Unit 1 Notes For Edexcel Chemistry AS Level

AS Chemistry
Edexcel
Unit 1
Core
Principles
Unit 1.3 Atomic structure & the periodic table
(p52 77 in text book)
1. Relative atomic mass
The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of its isotopes
compared with the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
2. Relative formula mass
For a compound, the relative formula mass is the sum of the relative atomic
masses of all the atoms in the chemical formula.
3. Measuring the mass of an atom
To find the relative atomic mass of an atom, you need to measure its mass
and compare it with the mass of an atom of carbon-12. This cant be done by
weighing.
a. The mass spectrometer
This is the instrument used to find out the mass of a sample.
(Refer to fig 1.3.1 p52 for diagram)
There are several different stages to the mass spectrometer;
i. Vaporisation this is necessary to
ii. Electron gun this produces due to
ii. Acceleration achieved by
iii. Velocity selector to ensure
iv. Deflection achieved by
vi. Detection shows the abundance of ions with each different

mass:charge ratio (m/z value)
b. Finding the relative atomic mass from a mass spectrum
(Refer to fig 1.3.2 p53)
Ar of sample = (m/z x % abundance) + (m/z x % abundance) +
(Refer to green box p54)
c. Uses of mass spectrometry
(Refer to HSW boxes p55-59)
i. Radioactive dating
ii. Drug testing
iii. Space exploration
4. The arrangement of electrons in atoms
Over time, ideas about atomic structure changed as technology improved.
a. Thomsons plum pudding model
(Refer to fig 1.3.13)
He knew that atoms were neutral but that they contained electrons with a
negative charge. He suggested the positive pudding had negative electrons
embedded in the structure.
He also established the mass of an electron as approximately 1/2000 of a

hydrogen atom.
Further work proved that the positive protons have a larger mass than that of
electrons.
b. Rutherfords atom with a nucleus
Rutherford beamed alpha particles through gold foil. While most of the
particles were detected on the other side, some were deflected. From this he
deduced that there was a central positive core (the nucleus) surrounded by
electrons. He was able to use his measurements to calculate the diameter of
the nucleus and hence the diameter of an atom.
c. Bohrs electron shells
If gas is heated, or electrically charged, it gives out light which can then be
split through a prism or diffraction grating to form a spectrum known as a line
spectrum or emission spectrum. This is always identical for any given atom.
Bohr came up with the idea that electrons were in shells around the nucleus.
Moving out from the nucleus successive shells got closer together, in the
same way that lines from the emission spectra for hydrogen did. Bohrs new
model matched exactly the line spectrum for hydrogen.
Unfortunately, this only works for hydrogen. Heisenberg & Schrdinger

continued this work, beginning quantum mechanics.
5. Energy levels & electron shells
The absorption and emission of light by an atom can be explained by electron

movements between different fixed energy levels i.e. electron shells.
Light is a form of energy. When atoms receive this light energy absorption
takes place and the electrons become excited and are promoted to a higher
energy level (shell). Conversely, emission occurs when electrons fall back to
a lower energy level (shell).
Each energy level (shell) is given a principal quantum number, n. So the

ground state for hydrogen is n = 1, since hydrogen has its electron on the
first shell (energy level). Each successive energy level rises in number by one
each time (2,3,4,5.to infinity).
6. Ionisation energies
Ionisation is the complete removal of an electron from an atom, which is an

endothermic process since energy must be used to overcome the forces of
attraction between the electron and the nucleus.
Comparing the ionisation energies of different atoms enables a picture to be

built up of the electronic structure for each atom.
An atom in its ground state is at its lowest energy level. The energy required
to remove the first electron is called the first ionisation energy, the energy
required to remove the second electron is called the second ionisation energy
and so on. To calculate the total energy of removing two electrons you must
add the first and second ionisation energies together.
7. Subshells
Each electron shell may contain several different subshells. These are
described by letters: s, p, d, f, g. The following subshells are available in
each shell:
Shell Subshell(s)
1 1s
2 2s, 2p
3 3s, 3p, 3d
4 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
Within a shell, the subshells have different energy levels, with electrons in the
lowest energy subshells being closest to the nucleus:
s (lowest energy) < p < d
Each type of subshell contains one or more orbitals.
First shell Second shell Third shell Fourth shell

(n=1) (n=2) (n=3) (n=4)
Subshells s sp spd spdf
Number of 1 13 135 1357

orbitals
8. Electron spin
Electrons in atoms behave like tiny magnets. A moving charge can create a
magnetic field. Electrons can spin either clockwise or anticlockwise. Two
electrons in the same orbital cannon have the same spin. This means that
each orbital can have a maximum of 2 electrons, having opposite spin.
Subshell No of orbitals Max No of electrons in subshell

s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
9. Electron configurations (filling the orbitals)
Each orbital is filled in order, lowest energy orbital first. This means a shell is
not always completely filled before electrons start filling the next shell e.g. a
4s orbital will fill before a 3d orbital. The order of filling is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p,
4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p
Hunds rule states that electrons in the 2p subshells are placed in different
orbitals, rather than placing them in the same orbital with opposite spin.
They spread out to maximise the number of unpaired electrons. Once each
orbital has had a single unpaired electron placed in it, then the electrons
begin to pair up until the subshell is completely filled. (This is true of all
subshells with multiple orbitals.)
(Refer to green box p65)
There are a few exceptions to this in order to reach a more stable energy
state e.g.
Copper
Chromium
10. Electron configurations for ions
For an ion, you simply add or subtract the number of electrons to form the
ion required.
11. Shorthand notations
The previous noble gas can be used to avoid writing out long electron
configurations.
(Refer to HSW box p66)

