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19thMay2015,03:06PM #1

Mudassir Criminologyanditshistory

SeniorMember AnanalysisofCriminologyanditshistory
CSSW
Legallyspeaking,acrimeisanactthatispunishableby 16Klikes
law.Apersoniscalledcriminalwhohascommittedsuch
alegallyprohibitedact.Butstilltherearesomeother
criteriabasedonwhichapersonisdeterminedasa
criminalornotacriminal. LikePage

Criminologyisconsideredasthescientificstudywhich
relatesboththeindividualandsocietytothecriminal 3friendslikethis
behavior,includingthenature,extent,causes,and
JoinDate: Apr2015
controlofthisbehavoir.SinceCriminologyisfueledfrom
Posts: 148 differentfieldlikebehavioralsciences,
sociologists(especiallythesociologyofdeviance),social
anthropologistsandlawthereforeitisan
interdisciplinaryfieldintheseacademicfields.

In1885,anItalianlawprofessorRaffaeleGarofalowas
thefirstonewhocoinedthetermcriminologyas
criminologia.Butlater,analogousFrenchterm
criminologiewasusedbyFrenchanthropologistPaul
Topinardaroundthesametime.

History:

Inthemid17thcentury,criminologycameintoexistence
whensocialphilosophersstartedthinkingaboutthe
crimeandconceptsoflaw.

Historically,criminologistshavewrittenverylittleabout
thesubjectofphilosophy.Similarlythephilosophers
havenotwrittenmuchaboutthecrimeandcriminology
field.Duetowhich,animplicitgapiscreatedbetween
philosophyandcriminologywhichhasbeenabsenteither
inthetheoreticalassumptionofcriminologistsorinthe
moregeneralmetaphysical,ethicalandlegalwritingof
philosopher.However,onethingissurethroughoutthe
historythatlawandjusticewerethemostimportant
concernsofthephilosophers(e.g.Solomonand
Murphy1990Friedrich1963).

Manyofthemostimportantphilosophersminds,from
Plato,ThomasAquinasandSaintAugustine,toImmanuel
Kant,JeremyBentham,CesareBeccaria,havedealtwith
thecomplexitiesofsocialobligation,socialoffence,
socialcontrolandsocietalresponsetocrimeopenlyand
intensely.
Indeed,crime,asitseems,wasneverconsidered

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properlyasphilosophicalissue.But,atvariouspointsin
timeinthehistory,onecanfindthatthesubjectof
criminalbehaviorwasconsideredbythephilosophy,
medicalphilosophy,theologyandaswellasbyethics
whereitwasconsideredasasubsetofimmoral
conduct,.Butstillcrimeremainednoticeablyabsentfrom
themostimportantphilosophicaltheoriesthatisthe
generalontological,epistemological,ethicaland
aestheticalanalysis.Thesetheoriesmightsuggestnew
viewpointsanddifferentdirectionsforitsgeneral
comprehensionaswellasspecificapplicationsofitin
lawandjusticestudies.

Similarlythefieldofphilosophyanditscorresponding
intellectualsubfields(ieontological,epistemological,
ethicalandaesthetical)neverconsideredthe
criminologicalconcernsproperly.Thereforecriminology
evolvedintoanincreasinglyinterdisciplinaryasan
independentfieldhavingitsownscholarsand
practitionerswherephilosophyandcriminologywere
regardedasdistinctandunrelatedsubjectperhaps.

Butstillitcanbeseenthatcriminologyandphilosophy
wererelatedtoeachotherinnumberofwaysandthe
junctionofcriminologyandphilosophyweredescribedby
scholarsinbothcamps.

Theaimisnottofillthegapbetweenthetwo.Butthe
abovediscussionisprovidedinordertounderstandhow
thetwofieldweredealtbeforeandhowtheycreateda
relationtoeachother.

