AWS C5.5M - 2003.tmp

AWS C5.5/C5.
5M:2003
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- An American National Standard
Recommended
Practices for
Gas Tungsten
Arc Welding
Copyright American Welding Society

Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
Key Words Gas tungsten arc welding, GTAW, AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
TIG, training, process, qualification, An American National Standard
equipment, quality, safe practices,
WIG, Heliarc
Approved by
American National Standards Institute
June 4, 2003
Recommended Practices for

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Supersedes AWS C5.5-80
Prepared by
AWS C5 Committee on Arc Welding and Arc Cutting
Under the Direction of

AWS Technical Activities Committee
Approved by
AWS Board of Directors
Abstract
This document is designed to assist anyone who is associated with gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). This includes
welders, welding technicians, welding engineers, quality control personnel, welding supervisors, purchasing personnel,
educators, and students.
This document discusses welding principles, equipment, gas shielding, and techniques for manual and automatic
GTAW. Welding safety, troubleshooting, and related items are included for understanding by all types of personnel in
establishing better production welding operations.
Educators will find this publication a handy reference for teaching all aspects of gas tungsten arc welding. It can
become a quick reference for students after their graduation or during their employment.
550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, Florida 33126

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Statement on Use of AWS American National Standards
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International Standard Book Number: 0-87171-715-8
American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126
2003 by American Welding Society. All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
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appropriate fee is paid to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, Tel: 978-750-8400;
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Personnel
AWS C5 Committee on Arc Welding and Arc Cutting
J. R. Hannahs, Chair Edison Community College
N. A. Sanders, 1st Vice Chair Hypertherm, Incorporated
D. B. Holliday, 2nd Vice Chair Northrop Grumman Corporation
P. Howe, Secretary American Welding Society
*E. R. Bohnart Welding Education and Consulting
H. A. Chambers TRW Nelson Stud Welding Division
C. Connelly Poly-Weld, Incorporated
J. DeVito ESAB Welding and Cutting Products
R. M. Dull Edison Welding Institute
D. A. Fink The Lincoln Electric Company
I. D. Harris Edison Welding Institute
*R. T. Hemzacek Consultant
G. K. Hicken Sandia National Laboratory, Retired
K. Y. Lee The Lincoln Electric Company
R. P. Munz The Lincoln Electric Company
S. R. Potter SRP Consulting Services
*B. L. Shultz The Taylor-Winfield Corporation
R. L. Strohl Tweco-Arcair Corporation
*E. G. Yevick Weld-Met International Group
L. Yost The Lincoln Electric Company
AWS C5C Subcommittee on Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