12. Electron density maps
Modern scientists regard electrons as waves rather than particles. An

electron behaves as though it is spread out in an electron cloud surrounding
the nucleus. Quantum mechanics calculations provide electron density maps
which plot the most likely positions of the electrons. An orbital is the region
where the probability of finding an electron is greatest.
From these maps, scientists have determined the shapes and orientations of
orbitals within subshells.
13. Structure of the periodic table
Elements are arranged in order of atomic number. Each column is called a

group, while each row is called a period.
All elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells i.e.
the same quantum number (e.g. n=3 for period 3).
The elements in each group or period show similar characteristics in either

chemical or physical behaviour.
14. The development of the periodic table
The periodic table took on several different forms before the current model
was settled upon.
a. Early ideas about atomic mass
1799 Joseph Proust showed that mass proportions for each element
remained constant in compounds
1800 John Dalton made the initial proposal that elements were made up of
atoms. Unfortunately, Dalton wasnt very good at working out the atomic
masses
1828 Jons Jacob Berzelius published an accurate list of atomic masses, but
thanks to Daltons earlier mistakes, no one took any interest
b. Doberieners triads
1829 Johann Doberiener showed that many of the then known elements
could be arranged in groups of three i.e. triads. This was the first time
elements had been grouped together
1862 Alexandre-Emile Beguyer de Chancourtois showed similarities between
every eighth element. However, the diagram wasnt published with his work
causing it to be ignored.
c. Newlands law of octaves
1863 - John Newlands arranged elements in groups of eight by atomic mass.

His work was dismissed since it contained some major flaws. Hed assumed
all elements had been discovered so didnt account for any gaps.
d. Mendeleevs periodic table
1869 Dmitri Mendeleev and Julius Meyer published clear presentations.

Meyer plotted physical properties against atomic mass to produce curves
demonstrating periodic relationships. However, Mendeleev published first
producing a table with gaps in it for elements yet to be discovered. He
predicted the properties of the missing elements and when more were
discovered their properties matched his predictions. Consequently,
Mendeleev is credited with producing the modern periodic table.
15. The blocks of the periodic table
The periodic table can be divided into blocks determined by the electron
orbitals which are being filled.
a. The s-block elements
This is made up of groups 1 and 2 since their outer electrons are in an s

orbital. These elements are reactive metals since the s electrons are easily
lost. They have low melting & boiling points, and lower densities than other
metals but can still conduct electricity.
Hydrogen and helium are also s-block elements using these criteria.
However, both are non-metals and so scientists treat them as a separate
group.
b. The d-block elements
These are called transition metals, although some of the outer d-block
elements dont share the same characteristics, e.g. zinc. They are much less
reactive since the d orbitals are being filled after the outermost s orbital.
They tend to follow the general properties of metals, e.g. ductile, malleable,
sonorous, conductors etc. Some also make very good catalysts.
c. The f-block elements

The top row (lanthanides) are all similar metals. The bottom row (actinides)
are radioactive. Some have been synthesised and are very unstable.
d. The p-block elements
This block contains all the non-metals (except hydrogen & helium), along with
the metalloids (semi-metals) and some metals.
The p-block metals are relatively unreactive and doesnt exhibit strong metal
character.
The metalloids occur in a diagonal block. They generally behave as non-

metals but can conduct electricity e.g. silicon.
The non-metals form covalent bonds with each other and ionic bonds with
metals. Most non-metals exist as small molecules.
The noble gases are extremely unreactive. However, some compounds have
been formed.
16. Trends in the periodic table
Physical and chemical trends occur both across a period and down a group
within the periodic table.
(Any specific examples are based on period 3)
a. Atomic radius
In period 3, all the outer electrons are in the third energy level: n=3. Going
across the period, a proton is added to the nucleus of each element. This
increases the nuclear charge and therefore increases the attraction between
the nucleus and the electrons. The electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus,
thereby decreasing the size of the atomic radius.
Going down a group

b. Ionic radius
For the metal ions the number of electrons decreases, while the proton
number increases across the period. This means the electrons are pulled
much closer to the nucleus, decreasing the ionic radius.
For the non-metal ions the number of electrons increases as the number of
protons increases. The nucleus is less able to pull the electrons towards it, so
the ionic radius increases.
Going down a group
c. Periodic trends in ionisation energy
The general trend shows an increase across the period. As you move across
the period the nucleus of the atoms contains more protons and therefore a
higher charge density. This results in the electrons being attracted further to
the nucleus across the group making the ionisation energy increase.
d. Melting & boiling points
The general trend shows a decrease across the period but there is a spike for
silicon. This can be explained by the bonding of the elements.
Na Al Increases because the atoms form ions which are surrounded by a