Crimeinphilosophy:

Formanyyears,philosophyandsocialsciencewereone
andthesame.Thephilosophersassociatedwith
psychology,sociologyandcriminology(called
psychologist,sociologist,andcriminologistsofancient
times)andfromtheMiddleAgeswereconfinedtothese
fieldsbecausetheyentertainedonlythosesortsof
questionswhichwererelatedtotheirspecificfield.It
wasthenthatthesesortsofquestions,duringthe
subsequenthistoricalperiods,becameapartofspecific
academicdisciplines.

Thereforeaftertheaffiliationofthecriminologywith
differentdisciplines,thephilosophers,ofthese
disciplines,startedtoexaminetheessentialquestionsof
criminologythatiswhatiscrime,Whyandwhatreasons
makepeopletocommitcrimes,whycertainpeoplehave
acriminalbehaviour,andhowsystemofjusticeshould
takeactionagainstthelawbreakers.

Whenwelookatmostofthebooksoncriminologyor
criminologicaltheory,theybegintheirhistorical
descriptionfromtheCesareBeccaria(Beccaria1764)
philosophy.Untilthen,throughouttheyearsofWestern
philosophy,crime,lawandjusticewereatleastimplicit
topicsthatprecedehim.

CriminologyanditsPhilosophicalconsiderationcanbe
tracedbacktoPlatoatleast,andafterthiseracomes
theMiddleAgeswherethecriminologybecamethe
subjectoftheologicalconcerns,laterenteredtothe
causeeffectdiscourseofmodernitythroughthe
meditativethinkingofBeccariaandBentham.Afterthe
modernityitenteredtothescientificdiscourseofthe
earlybiologicalpositivistsandthenfinallytothepost
modernity.

Althoughcrimeissocialfact,butstilltheparticular
realitiesofcrimearerelativetotimeandplace.
Thereforewhateverspeculation,implicitorexplicit,
mightbederivedfromPlatoorKant,thephilosophyof
crimeinancientGreeceor18centuryGermanwas
radicallydifferentinwesternworldfromwhatwefind
today.

MiddleAge:

InMiddleAges,therewasaprofoundinfluenceofthe

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theologyonhumanconceptualizationoftheworld.The
MiddleAgesobservedtheendoftheGreekinspired
"crimeasvice"philosophyandthereafterthe
theologicalinspired"crimeassin"philosophywas
emerged.

Bothhumanworldandsociallife,throughouttheMiddle
Ages,wereconsideredtobecharacterizedbyaconstant
strugglewheretheforcesofgoodandevilwereuneven
andwereagainstoneanother.Therewasonlyone
importantrespectthe"soul,inwhichtheMiddleAges
wasdifferent.Thesoulwasassociatedmoredirectlyto
thesupernaturalpower.

ForexampleaccordingtoSt.ThomasAquinas,
"thesoulwasgiftfromGod,implantingwithinhumansa
likenesstoHisultimatereason".

Therefore,asinfuldisobedienceshowsafailureto
responsiblyuseGodgiftedpowersofreasonandchoice.
Crimeaseviltookplaceduetothehumanappetites,
towardsworldlypleasures,weretemptedbythedemon
todefeatourconscienceembodiedinourGodgivensoul
(EnstadterandHenry1995,p3435).

Rationalhedonism(theemergenceofmodernity)

Thephilosophicalthinkingaboutcrimelawandjustice
remainedthesameuntil17thand18thcenturies,and
duringthesecenturiesasignificantshiftinthe
philosophicalthinkingaboutthecrime,criminalbehavior
andjusticeoccurred.Thegeneralintellectual
environmentoftheEnlightmentandthecriminological
cohesioninthelegalphilosophiesofBeccaria(1763)and
Bentham(1996)weretheoriginforthisphilosophical
shift.Itisunderstoodthatthemoderncriminology
startedinmid18thcentury.Sincetheclassicism
presentedthecriminologyinperspectiveofhuman
natureandbehaviorwhichwaslargelyfreeoftheological
influence,andthereforeestablishedthelocusofcrimein
individualthoughtsandreasonsinstead.Whichmeans
thattheclassicismphilosophicalthinking,whichwas
rootedintheprincipleofrationality,highlightspersonal
responsibility,freechoice,andhedonisticcalculation,
ratherthanputtingthehumannatureandbehavior,
whichwasonlyconfinedtothesupernaturalpower
determinationorrelatedtotheexternalstrugglethat
existedbetweentheforcesofgoodandevil.