G. K. Hicken, Chair Sandia National Laboratories, Retired
R. D. Campbell, Vice Chair Purity Systems, Incorporated
P. Howe, Secretary American Welding Society
E. A. Benway Swagelok Company
*E. R. Bohnart Welding and Education Consulting
*C. Connelly Poly-Weld, Incorporated
D. E. Destefan High Current Technologies, Incorporated
R. W. Diesner Retired
J. C. Downey Retired
T. W. Edwards American Welding and Engineering, Incorporated
*J. R. Hannahs Edison Community College
*L. M. Hellemann General Electric Aircraft Engines
E. J. LaCoursiere EJL & Associates
P. C. McClay Pratt and Whitney
D. E. Spragg Pratt and Whitney
*J. S. Thrower Optimum Engineering Manufacturing, Incorporated
D. A. Wright Zephyr Products, Incorporated
*B. Young Westinghouse Savannah River Company, Retired
*Advisor
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iii
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Foreword
(This Foreword is not a part of AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003, Recommended Practices for
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, but is included for informational purposes only.)
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) was introduced as a practical fabricating process in the 1940s. In the decades since
then, advances have been made in the equipment and in the development of techniques for automatic applications.
GTAW is now accepted as the only practical joining method in some metal joining applications.
These recommended practices were first prepared by the AWS C5 Committee on Arc Welding and Arc Cutting and
the AWS C5C Subcommittee on Gas Tungsten Arc Welding in 1980. The 1980 edition was reaffirmed in 1989. The
current AWS C5 Committee on Arc Welding and Arc Cutting and the current C5C Subcommittee on GTAW have
prepared these recommended practices to present the basic practices and methods of GTAW and to expand the
document to include the latest advancements in this process. These recommended practices are based on present uses of
GTAW in the metal fabricating industry, along with research and development and new applications of the process.
We should all encourage our younger generation to consider welding and welding related fields as places to become
involved with the high rewards and challenges to be encountered in the future. We should also be willing and pleased to
share our prior experiences and knowledge that could help new members excel in this occupation.
The description of GTAW and its features are presented here as clearly and concisely as possible. The Committee has
developed these guidelines in the hope that they would lead to further development of the GTAW process and, thus, to
higher quality and performance standards.
Comments and suggestions for the improvement of this standard are welcomed. They should be sent to the Secretary,
AWS C5 Committee on Arc Welding and Arc Cutting, American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL
33126.
Official interpretations of any of the technical requirements of this standard may be obtained by sending a request,
in writing, to the Managing Director, Technical Services Division, American Welding Society. A formal reply will be
issued after it has been reviewed by the appropriate personnel following established procedures. Guidelines for technical
inquiries regarding AWS standards are shown in Annex A.
This document will be reviewed periodically to assure its success in serving all parties concerned with its provisions.
Revisions will be issued when warranted.
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v
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Table of Contents
Page No.
Personnel .................................................................................................................................................................... iii
Foreword.......................................................................................................................................................................v
List of Tables.................................................................................................................................................................x
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List of Figures..............................................................................................................................................................xi
1. Scope and Introduction ........................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Scope .........................................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Introduction to the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) Process.............................................................1
1.3 History.......................................................................................................................................................1
2. Normative References ..........................................................................................................................................4
2.1 American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists Standards ................................................5
2.2 AWS Standards..........................................................................................................................................5
2.3 ISO Standards............................................................................................................................................6
2.4 OSHA Standards .......................................................................................................................................6
3. Definitions .............................................................................................................................................................6
4. GTAW Principles .................................................................................................................................................9
4.1 Process Description ...................................................................................................................................9
4.2 Process Advantages...................................................................................................................................9
4.3 Process Limitations .................................................................................................................................11
4.4 Process Variables.....................................................................................................................................12
4.5 Related Variables.....................................................................................................................................17
5. Equipment and Supplies.....................................................................................................................................18
5.1 Welding Power Sources (Used for GTAW)Introduction .....................................................................18
5.2 Controllers...............................................................................................................................................20
5.3 Pulse Controllers .....................................................................................................................................22
5.4 Weld Sequence Controllers .....................................................................................................................22
5.5 Arc Welding Torches...............................................................................................................................23
5.6 Wire Feeders............................................................................................................................................30
5.7 Arc and Torch Oscillators........................................................................................................................31