sea of delocalised electrons. Across the period the charge density of the ions
increases causing an increase in electrostatic attractions within the lattice
structure.
Silicon forms a macromolecular structure with strong covalent bonds that

need to be broken to change state.
The other elements form simple covalent molecules. The stronger the
intermolecular forces (generally stronger for larger molecules) the higher the
melting & boiling points.
Unit 1.4 Bonding
1. What is a chemical bond?
A bond is the force holding together atoms together. The physical and
chemical properties of a molecule depend on the type of bond holding
together the atoms.
2. Ionic bonding
These are formed by metals and non-metals bonding together via

electrostatic forces of attraction. Consequently they are also known as
electrovalent bonds. The ions then become arranged in a giant lattice
structure. Within the lattice the attractive forces between oppositely charged
ions are maximised whilst the repulsive forces between like charges are
minimised. The forces within the lattice therefore act equally in all directions.
Ions are formed when electrons are either lost or gained. The movement of
electrons seeks to obey the octet rule;
When elements react, they tend to do so in a way that results in an outer
shell containing eight electrons.
Example
Na+ 1s2 2s2 2p6
This then becomes isoelectronic with Ne, a noble gas (Ne 1s 2 2s2 2p6) i.e.
they share the same number and arrangement of electrons.
Further example
Cl-
Ar
So, Na loses an electron to obey the octet rule, whilst Cl gains an electron to
do so.
When Na and Cl react together to form NaCl, the ionic substance produced
has different properties to the constituent elements due to the lattice
structure.
3. Dot and cross diagrams
These show the transfer of electrons between atoms in order to form ionic
compounds. Only the outer electrons are shown in order to simplify the
diagrams (inner electrons do not get directly involved in the bonding process).
The dots and crosses distinguish between electrons of the cations and anions.
(Cations are positive ions, while anions are negative ions.)
4. Trends in ionic radii
The ionic radius is the radius of an ion in a crystal. The radius of a cation is
smaller than the elements atomic radius, whilst the radius of an anion is
larger than the elements atomic radius.
5. Types of lattice structure
X-ray diffraction can produce electron density maps of lattice arrangements.

These show that the exact arrangement of ions in a lattice can vary
depending on the relative sizes of the different ions present.
Sodium chloride exhibits a face-centred cubic structure. Each ion has 6

neighbouring ions, so has a coordination number of 6. This is a common
ionic structure.
(Refer to fig 1.4.5a p81)
Caesium chloride exhibits a body-centred cubic structure since caesium is a

larger cation than sodium. More chloride ions can fit around each cation, so
the coordination number in this instance is 8.
(Refer to fig 1.4.5b p81)
6. Evidence for the existence of ions
Physical properties
i. Electrical conductivity
Ionic solids do not conduct electricity. This is because they are in a rigid
lattice structure.
However, ionic compounds will conduct electricity when either molten or in
solution since the ions are free to move.
ii. Strength
Unlike metals, ionic compounds are not malleable or ductile. The lattice
structure for ions is a regular pattern but quite rigid. A sufficient force will
cause the layers to split apart resulting in a brittle nature.
iii. Electrolysis
Electrolysis experiments show that the ions can be separated using an

electrical current.
iv. Electron density maps
Measurements from electron density maps are able to pinpoint the positions
of ions, along with their size and charge density.
7. Lattice energy
The formation of an ionic lattice involves a release in energy so has a

negative enthalpy. By comparison, bond formation requires energy so these
have positive enthalpies.
Lattice energy can be calculated using the Born-Haber cycle.
a. What affects lattice energies?
Lattice energy is affected by both the size and charge of ions.
The lattice energy becomes less negative as the size of the ions increases.
The lattice energy becomes more negative as the charge on the ions
increases.
The electrostatic force of attraction can be calculated using Coulombs law.
(Refer to equation p85)

b. Predicting stability
The more exothermic a compounds lattice energy is, the more stable it is.
Theoretical lattice energies can be used to make predictions about the

stability of less familiar elements.
c. Polarisation in ionic bonds
Ionic bonds can be distorted by the attraction of the positive cation to the
negative outer electrons of the anion. If the distortion is great enough, the
bond can begin to exhibit some covalent character.
The polarising power of the cation depends on the charge density which is
linked to the charge and the ionic radius. Cations with a small ionic radius
have a greater polarising power e.g. Al3+.
The larger an anion is, the more likely it is to be polarised.
When theoretical and experimental lattice energies are compared, some do

not have close agreement for the same compound. If there is a small
difference in electronegativities there is more chance of electron sharing and
therefore an increase in covalent character. The theoretical model assumes
that the charge is evenly distributed across an ion, and that all ions are
spherical and separate.
8. Covalent bonding
Covalent bonds are generally formed between non-metals. The bonds are
formed through the sharing of electrons.
The covalent bond is a balance between the attractive force pulling the two
nuclei together (due to the electron density between the nuclei) and the
repulsion between two positively charged nuclei. This balanced distance is
the bond length. The amount of energy required to form the bond is the
bond enthalpy.
9. Dot and cross diagrams
These diagrams show how the outer electrons are shared between atoms, but
they do not show the actual positions of bonding atoms in the molecule.

