since the objects are moving, the reflected ultrasonic energy has a
different frequency.
Coriolis mass flowmeters consist of either a pair of parallel vibrating tubes or a single
vibrating tube that is formed into a configuration that has two parallel sections
The Coriolis effect causes a retarding force on a rotating section of pipe when flow is
moving outward, conversely producing an advance on the section of pipe for flow moving
towards the axis of rotation.
Composition sensors
a) Chromatographic analyzers separation and measurement of volatile compounds and of
compounds that can be quantitatively converted into volatile derivatives
b) Infrared analyzers measurement of concentration by measuring the degree of absorption
of infrared radiation at specific wavelengths
c) UV and visible radiation analyzers measurement of concentration by measuring the degree
of absorption of radiation in the near-UV or visible range
Transmitter usually required to convert the sensor output to a form compatible with the
controller input and to drive the transmission lines connecting the two
generally designed to be direct-acting (output signal increases as the measured variable
increases)
most transmitters respond rapidly
Transducer converts the magnitude of a process variable into a signal that can be sent directly
to the final control element