5.8 Arc Initiation Equipment.........................................................................................................................32
6. Tungsten Electrodes ...........................................................................................................................................33
6.1 General ....................................................................................................................................................33
6.2 Classifications of Electrodes ...................................................................................................................34
6.3 Surface Finishes ......................................................................................................................................37
6.4 Electrode Sizes and Current Capacities ..................................................................................................37
6.5 Electrode Tip Configurations ..................................................................................................................38
6.6 Electrode Cutting.....................................................................................................................................41
6.7 Factors Affecting Electrode Life .............................................................................................................41
6.8 Removing Contamination .......................................................................................................................42
6.9 Grinding Dust..........................................................................................................................................42
6.10 Storage.....................................................................................................................................................43
7. Gas Shielding, Purging, and Backing ................................................................................................................43
7.1 Torch Shielding Gas ................................................................................................................................43
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Page No.
7.2 Purging ....................................................................................................................................................50
7.3 Shielding and Purging Gas Purity ...........................................................................................................62
7.4 Shielding and Purging Gas Economics ...................................................................................................65
7.5 Purifiers ...................................................................................................................................................65
7.6 Purging Gas Safety..................................................................................................................................67
8. Fixturing and Tooling.........................................................................................................................................68
8.1 Material Selection ...................................................................................................................................68
8.2 Tooling/Fixturing Considerations............................................................................................................68
8.3 Temporary (Soft)/Permanent (Hard) Tooling..........................................................................................69
9. Welding Techniques ...........................................................................................................................................71
9.1 General ....................................................................................................................................................71
9.2 Manual and Semiautomatic Welding ......................................................................................................71
9.3 Mechanized Welding...............................................................................................................................80
9.4 Automated Welding.................................................................................................................................83
10. Joint Design, Preparation, and Welding Positions .............................................................................................85
10.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................85
10.2 Basic Joint Configurations and Welding Positions .................................................................................85
10.3 Edge Preparation and Surface Cleaning..................................................................................................85
11. Welding Characteristics of Selected Alloys .......................................................................................................85
11.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................85
11.2 Carbon and Alloy Steels..........................................................................................................................89
11.3 Stainless Steels and Iron-Based Superalloys...........................................................................................89
11.4 Aluminum Alloys ....................................................................................................................................90
11.5 Magnesium Alloys ..................................................................................................................................91
11.6 Beryllium.................................................................................................................................................91
11.7 Copper Alloys .........................................................................................................................................91
11.8 Nickel Alloys...........................................................................................................................................92
11.9 Cobalt Alloys...........................................................................................................................................92
11.10 Refractory and Reactive Metals ..............................................................................................................92
11.11 Cast Irons.................................................................................................................................................92
11.12 Welding Dissimilar Materials..................................................................................................................92
11.13 Filler Metals ............................................................................................................................................92
12. Qualification of Procedures, Welders, and Welding Operators..........................................................................94
12.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................94
12.2 Welding Program.....................................................................................................................................95
12.3 Establishing Welding Requirements .......................................................................................................95
12.4 Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS)...............................................................................................95
12.5 Procedure Qualification Records (PQR) .................................................................................................95 --``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
12.6 Welder and Welding Operator Qualification Tests..................................................................................95