Theutilitarianphilosophicalthinkingoftheclassicismis
consideredametaphysicaldeparturefrommetaphysical
philosophythatwaslargelyinspiredformthetheology
fieldoftheMiddleAges.

Mostofthepeoplearefrightenedwhentheyfirstcome
acrosswiththeory,butstillweusetheoriesondaily
basis.Inourdailylifewecontactwithmanythings
thereforeweallmakeassumptionsaboutthings.
Theoriesdevisesomelogicalconstructionsinorderto
explainthenaturalphenomena.Althoughsometimes
thesephenomenaarenotobservabledirectly,butstill
canberefutedorsupportedbysomeempiricalfindings.
Thereforehypothesesareusedtocreatearelation
betweentheoryandempiricalresearch.Andthese
hypothesesaretestablesuggestionsthatarelogically
derivedfromtheories.

Thetestablepartofeverytheoryisverysignificant
becausescientifichypothesesshouldbecapableofbeing
acceptedorrejected.
Classical:Classicalcriminologywaspresentedina
reactiontothebarbaricsystemoflaw,justiceand
punishmentthatexistedbefore1789.Itemphasizes
largelyonhumanrationalityandfreewill.TheClassical
Schoolwasmoreinterestedinlawmakingandlegal
processingratherthanstudyingcriminals.Thisschoolof
thoughtbelievedthatengagementinanycrimewas
becauseofthetotalfreewillandthatindividuals
evaluatedtheconsequencesoftheiractions.Thereforeto
preventpeoplefromcommittinganycrimeorcriminal
activity,Punishmentismadeanditmustbelargerthan

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theenjoymentofcriminalgains.Thatiswhyratherthan
definingthecriminalbehavior,theclassicalschool
emphasizedmoreonthelegaldefinitionofcrime.Cesare
Beccaria(17381794)andJeremyBentham(17481832)
werethetwofamouswritersduringthisclassicalperiod,
bothweretheleadersofthemovementtohumanrights
andfreewill.

TheEnlightmentparadigmemphasizedmoreonthefree
will,andselfdeterminationinhumanbehaviourand
knowledgeformwhichtheclassicalparadigmappeared.

SincetheClassicaltheoryofphilosophy,incriminology,
isemergedfromthe18thcenturytheoriespresentedby
Englishphilosopher,JeremyBenthamandanItalian
economist,CesareBeccaria.Thereforeattimeinhistory
thepunishmentforcrimewassevere,andbothofthe
philosopherspresentedthetheoryofutility.Atthattime
thecausesofcriminalanddelinquentbehaviorofthe
humanwaslookedbynewtheorists(likeBeccariaand
Bentham),andstartedexplainingsuchdeviance
scientifically.Theoriessuchasnaturalismand
demonology,whichwerepresentedbytheEuropean
Enlightenmentparadigmasexplanationsforthese
behaviors,wererejectedbythosetheorists.Sothese
newtheoriesweremorerelatedtothephilosophyof
rationalismandhumanitarianismoftheAgeof
Enlightenment.