10. Dative covalent bonds
Sometimes both electrons in a covalent bond come from the same atom.
This is known as a dative covalent bond or a coordinate bond.
Example 1 The ammonium ion
Example 2 Aluminium chloride dimers
These bonds are often found in oxides, e.g. carbon monoxide.
11. Evidence for the nature of covalent bonds
a. Molecule sizes
These are strong bonds, with most covalent compounds existing as simple
molecules. These have low melting and boiling points.
However, there are some exceptions e.g. carbon allotropes, silicon (IV) oxide
SiO2. These have high melting and boiling points.
b. Electron density maps and the shapes of molecules
Electron density maps show that covalent bonds are directional towards areas
of electronegativity. Lone pairs of electrons (pairs of unshared electrons) also
form dense areas of electronegativity. Each area of electronegativity repels
the others, although lone pairs tend to have a stronger repulsion. This gives
covalent molecules a very definite shape within a 3D spatial arrangement.

Some of the more common molecule shapes are;
Shape of Example Bond angle No of lone pairs

molecule
Linear
Trigonal planar
Tetrahedral
V-shaped
NH3
12. Metallic bonding
Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. There is a strong

attraction between the positive ions and the sea of delocalised electrons.
a. Properties of metals
i. Conducting electricity
All metals conduct electricity well. The electrons are able to flow through the
structure to carry the current.
ii. High thermal conductivity
The electrons can transmit kinetic energy rapidly through the lattice structure.
The movement of electrons with a high kinetic energy is random so the
energy can be transferred to cooler regions of the metal.
iii. High melting & boiling temperatures
Forces between the metal ions are large, so require a lot of energy to
overcome them. The delocalised electrons also act as a glue to hold the
structure together.
iv. Malleable & ductile
They can be hammered into shape and drawn out into wires. The lattice
structure, unlike in ionic compounds, has some flexibility. The ions are able
to move their positions slightly with the movement of the delocalised
electrons.
b. Using metals
Copper was used for the first time about 10 000 years ago. In the Middle
East steel was produced about 4000 years ago, but it was about 2500 years
ago when this began in Europe.
The properties of metals make them useful and practical for a variety of
different uses.

Unit 1.5 Introductory Organic Chemistry
(p94-107 in text book)
1. What is organic chemistry?
Organic chemistry is considered to be the study of carbon chemistry. Carbon

forms a vast number of compounds due to its ability to form single, double
and triple bonds.
1807 Jons Jacob Berzelius observed that chemicals could be divided into
two groups depending on their behaviour. He classified organic molecules as
those that would burn or char on heating. At this time, scientists believed
that organic molecules could only come from living things and that they
couldnt be synthesised (produced artificially).
1828 Friedrich Wohler demonstrated synthesised ammonium cyanate. He

demonstrated that this was the same as the urea found in urine.
1846 Christian Schonbien accidentally combined nitric and sulphuric acids

with cellulose. This produced nitrocellulose, an unstable explosive.
2. The vast range of organic compounds
Carbon forms around 7 million different compounds. Some of these are

complex molecules that make up living cells, enzymes, plastics etc.
Many drugs are organic compounds, and do actually come from plant or
animal extracts.
E.g. aspirin
3. The difference between hazard and risk
Many organic substances require special handling.
a. Hazard
This is essentially the problem associated with handling the chemical e.g.
toxic, corrosive etc
b. Risk
This is the chance that it will actually cause harm. It is dependant upon
precautions such as the volumes being used, the expertise of the person
handling the chemical, the safety equipment available.
c. Ways of reducing risk
(Refer to p97 & 98)
i. Working on a smaller scale it is easier to contain the reaction

e.g. in a fume cupboard
ii. Taking specific precautions or using alternative techniques the
lowest concentration for a given chemical that works in the
reaction can be used rather than more harmful concentrations
iii. Careful use of safety measures using equipment such as
goggles and fume cupboards
iv. Changing the conditions under which a reaction takes place
this could be to lower the temperature to reduce excessive
fumes. The equilibrium position may be changed but the same
products are given off
v. Using less hazardous substances in some reactions alternative
substances can be used to reduce the hazards involved.
CLEAPPS provides a list of suitable alternatives for many
reactions
Pesticides are chemicals whose use must be monitored and controlled due to
the potential hazards associated with their use. DDT is one such chemical
that resulted in toxic build up in food chains.
(Refer to HSW box p98 & 99)