13. Quality Control ..................................................................................................................................................96
13.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................96
13.2 Weldment Quality....................................................................................................................................96
13.3 Specifications ..........................................................................................................................................96
14. Troubleshooting .................................................................................................................................................97
14.1 General ....................................................................................................................................................97
14.2 Electrical..................................................................................................................................................97
14.3 Inert Shielding Gas Troubleshooting ....................................................................................................102
14.4 Water Cooling Systems .........................................................................................................................105
14.5 Tools and Fixtures .................................................................................................................................106
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Page No.
14.6 Filler Material........................................................................................................................................106
14.7 Design of Welded Assemblies...............................................................................................................106
14.8 Weld Joint Fit-up ...................................................................................................................................108
15. Safety ...............................................................................................................................................................108
15.1 Hazards..................................................................................................................................................108
15.2 Electrical Shock.....................................................................................................................................108
15.3 Arc Radiation and Burns .......................................................................................................................108
15.4 Welding Environment............................................................................................................................109
15.5 Oxygen Deficiency................................................................................................................................110
15.6 Noise......................................................................................................................................................110
15.7 Safe Handling of Cylinders ...................................................................................................................110
15.8 Fires And Explosions ............................................................................................................................110
15.9 Common Sense......................................................................................................................................110
15.10 Grinding Dust........................................................................................................................................110
Nonmandatory Annexes............................................................................................................................................113
Annex AGuidelines for Preparation of Technical Inquiries for AWS Technical Committees................................113
Annex BSuggested Reading List and Other References ........................................................................................115
List of AWS Documents on Arc Welding and Arc Cutting ........................................................................................117
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ix
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List of Tables
Table Page No.
1 Welding Process Comparison Based on Quality and Economics ................................................................11
2 Comparison of Typical Current Ratings for Gas-Cooled and Water-Cooled GTAW Torches.....................25
3 Typical Welding Cable Capacities ...............................................................................................................29
4 Guide for Selecting the Size of Cable Based on the Welding Current.........................................................30
5 Chemical Composition Requirements for Tungsten Electrodes ..................................................................34
6 Typical Current Ranges for Tungsten Electrodes and Recommended Gas Cup Sizes ................................35
7 Comparison of Surface Finish Designations................................................................................................37
8 Recommended Types of Current, Tungsten Electrodes, and Shielding Gases for Welding of
Various Metals and Alloys ...........................................................................................................................39
9 Tungsten Electrode Tip Shapes and Examples of Current Ranges ..............................................................39
10 General Properties of Gases .........................................................................................................................44
11 Thermodynamic Properties of Gases ...........................................................................................................44
12 Dew Point Conversions ................................................................................................................................45
13 Advantages of Shielding Gases....................................................................................................................46
14 Typical Argon Flow Rates............................................................................................................................50
15 Gas Purity Specification by Industrial Grade...............................................................................................62
16 Purity Requirements for Gaseous Argon .....................................................................................................62
17 Purity Requirements for Gaseous Helium ...................................................................................................63
18 Purity Requirements for Gaseous Hydrogen ...............................................................................................63
19 Welding Equipment or Components ............................................................................................................72
20 AWS Specifications Related to Gas Tungsten Arc Welding........................................................................88
21 Troubleshooting ...........................................................................................................................................98
22 Guide for Shade Numbers..........................................................................................................................109
x
List of Figures
Figure Page No.
1 Early Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Torches and Accessories, Circa 1943, with a Torch Body
and an Early Flowmeter .................................................................................................................................2
2 Early Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Torches .....................................................................................................2
3 SMAW Power Source Used for Early Gas Tungsten Arc Welding ...............................................................3
4 Motor-Generator SMAW Power Source Used for Early Gas Tungsten Arc Welding ...................................3
5 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Power SourcePulsed ......................................................................................4
6 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Power Source .....................................................................................................4
7 Stylized Representation of the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Process..............................................................9
8 Gas-Cooled GTAW Torch and Stylized Representation of Typical Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Equipment ....................................................................................................................................................10
9 Clean Weld Beads Typical of Properly Shielded GTAW Welds ..................................................................11
10 Characteristics of Current Types Used for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding.......................................................13
11 Relationship Between Arc Pressure and Pulse Frequency...........................................................................14
12 Programmed (Modulated) Current without Polarity Reversal .....................................................................15
13 Characteristics of Variable Polarity (Programmed) Weld Current...............................................................16
14 Arc Shape and Fusion Zone Profiles as a Function of Electrode Tip Geometry in Pure Argon
Shielding Gas ...............................................................................................................................................17
15 Typical Volt-Amp Characteristic Curves for GTAW Power Sources...........................................................18
16 Typical Inverter Power Source Components................................................................................................20
17 Typical Wire Feeder .....................................................................................................................................22
18 Typical GTAW Sequence for Non-Pulsed DC Welding...............................................................................23
19 Typical GTAW Sequence for Pulsed DC Current and Pulsed Wire Feed ....................................................24
20 Typical Water-Cooled GTAW Torch (Cross-Sectional View)......................................................................25
21 Examples of GTAW Torches........................................................................................................................26
22 Orbital Weld Head with Wire Feeder...........................................................................................................27
23 Components of a Typical GTAW Torch, Including Gas Nozzle/Cup, Gas Lens, Collet Body,
Torch Body, Collet, and Electrode ...............................................................................................................27
24 GTAW Torch Without a Gas Lens (Left) and with a Gas Lens (Right) .......................................................28
25 GTAW Torch with Cold Wire Feed..............................................................................................................31
26 Schematic of GTAW with Hot Wire Feed....................................................................................................31
27 Magnetically Deflected Arc Laying a Stringer Bead in a Deep Groove Weld ............................................32
28 Cross Sections of Welds Made in 1/2 in. [13 mm] Thick Stainless Steel; (A) with Magnetic Arc
Oscillation, and (B) without Magnetic Arc Oscillation ...............................................................................32
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29 High-Frequency Arc Starting.......................................................................................................................33