Beccariadidnotpresentanentirelynewtheoryinthe
fieldofcriminology,butratherhewantedtomakea
morerationalpunishmentforacrime.Hebelievedthat
thepunishmentsshouldbeinhierarchalformdepending
onthenumberoftimesacriminalhadbeencharged
previouslyandmoreontheseverity,andseriousnessof
thecrimes.Hebelievedthatconditionsunderwhichthe
deathpenaltywasgivenshouldcompletelydependon
theseverityofthecrimeanditshouldnotdependon
actualactcommittedorthelevelofinvolvementinthe
act.In1764hisbook"AnEssayonCrimesand
Punishment"waspublished,inwhichhediscussedthat
whycrimeoccursandwhatistheroleofsocietyin
committingsuchcrimes.Hearguedthatallthepeople
shouldbetreatedequallybythelawandtoavoidthe
misuseofjudicialpowerthenthepunishmentsfor
particularcrimesmustbestandardizedbylegislatures.

JeremyBentham(17481832),anotherclassical
theoristlikeBeccariaalsoarguedthathumansare
rationalbeingswhomakechoicesbyexercisingtheir
freewill.Thus,bothofthesephilosophersarguedthata
paininvolvedinthepotentialpunishmentforacrime
mustbegreaterthananypleasureinthatcrimeinorder
tostopthepeoplefromcommitingsuchacrimeforthat
pleasure.

UtilitarianismwasthemajorconcernofBentham.He
believedthatindividualsaremoreconcernedaboutthe
probabilitiesofthepresentandfuturepleasuresrather
thanconsideringtheirpainsinpresentandfuturetime.
Thereforehebelievedthathumancalculatorsare
calculatorsthatactaccordingtocalculations,andthat
theyuseasortofmathematicalequationforallfactors
tomakeadecisionwhethertocommitanillegalactor
not.Thelawismadetomakeallpeoplehappyhappiness
atallandsothattheycanliveapleasurablelife,onthe
otherhandpunishmentcreatesunhappinessbuta
justificationforthispunishmentisthatitprevents
greaterevilthatitproducesasaconsequence.

Theearlynineteenthcenturycriminologistsstatedthat
thephilosophyoflegalpunishmentspresentedbythe
classicalschooldidnotadequatelyconsiderthegenerally
varyingcircumstancesofthosewhowereinvolvedin
criminaljusticesystem.Therefore,thesecriminologists
arguedthatthosepeoplewhoareunabletodifferentiate
betweenrightandwrong,especiallychildrenand
mentallyillpersons,mustnotbepunishedwiththesame
punishmentforthecrimeasnormalandmentally
capableadultswhohadcommittedthesamecrimesare
punished.Alongwiththecontributionsfromthe

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positivists,alatergenerationofcriminologists,these
philosophersarguedthatthepunishmentforacrime
mustfitthecriminal,notthecrimeitself.

Thecriminaljusticepoliciesweregreatlychangedby
Beccaria'stheory,especiallyinFrance,anditwas
expectedthatitwouldsoondecreasethecrimerate.But
actuallythiswasnotfoundinanywaywhetherthis
occurredornot,becausetherewerenostatisticsabout
annualcrimeratetomeasurewhetheritwasgoingupor
down.

In1827aboutsixtyyearsafterBeccariawrotehisbook,
Francepublisheditsfirstannualnationalcrime
statistics.Thesestatisticsshowedclearlythatcrime
rateweresurprisinglyregular.Thecrimeratesfor
generalandforspecificcrimessuchasrapeandmurder
remainedthesamefromyeartoyear.Also,some
regionsinthecountryhadhighercrimeratesthansome
otherregionsandthesedifferencesalsoremainedthe
samefromyeartoyear.
Thenewcrimestatisticsclearlyexposedthatthe
classicalpunishmentpoliciesandphilosophyarefailedin
stoppingthecrimeformbeingcommitted,andatthe
sametimethesesuggestedthatthereweresomeother
factorsinthesocietythathadagreaterinfluenceonthe
crimeinsociety.

Duetothisshiftinphilosophicalthinkinggavebirthtoa
newparadigmofcriminology,whichwasknownas
positivism.Theaimofthisparadigmwastostudythe
causesofcrimeeitherintheindividualorinthelarger
society.