4. The properties of the carbon atom
Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds. Carbon atoms are unique in their ability to
form covalent bonds with carbon and other non-metal atoms at the same
time. It can also form single, double or triple bonds with itself.
Consequently, it can form a large array of different molecules.
5. Classifying organic compounds
There are millions of different organic molecules that can be classified in a

number of different ways.
a. Carbon chain arrangement
i. Aliphatic molecules have straight or branched chain carbon

skeletons e.g. alkanes
ii. Alicyclic molecules consist of closed ring structures e.g. cyclobutane
iii. Arenes are all derived from the benzene molecule (covered in A2)
b. Functional groups
There are a variety of functional groups that can be formed within organic
molecules. Each homologous series has a general formula. The molecules
within the series will have similar chemical properties due to the functional
group but will have varying physical properties e.g. boiling points.
(Refer to table 1.5.2 p102)

Homologous General Functional Example
series formula group
6. Representing organic compounds
There are several different ways of representing organic molecules,

depending on the level of detail required.
(Refer to p103)
E.g. propan-1-ol
Empirical formula
Molecular formula
Structural formula
Displayed formula
Skeletal formula
7. Nomenclature (naming molecules)
The IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system is

used in naming organic molecules.
a. Prefix
The prefix of an aliphatic compound relates to the number of carbon atoms

that make up the longest chain within the molecule.

Prefix Number of carbon atoms in the main carbon chain
Meth- 1
b. Suffix
The suffix of the name relates directly to the main functional group found in
the molecule.
Suffix Number of carbon atoms in the main carbon chain
-ane alkane
c. Branching
Organic molecules often have branches. The alkyl groups that form the side
chains have the general formula CnH2n+1
E.g.
(Refer to p105)
Alkyl group Formula
methyl CH3-
ethyl
propyl
butyl
pentyl
hexyl
The position of the side chain is indicated by the lowest possible number e.g.
3-ethylhexane
If more than one side chain is present, these are named in alphabetical order
e.g. 3-ethyl-2-methylpentane
If the side chains are on the same carbon atom the numerical position is
repeated e.g. 2,2-dimethylpentane
d. Isomerism
Isomers share the same molecular formula but have a different arrangement
of atoms. There are several different types of isomerism, some of which
wont be covered in this unit.
i. Structural isomerism
There are 3 types of structural isomers.
Type of structural Examples

isomer
Chain Butane 2-methylpropane
Positional Propan-1-ol Propan-2-ol
Functional group Propanal Propanone
There are some pitfalls in drawing isomers which must be avoided;

kink in the chain
rotated molecule
(Refer to p107)
ii. Stereoisomerism
These are molecules that are non-super imposable mirror images of each
other. This arises when the 3D arrangement of bonds in the molecule allow
different possible orientations of the atoms.
Unit 1.6 The Alkanes A Family of Saturated Hydrocarbons
1. Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are molecules made from hydrogen and carbon only. Several
different homologous series make up the hydrocarbons. They are all
insoluble in water and given sufficient oxygen, will combust to produce
carbon dioxide and water. The 3 families are alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
2. General properties of the alkanes
These are saturated hydrocarbons, so have the maximum amount of

hydrogens bonded to the carbon atoms. The general formula is C nH2n+2 and
these molecules exist as both straight chained and branched structures.
The boiling points of alkanes increase as the molecular formula increases i.e.
as more carbon atoms are added.
However, straight chain molecules have higher boiling points than an isomer
that is branched. The straight chain molecules are able to exist closer to each
other and as a result have stronger intermolecular forces of attraction to
overcome.
3. Where are alkanes obtained from?
The most important source of alkanes is the fossil fuels. Oil was formed
millions of years ago in the seas. Tiny plants and animals fell to the bottom
and over time layers formed above them. Compression in the absence of
oxygen caused the formation of crude oil and natural gas. The oil and gas
become trapped under non-porous rock which must be drilled through to
access the fuel.
Coal was formed in a similar way from plant remains (mainly large ferns) on
land.
4. The economic importance of crude oil
Modern life depends on crude oil which provides fuel for transport and
generating electricity. It also provides many of the raw materials needed in
the chemical industry. However, it is a finite resource and most deposits are
found in politically sensitive areas of the world.
Until the 1970s oil was regarded as a cheap resource. Then the Middle
Eastern countries supplying the oil decided to produce less and increase their
prices. Since then, oil prices have varied greatly (even on a daily basis).
However, the general trend has been an increase. This has a knock on effect
on users of oil, e.g. transport costs have increased.
5. Using crude oil
The crude oil extracted from the ground is of little use without processing. It
is a mixture of many different hydrocarbons. It undergoes primary distillation
(fractional distillation on an industrial scale) to separate the different
fractions. It can then undergo further fractional distillation to give a pure
yield of a particular alkane.
Fraction Percentage Length of Use(s)

carbon chain
Refinery gas
Gasoline
Kerosene
Diesel oil / Gas oil
Residue
6. Different fractions in demand
Different reserves of crude oil have the different fractions in varying

quantities. The lighter fractions are in much higher demand than the heavier
fractions, which can make up to 50% of the crude oil mixture.

Cracking is used to break down the longer carbon chains into the alkanes
found in the lighter fractions along with some short chain alkenes such as
ethane, which are also extremely useful.
Cracking requires extremely high temperatures, so catalysts are often used.