30 Balled Tip on the End of a Pure Tungsten Electrode Used for AC Welding ...............................................36
31 Ground Tapered Tip on End of Doped Tungsten Electrodes .......................................................................38
32 Ground Electrode Tip Geometry..................................................................................................................39
33 Typical Preparation Method of Tungsten Electrodes Used for GTA Welding, Including
Tip Truncation, Grinding, and Cutting.........................................................................................................40
34 The Desired Surface Finish of a Ground Electrode .....................................................................................41
35 Proper Cutting of Tungsten Electrodes with a Diamond Cut-Off Blade .....................................................42
36 GTA Weld Bead Shape as a Function of Shielding Gas Composition and Electrode
Tip Geometry (on 304 Stainless Steel) ........................................................................................................47
37 GTA VoltageCurrent Relationships with Argon and Helium Shielding Gases for
Different Arc Lengths ..................................................................................................................................48
xi
Figure Page No.
38 Improved Surface Cleanliness on Monel1 Welds Produced with the 5% Hydrogen Mixture
in Argon Shielding Gas with GTAW ...........................................................................................................49
39 The Effects of Shielding Gas Contamination on Titanium Weldments (Color Chart for
Titanium Welding Acceptance)....................................................................................................................51
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40 GTAW Weld Underbead Contamination with Various Levels of Oxygen Contents in the Purging Gas.........52
41 Purging Times for Various Pipe Sizes..........................................................................................................54
42 Purging a Piping System with Open Ends Blanked .....................................................................................55
43 Purging of a Piping System with Appropriate Venting to Eliminate Dead Air Pockets ..............................55
44 Purging with Removable Plugs ....................................................................................................................56
45 Purging with Removable Chamber ..............................................................................................................56
46 Purge Distributor Ring .................................................................................................................................56
47 Purging with Water Soluble Paper Dams .....................................................................................................57
48 Purging with a Backing Channel..................................................................................................................57
49 Purging with a Gas Distributor (Diffuser)....................................................................................................58
50 Typical Inert Gas Glove Box Chamber ........................................................................................................58
51 Flexible Plastic Purge Bag ...........................................................................................................................59
52 Trailing ShieldsBottom View of Inert Gas Trailing Shield Fabricated Using Stainless Porous
(100 micron) Tubing (Shown with High Temperature Tape)......................................................................60
53 Trailing ShieldsInert Gas Trailing Shield Fabricated Using Stainless Porous (100 micron) Tubing
(Shown with High Temperature Tape) .........................................................................................................60
54 Trailing ShieldsInert Gas Trailing Shield Fabricated Using Stainless Porous (40100 micron)
Sheet Metal ..................................................................................................................................................61
55 Shielding with the Use of a Backing Tape ...................................................................................................61
56 Point-of-Use (POU) Purifiers (Waferpure2 Reactive Resin Type) Below a Welding Fixture....................66
57 Point-of-Use Gas Purifier (Heated Metal Getter Type) ...............................................................................67
58 Cylinder Status Tag (The Use of a Simple Tagging System Can Be Very Helpful) ....................................68
59 Weld Distortion in Ti-6Al-V Bead-on-Plate (Sheet) Weld ..........................................................................69
60 Tooling for GTAW of Fuel Cell Components to Control Distortion of Weldment......................................70
61 Run-On/Run-Off Tabs Used for Welding Ends of Strip Material................................................................70
62 Walking-the-Cup Technique ........................................................................................................................74
63 Dragging-the-Finger Technique ...................................................................................................................74
64 Folding Fingerstall Technique......................................................................................................................75
65 Brace Technique Showing Wrist in Contact with Workpiece to Stabilize the Torch...................................75
66 Small Rotary Positioner Used for Workpiece Manipulation........................................................................76
67 Mechanical Manipulation in a Mechanized Welder.....................................................................................76
68 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Torch with Wire Feeders [(A) and (B)] for Spooled Wire...............................78
69 Cross Sections of Typical Consumable Inserts ............................................................................................79
70 Lathe-Type Welding Setup...........................................................................................................................81
71 Orbital GTAW Weld Head ...........................................................................................................................84
72 Basic Joint Types..........................................................................................................................................86
73 Weld Joint Edge Preparation (U-Groove, J-Groove, and V-Groove) ...........................................................87
74 Effects of Sulfur Content on Bead-on-Plate Weld Bead Shape in 304L Made with the
Same Parameters ..........................................................................................................................................90
75 GTAW in 6061-0 Aluminum Showing the Surface Contours with Pulsed Direct Current
Straight Polarity (DCEN).............................................................................................................................91
76 High Quality Welds in Inconel1 718, Original Scale 5X ...........................................................................93
77 High Quality Welds in Cobalt Alloy HS188, Original Scale 5X .................................................................93
78 Manual GTAW of Titanium in an Inert Gas Chamber (Glove Box) ............................................................94
79 Criteria for Acceptable GTAW in Titanium via Tack Welds Only ............................................................104
1. Monel and Inconel are registered trademarks of Special Metals Corporation.