Positivism:

Later,thepositivistschoolofthoughtinthefieldof
criminologyintroducesascientificapproachtothefield
ofcriminology,andtheyalsoincludedthebiologicaland
medicalfindingsinthisapproach.

Inthe19thcentury,thepositivistschoolofthoughtcame
intoexistenceduetothe"scientificrevolution,"
especiallyCharlesDarwindiscoveriesandfollowing
scientificadvancements.Asearchforthemostimportant
andbasicquestionsabouthumanbeingsandthe
universearoundthemwasstartedandpresentedby
usingthe"objective"science,insteadofusingreligious
andtheologicalbeliefsor"armchair"philosophy.

Positivists,unliketheclassicalphilosophers,wantedto
explaintheuniversearoundthemobjectively.The
positivistpresentedthedeterministicviewoftheworld,
toexplainthecriminalbehaviorratherconsideringthe
legalissues,andbelievedthatthecrimecouldbe
preventedthroughthetreatmentofoffendersorthrough
theorreformationoftheoffenders.Theyobservedthat
thebiological,psychological,andsocialqualities
determinedthecriminalbehavior.Thereforethe
positivistswereinterestedinuseofscientifictechniques
tostudythosebehaviors.Datawascollectedusingthese
scientifictechniquestoexplaindifferenttypesofsocial
andindividualsphenomena.

Thepositivistusedthetheoryevolution,formedby
naturalistsandanthropologists,tothestudycriminal
behaviorofhumanbeings.
Thefocusofpositivismwasonsystematicobservations
andtheaccumulationofevidencesandobjectivefacts
withinadeductiveframework,thereforemovingfroma
moregeneralstatementtoamorespecificone.

DarwinpublishedhisbookOntheOriginofSpeciesin
1859(Darwin1859),inwhichhestatedthat
"Humanswerethesamegeneralkindofcreaturesasthe
restoftheanimals,exceptthattheyweremorehighly
evolvedordeveloped."
AftertheDarwiniantheory,itwasstartedtounderstand
humanbeingsascreatureswhosebehaviorwas
influencedbybiologicalandculturalbackgroundinstead
ofselfdeterminedhumanbeingswhoactedaccordingto

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theirfreewill.

Thiswasthetimethatthefirst"scientific"studiesof
crimeandcriminalbehaviorstartedtobegin.
Positivismdescribesamethodofinquirythattriestofind
answerstothosequestionsthatarerelatedtothe
criminalbehaviourwhichisscientificmethod.

Theresearcherobservestheempiricalfactsofthereal
worldbytesting"hypotheses"toreachtheultimate
"truth"andderives"laws"fortheirresearchwork(e.g.
thelawofrelativity).

Thesocialsciencesappreciatedthiskindofmodeof
inquiry,presentedbypositivist,largelythroughthework
ofAugustComte(17981857)whoisoftencalledthe
founderofpositivismaswellasthefounderofthe
sociologydiscipline.Comtestatedthattheological,
metaphysical,andpositiveorscientificarethethree
stagesthroughwhichtheknowledgepasses.

Thescientificorpositivistisconsideredthehighestor
finalstageofknowledge,andthroughthisstageof
knowledgethehumanbeingsareabletofindout
regularitiesamongdifferentsocialphenomenato
establishthepredictabilityandcontrol.

However,thebigbreakthroughinthepositivist
criminologycamewhenanItaliandoctorCesare
LombrosopublishedhisbookCriminalManin1876
whichearnedhimtitleofthe"fatherofcriminology.

CesareLombroso,wastheleadingphilosopherof
positivistschoolthoughtwhousedtheconceptof
determinismtoreplacethephilosophyoffreewilland
rationality.