This process is thereby known as catalytic cracking. The catalysts used are
often crystalline aluminosilicates (zeolites).
7. Knocking and the need for catalytic reforming
The alkanes in petrol are generally 5-10 carbon atoms in length. The power
is produced by the explosive combustion in cylinders.
The smooth running of the car depends on the explosion happening at exactly
the right time. If the explosion happens too early knocking occurs which
produces a loss of power. This is usually the case when the petrol contains a
large proportion of straight chain alkanes since they easily ignite. Petrol with
a high proportion of branched chain alkanes are more efficient fuels since
they take longer to ignite.
Fuels are given an octane rating to indicate the ratio of straight chain to
branched chain molecules. A fully straight chain fuel has a rating of 0, while
a fully branched chain fuel has a rating of 100.
Fuel pumps show the octane rating by the Research Octane Number (RON).
Ordinary unleaded is 95 while super unleaded is 98.
Most modern cars have high-performance engines so require fuels with a high
octane rating. Tetraethyl lead(IV) used to be used to prevent knocking but
resulted in lead pollution. Nowadays, catalytic reforming is used to produce
branched chain molecules from straight chain molecules in a similar process
to catalytic cracking.
8. The chemical properties of the alkanes
Apart from combustion, the alkanes are very unreactive. This makes them
very useful. They are non-corrosive with metals making them good
lubricating oils. They are also harmless to the skin e.g. petroleum jelly.
At room temperature the alkanes are unaffected by concentrated acids and

alkalis. They are not affected by oxidising agents or reactive metals. The
bonds in alkanes involve a very even sharing of electrons since the
electronegativities of carbon and hydrogen are very close.
Almost all the reactions with alkanes occur due to the formation of free
radicals, which contain an unpaired electron. They have high activation
energies, but once overcome the reaction proceeds quickly in the gas phase.
9. Breaking bonds
This is known as bond fission. Since a covalent bond involves the sharing of
2 electrons, there are 2 ways in which the electrons can be shared out when
a bond is broken;
a. Homolytic fission
This involves an equal sharing of the once bonding electrons. As a result,

each atom in the bond receives an unpaired electron to form a free radical.
These free radicals are extremely reactive. The reaction of one free radical
with a substance usually results in the formation of another free radical.
Free radicals in the body are now thought to be carcinogens. The number of
free radicals in the body can be reduced by cutting down on the intake of
food high in free radicals burnt toast and charred food from the BBQ for
example. Fresh fruit and vegetables rich in vitamins A, C and E help the
enzyme superoxide dismutase to deactivate free radicals to prevent any
damage they may cause.
Free radicals are also linked to the aging process. The theory is that they
attack the cross links between collagen fibres in the skin causing it to appear
less flexible.
They also attack the DNA in nuclei in body cells which is thought to be the
cause of cancer.
Antioxidants are viewed to mop up the free radicals in the body. Vitamin E is
a well known example of a natural free radical inhibitor.
b. Heterolytic fission
This involves an unequal sharing of the once bonding electrons. This results
in the formation of ions.

10. The reactions of alkanes
There are just 2 common types of reactions that alkanes undergo
a. Cracking
When heated to high temperatures in the absence of air alkanes will undergo
cracking. This is a thermal decomposition reaction to form smaller molecules.
b. Combustion
When heated in a plentiful supply of air, combustion will take place. This is a
highly exothermic reaction. Gaseous alkanes will burn completely but solid
and liquid fuels are difficult to ignite.
This reaction is highly important since it is used to generate electricity, fuel

fires in the home, provide central heating, cooking and transport.
Methane, propane and butane are all commonly used as fuels. Where
possible, natural gas is piped into homes. When this cant happen, canisters
of propane can be used. Propane can be readily liquefied making it easy to
store and transport. It wont burn until it returns to the gaseous state making
it safe to use.
Incomplete combustion can produce carbon monoxide and has resulted in

fatalities. Regular maintenance of gas appliances is required to reduce the
risk of CO poisoning. There are strict regulations imposed on landlords to
ensure the safety of tenants.
c. Reaction with chlorine
This reaction is known as free radical substitution, where chlorine radicals

substitute for hydrogen atoms on an alkane.
The reaction requires a large input of energy in the form of UV light. This
provides the energy to break the bond in chlorine molecules and is known as
initiation. It is an example of homolytic fission.
In propagation the chlorine radical reacts with the alkane. At the end,
another free radical is generated. This process can be repeated hundreds of
times as an explosive chain reaction.
In termination, 2 radicals combine in a highly exothermic reaction. This

happens every few thousand reactions.
Provided there is an excess of chlorine, further substitutions can take place.