2. Waferpure is a registered trademark of Mykrolis Corporation.
xii
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Recommended Practices for

1. Scope and Introduction ples of this would be certain welded metal sculptures
and/or a perfectly welded part or assembly. The
1.1 Scope. This document presents recommended prac- science end of the spectrum would include recent
tices for the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process.1 developments such as fully automated robotic welding
Its purpose is to provide a fundamental explanation of cells that could include through-the-torch vision that
the process, describe basic practices and concepts, and allows real-time viewing of the weld as well as real-time
outline some advanced methods and applications of weld joint tracking. Also, weld parameter data acquisi-
GTAW. These should enable welding personnel to deter- tion and feedback control are routinely accomplished in
mine the best applications of this process and evaluate its real-time.
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use compared with other joining processes.

The section covering principles of operation will help 1.3 History. Although arc welding was first developed in
the reader understand how the process works, the general the 1880s, its commercial use in the United States did not
types of equipment needed, and the advantages and limi- commence until the first decade of the 1900s. The years
tations of the gas tungsten arc welding process. The basic of the First World War brought the initial large-scale
concepts and practices include both general and specific commercial use of arc welding, when shielded metal arc
recommendations and technical data for equipment, con- welding (SMAW) began to replace riveting as the means
sumables, procedures, variables, applications, and safety of joining in the manufacture of ships.
considerations.
During the 1920s, H. M. Hobart and P. K. Devers per-
This standard makes use of U.S. Customary Units.
formed preliminary work on using inert gases to shield
Approximate mathematical equivalents in the Inter-
the carbon or metallic electrodes welding arc and molten
national System of Units (SI) are provided for compari-
weld pool. In 1926 they applied for patents2 on the use of
son in brackets [ ] or in appropriate columns in tables and
an electric welding arc in which an inert gas was inde-
figures.
pendently supplied around the arc, thus replacing flux as
the shielding method. Other investigators experimented
1.2 Introduction to the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
with both helium and argon as shielding gases, but be-
(GTAW) Process. Welding as an occupation and a ca-
cause of the high costs associated with these inert gases,
reer is a very special and rewarding choice to pursue. It
very little commercial use was made of them at that time.
is one of the most interesting manufacturing disciplines
as it involves both art and science. This is illustrated by By the onset of the Second World War, shielded metal
manual gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) because a per- arc welding had become the dominant welding process.
sons manual dexterity, hand-eye coordination, and self- However, there was a need within the aircraft industry
discipline in combination with the correct welding proce- for welds made with better shielding than that provided
dure(s) are paramount to its success. The art portion is by SMAW when joining reactive metals such as alumi-
most evident when an individual welder expresses their num and magnesium. Also, in the aircraft industry there
unique signature to the manually applied welds. Exam- was a need to develop an acceptable welding process to
replace riveting for joining of thin gage materials. These
needs led to the first commercial development of gas
1. Gas tungsten arc welding is defined as an arc welding pro-
tungsten arc welding equipment.
cess that uses an arc between a tungsten electrode (noncon-
sumable) and the weld pool. The process is used with shielding
gas and without the application of pressure. (Ref. AWS A3.0, 2. H. M. Hobart, U.S. Patent 1,746,081, 2/4/1930 and P. K.
Standard Welding Terms and Definitions.) Devers, U.S. Patent 1,746,191, 2/4/1930.
1
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 1Early Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Torches and Accessories,