Lombroso,InfluencedbyDarwiniantheoryofevolution,
startedtocalculatethephysicalfeaturesofprisonerand
concludedthatspecificphysicalcharacteristics,suchas
skeletal,cranial,andneurologicalmalformationswere
morecorrelatedtothecriminalbehaviour.
Inhiswork,Lombrosodiscussedthebiologicalaspectsof
thecriminalbehavior,andstatedthatsincethephysical
characteristicsdeterminethecriminalbehaviour
thereforeacriminalis"born"thatwayandcanbe
differentiatedfromnoncriminalsaccordingtothese
physicalcharacteristics.Lombrosocalledthemstigmata
orcharacteristics.

Lombroso'sworkwasthebeginningofthepositivist
criminologyandthenitissubdividedintodifferentfields.
Todaybiology(beganwithLombroso),psychology,and
sociologytherearethreemajorfieldsofpositivist
criminology.Thus,biologicalpositivismdescribesthe
criminalwithintheindividualbyconsideringitsphysical
structurepsychologicalpositivismlocatesthecauses
byconsideringthepersonalitydevelopmentwhereasthe
sociologicalpositivismseesthecausesbylookingat
thesocialfactorsandsocialstructure.

Inlatenineteenthcentury,anotherschoolofthought
cameintoexistence,calledcartographicschool,which
developedstatisticiansworkinfieldofcriminology,and
analyzedthisdataonpopulationandcrime.TheFrench
philosopherLambertAdolpheQuetelet,(17961874),and
BelgiumphilosopherAndrMichelGuerrybelongedto
thisschoolofthought.Bothoftheseresearchers
collectedthedetailedstatisticalinformationaboutthe
crimeandcriminalbehaviorandalsotriedtoidentify
andfindoutthecircumstancesthatmadethepeopleto
commitcrime.

AphilosophernamedEmileDurkheim(18581917)also
hadagreatinfluenceoncriminology.Durkheim
presentedthehypothesisaboutthecriminalbehaviorof
peopleandarguedthatitisanormalpartofall
societies.Healsoarguedthatthereisnosuchsocietyin
thisworldwhohasabsoluteuniformityofmoral
consciousness.

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Thereissomedeviancyinallsocieties,andthatincludes
thecriminaldeviancetoo,orotherwisetheywill
stagnate.

Durkheimalsomentionedthewaysinwhichmodernand
industrialsocietiesplaydifferedroleinbuildingthe
criminalbehaviorfromthosesocietiesthatwere
nonindustrial.Individualsinindustrialsocietiespossessa
behaviorcalledanomiebyDurkheimwhichisaGreek
wordmeaning"withoutnorms."Thereforethemodern
societiesneededtodevelopspecializedandspecificlaws
andcriminaljusticesystemsthatwerenotimportantin
earlysocietiesinordertocontrolbehavior.

SociologyandCriminology

Inthetwentiethcentury,themostinfluentialapproachin
thefieldofcriminologywasthesociologicalapproachto
criminology,whichwasconcernedtothestudyofsocial
behavior,systems,andstructures.Furtheritwasdivided
intosocialstructuralandsocialprocessapproachesin
relationtocriminology.

SocialStructuralCriminology

Thisapproachtocriminologyinspectstherelatedsocial
circumstancesandstructuresthathaveagreatinfluence
onthecriminalbehavior.
Inthe1920sand1930s,anecologicalschoolof
criminology,wasdeveloped,throughtheworkofRobert
E.Park,ErnestBurgess,andotherurbansociologistsat
theUniversityofChicagowhichisknownasChicago
schoolthought.

HumanbehaviorwasthemainfocusoftheChicago
schoolthought,whichwasdeterminedbysocialand
physicalenvironmentalfactors,insteadofgeneticor
personalcharacteristics.Theschoolbelievedthat
communitywasthemainfactorinthesocietiesthat
effectedhumanbehaviorandthatthecityfunctionedas
amicrocosm.Anempiricalsociologywasdevelopedby
researchersfromthisschoolofthought,inordertostudy
humans'behaviorintheirnaturalenvironmentrather
thanlookingattheirsocialenvironment.