Two of these compounds are well known. Trichloromethane (chloroform)
CHCl3 was one of the first anaesthetics used. Tetrachloromethane CCl 4 was
widely used as a solvent until its carcinogenic properties were recognised.
11. Ethical issues
(Refer to HSW boxes p120 123)
a. Cars and society
One of the major uses of alkanes is as fuel for transport. Cars are one of the
major causes of pollution on the planet. Carbon monoxide is formed in the
engine which is a greenhouse gas as well as being highly toxic. Oxides of
nitrogen and sulphur are also produced which cause acid rain and smog.
Catalytic converters convert CO and NOx into less harmful gases but cannot
remove the CO2.
b. The greenhouse effect
Greenhouse gases include water vapour, CO2 and methane, 2 of which are
products of hydrocarbon combustion. These gases cause the temperature on
Earth to rise due to re-radiation of energy from the Sun.
c. Developing new fuels

Biofuels such as ethanol, along with hydrogen powered and solar powered
vehicles have been looked at as alternatives. However, the amount of land
needed to grow the plants for biofuels is vast.
d. Battery-powered vehicles
Electricity is an alternative, but this is often produced through the combustion

of fossil fuels. The technology is still in its early stages and the size of the
battery required is large and heavy providing far less energy than petrol.
Recharging can then take up to 12 hours.
e. The hydrogen cell
Electrolysis of hydrogen takes place in a cell to form water and heat. The
hydrogen cell motorbike can travel at around 50mph for 100 miles at a cost of
2. However, this technology is in its early stages. Petrol stations arent yet
equipped to offer refuelling of hydrogen, even though it is relatively safe.
Unit 1.7 The Alkenes A Family of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
1. The carbon carbon double bond
These are unsaturated hydrocarbons due to the existence of the double bond,
which makes them more reactive. There general formula is C nH2n
In a single bond (sigma bond), the electron cloud is symmetrical about the
central axis of the molecule.
In a double bond not only does the bond exist, but so does a pi bond.
The electron density is concentrated in 2 regions on either side of the bond
axis. Consequently, there is no rotation around the double bond.
The bond is reactive towards electrophiles, providing an electron pair to

bond with electron seeking species. It also results in geometric isomerism
due to the lack of rotation around the double bond.
2. Ethene
Ethene is a plant hormone used in ripening fruit. It is used on a commercial

basis to ripen fruit ready for supermarket shelves. However, this could be
having adverse affects on the planet due to the many miles travelled in
transporting some fruit across the globe.
3. Geometric isomerism
These have different physical properties e.g. boiling point, but identical
chemical properties. They are a form of stereoisomers since there are 2
possible arrangements of the species on the double bond.
The traditional way of naming these is cis-trans isomerism e.g.
Cis-but-2-ene Tran-but-2-ene
However, this method of naming has its limitations. The IUPAC system is
now the E-Z isomerism system. This is capable of working for all geometric
isomers.
Groups around the double bond are ranked on their atomic number. The
atom with the highest number has the highest priority. If the two groups
with higher priority are on the same side they are zusammen, the Z-isomer.
If the higher priority groups are on opposite sides they are entgagen, the E-
isomer.
E.g. 1-bromo-2-chloro-2-fluoro-1-iodoethene
Z-isomer E-isomer
The body is sensitive to geometric isomers. This has been studied in cooked
tomatoes.
4. Reactions of the alkenes
Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due to the presence of the double
bond. The high electron density of the double bond means they are attacked
by electrophiles. An electrophile is an electron deficient species that can form
a covalent bond e.g. H+ ion
a. Electrophilic addition reactions
i. Reaction with hydrogen
Alkenes can be reduced to alkanes through addition of hydrogen at around

200C with Ni as a catalyst.
ii. Reaction with the halogens
A halogen molecule can be added across the double bond to produce a

dihalogenoalkane e.g. ethene reacting with chlorine. This is possible due to
the temporary dipole in the halogen molecules.
iii. Testing for alkenes with bromine water
The major product is 2-bromoethanol but some 1,2-dibromoethane is also

formed. Bromine water is decolourised in a positive test.
iv. Reaction with hydrogen halides
This reaction proceeds rapidly at room temperature due to the permanent

dipole in the hydrogen halide . The resulting compound is a halogenoalkane.
In asymmetric alkenes, there are 2 possible products, but not in equal

proportions. The major product can be predicted using Markovnikovs rule:
When HX adds across an asymmetric double bond, the major

product formed is the molecule in which hydrogen adds to the
carbon atom in the double bond with the greater number of
hydrogen atoms already attached to it.
v. Reaction with acidified potassium manganate(VII)
This is an oxidation reaction. The potassium manganate(VII) is decolourised

in the production of a diol. This reaction can also be used to distinguish
between alkenes and alkanes.
It is a useful product, but is produced industrially from epoxyethane.
vi. Reaction mechanism
This is an electrophilic addition mechanism. A carbocation (carbonium ion) is

formed as an intermediate. Methyl groups can donate electron density to
stabilise the positive ion (this is known as an inductive effect).
E.g. Ethene reacting with hydrogen bromide

b. Polymerisation
A polymer is a very large molecule made up of long chains of smaller units