Datarelatedtoindividualcasescombinedwith
populationstatisticswascollectedbythesetheorists
whichconstructedimportantinformationandbecame
foundationforcriminologicaltheoriesoftoday.

Thetheoristsofthisschoolalsoexplainrelationship
betweenthecrimeandsocialandenvironmentalchange.
Similarlyitalsotriestoexplainwhycertainregionsofa
cityhavemoretendenciestoattractcrimethanitsother
regions.Itisfoundbyresearchersthaturbanareasthat
convertfromresidentialtobusinessusesaremostly
targetedbycrime.

Yetthereexistanotherschoolofcriminology,includedin
socialstructuralapproach,knownasconflictschoolof
thought.ItisbasedontheMarxisttheoriesof
philosophyandarguedthatunderthesystemof
capitalism,crimewastheultimateproductofconflict
betweendifferentclasses.Theconflicttheoryproposes
thatthelawsandsystemsofjusticeinsocietyappearas
aconflictinsteadofconsensus.Lawsaremadebythe
groupofpeoplewhoareinpowerindifferentsocietiesin
ordertocontrolthosewhoarenotinpower.Theoristsof
thisschoolsuggestthatthosewhocommitcrimesare
notbasicallydifferentfromtherestofthepopulation.
Thereforetheymaintaininsteadthattodeterminethat
whetherapersonisacriminalornotmostlydependson
thesocietyreactionstowardthosewhodeviatefrom
acceptednorms.Conflicttheoristsandsomeother
theoristsarguethatmostofthetimepoorpeopleand
membersofminoritiesareconsideredascriminalsas
comparetomembersofthemajorityandwealthy
individuals.

Intheearly1970sanotherphilosophicalthinkingin
criminologyfieldcameintoprominencecalledCritical

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criminology(alsoknownasradicalcriminology),which
wasalsobasedontheMarxism.Italsotriestoexplain
existingsocialupheaval.Criticalcriminologyisbasedon
theeconomicthinkingandexplainsthecriminalbehavior
byconsideringtheeconomicalaspectofthesociety.
Theoristsformthisschool,arguesthatcertain
inequalitiesexistintheeconomicalandsocialaspectof
thesocietywhichcausecriminalbehaviorandmakethe
peopletocommitthecrime.Itdoesnotfocusmuchon
thestudyofindividualcriminalsandbelievesthatwe
cannotgetridoftheexistingcrimewithinthecapitalist
system.Liketheconflictschool,italsodeclaresthat
Lawsaremadebythegroupofpeoplewhoareinpower
indifferentsocietiesinordertocontrolthosewhoare
notinpowerandthatthestateanditslegalsystemexist
toadvancetheinterestsoftherulingclass.

Conclusion:

AccordingtoEdwinH.Sutherland,Criminologyisthe
bodyofknowledgewhichconsidersthecrimeasasocial
phenomenon.Andtheprocessesofmakinglaws,
breakinglaws,andthereactingtowardthebreakingof
lawsareincludedinthefieldofcriminology.
Criminologistshavedevisesanumberofmethodsof
studywhichvaryfromsocialtobehavioralsciences.
Criminologists,likeotherscientists,alsopresentedtheir
theoriesaboutcrimeandcriminalbehaviorovertime
andplace.Theyalsousedvariousmethodstodiscussthe
characteristicsofcriminals,criminalbehavior,and
victims.Differentpunishmentsandtreatmentsfor
differentcrimeshavebeenpresentedinsocietiesin
ordertopreventpeoplefromcommittingthesecrimes.

Simplicityorcomplexityofthephilosophicaltheories
dependsonrelationshipsthataremadeamongdifferent
fieldinformulatingthesetheories.
Thematteroftruthisthatweneedtheorysoasto
betterunderstandthefunctionoftheworldaroundus.
Weoftenrecognizewhatwewanttoperceive.The
behaviorofhumanbeingsisverycomplextostudyand
changesasthetimeandvaluesofsocietychange,and
thereforeisalmostabstract.Theoriesrelatedtothe
criminologyarecomplex,too.

Thepurposeofthesetheoriesisnottoobservethe
individualfieldofcriminologyinexplainingthecausesof
criminalactivity.Butinstead,eachofthetheorytriedto
explainthebigpictureofthecriminalbehaviourand
providedwaystopreventit.Combinationoftheorieswill
bethemostaccuratemeansofexplainingboth
criminalityingeneralandindividualcrimesinparticular.

Anumberofdifferentaspectsofcriminaljusticepolicy
havebeenpresentedthroughoutthehistory.The
ClassicalSchoolofcriminologypresentstheoriesthat
evolvedfromacapitalpunishmenttypeofviewtomore
humanitarianbasedpunishmentofpeople.

Positivistcriminologystressesonthecontrolofhuman
behaviorandcriminalbehaviour.Thisschoolofthought
providesBiologicaltheories,Psychologicaltheories,and
theSociologicaltheories,thethreedifferenttypesof
theoriestoexplainthecriminalbehaviour.Thereforein
criminology,theroleoftheoriesisverysignificant
especiallyinunderstandingthecomplexbehavioural
actions,thedifferentsettings,motivations,assetsof
criminals.Toexaminewhydifferentkindsofpeople
commitcertaincrimesisveryimportantinfieldof
criminologyinordertopreventthecrimesinasociety.
Manytheorieshavebeenputforwardovertheyears,
andstillitisrequiredtobeexplorednewones,both
individuallyandincombination,inordertofindbest
solutionswhichwilleventuallyreducethelevelsand
typesofcrime

Source:UKESSAYS

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Mudassir
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"AJOURNEYOFATHOUSANDMILESBEGINSWITHASINGLESTEP"

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4thJuly2015,12:28PM #4

IamconfusedthatwhichoptisbestformeInternationallawORCriminology?Ineedsuggession
falak
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4thJuly2015,03:50PM #5

ThereareampleprecedentsforpreparingInternationalLaw.Youmayfindstudyplans,experiences,
Sparrow tipsetcregardingIlawfromtheseniors.Thisisnotthecasewithcriminology.Onthisscore,at
least,Ilawispreferableovercriminology.
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However,optingcriminologyisnottoomuchbadidea.Thereseemsnoreasonstoplacethissubject
secondtoILaw.Thereforeinmyopinion,youshouldyourselfdecidewhichsubjecttoopt

Importantthingsyoushouldfocusonareyourinterests,inclinationsandalsobooks/notes/materials
etcrelatedtothespecificsubject.

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"Imaginationismoreimportantthanknowledge"

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24thMay2016,03:36PM #6

HowtoprepareMCQ'sforCriminology?

http://www.cssworld.com.pk/showthread.php?476Criminologyanditshistory 9/11
3/30/2017 Criminologyanditshistory

ZohraRauf
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24thMay2016,05:54PM #7

Sitwat OriginallyPostedbyZohraRauf

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HowtoprepareMCQ'sforCriminology?
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iscriminologyscoring?
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24thMay2016,06:07PM #8

Ithinkitwillbescoringbutnotsureasitwasfirsttime
aftababbasi
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24thMay2016,06:08PM #9

aftababbasi OriginallyPostedbyZohraRauf

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HowtoprepareMCQ'sforCriminology?
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IprepareditmyselfastherewerenobooksavailableforCSS2016...Ihaveheardthatsome
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publishersarepreparingmcqdbooksfornewoptionalsbuttillthenonehastopreparehimselfor
herself.

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1stJune2016,04:18PM #10

IamstudyingcriminologybyNasirKhanandAmmarSattarandthereareobjectivesgiveninthe
ZohraRauf end.Notsureiftheyaresufficient.
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