(monomers) joined together. Artificial polymers include plastics and are
important materials for modern life.
Alkenes undergo addition polymerisation where the double bond breaks open
to link together repeating units in a long chain.
E.g. polythene
Polypropene
Polychloroethene (PVC)
Polytetrafluoroethene
5. The properties of polymers
The properties of polymers depend on the chains of monomers from which

they are formed. They can vary greatly.
Feature Property
The average length of the

polymer chain
Branching of the chain
The presence of
intermolecular forces
between chains
Cross-links between chains
6. Polymer problems and solutions
(Refer to HSW box p136 137)
a. Problems
The production of synthetic polymers has saved many natural materials from
destruction, but there is a down side to this.
i. Energy costs
Polymers are produced from fossil fuels. There are hidden energy costs to
this. Around 4% of the worlds fossil fuel supply is used to generate the
electricity needed for polymer production.
ii. Resources used
There is a limited supply of fossil fuels with rising costs. This gives an
incentive to produce polymers from different monomer units.
iii. Disposal problems
They arent easy to dispose of and cause a substantial waste problem. A

variety of toxic gases are released when burnt, including hydrogen cyanide.
They also cause danger to wild animals.
iv. Carbon footprint
The use of fossil fuels in polymerisation releases carbon thereby increasing

our carbon footprint. The quantity of non-biodegradable polymers is greatly
increasing.
b. Solutions
i. Renewable energy sources
These could be used to generate the electricity required to make polymers.
ii. Reducing use of polymer products
There is a move to reduce the amount of packaging used e.g. in food. Higher
quality plastics are being used in packaging to encourage reuse e.g. bag for
life.
iii. Recycling
Many plastics are difficult to dispose of in a way that doesnt damage the
environment. Many synthetic polymers are non-biodegradable.
iv. Recycling thermoplastics
So far only thermoplastics (plastics that soften on heating) can be recycled.

If the plastic that is recovered after recycling is as good as the original, then
effectively all the hidden energy from its original production has been saved
apart from the energy used in recycling.
7. How are plastics recycled?
There are 2 main ways of recycling;
Type of recycling Key points

Mechanical recycling
Chemical recycling
8. Biodegradable polymers
Biopolymers are now being produced through the modification of natural

polymers such as cellulose and starch. Bacterial fermentation is used to
break down the polymer. The degradation may take 20-30 years but the
product will eventually be destroyed.
9. Energy recovery
Burning waste polymer products can be used to generate electricity, reducing

the need for fossil fuels. The incinerators used have special pollution
controls.
Pyrolysis and gasification are both processes where polymer wastes are
converted into energy-rich fuels.
Many of these processes arent very efficient at the moment.
10. Life cycle analysis
This is used to quantify the effect of polymers on the environment. An

inventory is made of the materials and energy used as well as environmental
emissions.

Unit 1 Notes For Edexcel Chemistry AS Level

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AS Chemistry

(p52 77 in text book)

1. Relative atomic mass

2. Relative formula mass

3. Measuring the mass of an atom

a. The mass spectrometer

This is the instrument used to find out the mass of a sample.

(Refer to fig 1.3.1 p52 for diagram)

There are several different stages to the mass spectrometer;

i. Vaporisation this is necessary to

ii. Electron gun this produces due to

ii. Acceleration achieved by

iii. Velocity selector to ensure

iv. Deflection achieved by

vi. Detection shows the abundance of ions with each different

(Refer to fig 1.3.2 p53)

Ar of sample = (m/z x % abundance) + (m/z x % abundance) +

(Refer to green box p54)

c. Uses of mass spectrometry

(Refer to HSW boxes p55-59)

4. The arrangement of electrons in atoms

(Refer to HSW boxes p60-61)

Over time, ideas about atomic structure changed as technology improved.

a. Thomsons plum pudding model

(Refer to fig 1.3.13)

He also established the mass of an electron as approximately 1/2000 of a

b. Rutherfords atom with a nucleus

(Refer to fig 1.3.15 p61)

(Refer to fig 1.3.16 p61)

Unfortunately, this only works for hydrogen. Heisenberg & Schrdinger

5. Energy levels & electron shells

The absorption and emission of light by an atom can be explained by electron

(Refer to fig 1.3.18 p62)

Each energy level (shell) is given a principal quantum number, n. So the

Ionisation is the complete removal of an electron from an atom, which is an

Comparing the ionisation energies of different atoms enables a picture to be

s (lowest energy) < p < d

Each type of subshell contains one or more orbitals.

First shell Second shell Third shell Fourth shell

Subshells s sp spd spdf

Number of 1 13 135 1357

(Refer to fig 1.3.20 p64)

Subshell No of orbitals Max No of electrons in subshell

(Refer to fig 1.3.21 p65)

(Refer to green box p65)

10. Electron configurations for ions

11. Shorthand notations

(Refer to HSW box p66)

Modern scientists regard electrons as waves rather than particles. An

(Refer to fig 1.3.22 p66)

(Refer to fig 1.3.23 p67)

13. Structure of the periodic table

Elements are arranged in order of atomic number. Each column is called a

The elements in each group or period show similar characteristics in either

14. The development of the periodic table

(Refer to HSW boxes p70-71)

a. Early ideas about atomic mass

c. Newlands law of octaves

1863 - John Newlands arranged elements in groups of eight by atomic mass.

d. Mendeleevs periodic table

1869 Dmitri Mendeleev and Julius Meyer published clear presentations.

15. The blocks of the periodic table