Circa 1943, with a Torch Body and an Early Flowmeter
In 1941, R. Meredith and V. H. Pavlecka developed to produce acceptable welds. The inert shielding gas pro-
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the first practical electrode holders (torches) using a vided full protection of the arc and weld pool, which was
nonconsumable electrode made from tungsten. These imperative in welding of aluminum and magnesium, be-
first torches were simply shielded metal arc welding cause even a small amount of air could contaminate the
electrode holders that had been modified to provide the weld. The process also allows for better control over the
shielding gas flow. A 1/8 in. [3 mm] diameter tungsten heat input, thus making it easier to weld thin materials.
electrode was held in a copper tube through which the
inert helium gas flowed to protect the electrode, weld
pool, and adjacent heated areas of the workpiece. Helium
was elected to provide the necessary shield because,
at the time, it was the only readily available inert gas.
Tungsten inert gas torches and accessories typical of that
period are shown in Figures 1 and 2.3 A patent was
issued for this process in 1942.4
This arc welding process was initially named
Heliarc, 5, 6 welding because helium was used as the
shielding gas. It has also been called nonconsumable
electrode welding, tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding,
wolfram inert gas (WIG) welding7 and tungsten-arc
welding. However, the proper AWS terminology for this
process is gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), because
shielding gas mixtures containing inert gases other than
helium, or gases which are not inert, are sometimes used.
Using a tungsten electrode and direct current power
source, a stable, efficient heat source (the arc) was used
3. Reprinted with permission from Modern Welding Technol-

ogy, H. B. Cary, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, NJ 1989, Figure 1-9,
p. 8.
4. R. Meredith, U.S. Patent 2,274,631. 2/24/1942.
5. Registered trademark of ESAB.
6. Heliweld was the Airco description of the process. Figure 2Early Gas Tungsten
7. Wolfram is the German name for tungsten. Arc Welding Torches
2
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 4Motor-Generator SMAW

Power Source Used for Early
ever, because it did not provide the cleaning action like

DCEP, it was not acceptable for welding of aluminum
or magnesium, which have tenacious surface oxides
that must be removed before acceptable welds can be
produced.
To obtain the cleaning action of DCEP along with the
Figure 3SMAW Power Source Used for
improved penetration characteristics and lower electrode
Early Gas Tungsten Arc Welding heating of DCEN, alternating current (AC) welding
power sources were developed. A high-frequency, high-
voltage current was superimposed over the basic welding
When the GTAW process was first developed, SMAW current to stabilize the arc during current reversals. This
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was being performed utilizing direct current with elec- method was successfully applied to GTAW of aluminum
trode positive (DCEP or reverse polarity). The same and magnesium.
power sources (DC generators of the rotating type) were By the early 1950s, GTAW had gained acceptance in
thus used for the early gas tungsten arc welding process. the welding industry. Argon was the most widely ac-
Photographs of early GTAW/SMAW power sources are cepted shielding gas, followed by helium. However, be-
shown in Figures 3 and 4. One of the major benefits of cause of the high cost of argon and helium gases, carbon
DCEP was the tremendous cathodic cleaning action of dioxide and nitrogen were investigated as shielding
the workpiece surface for aluminum and magnesium. gases. Since that time, numerous other gases and mix-
However, overheating of the electrode and subsequent tures of gases have been used with this welding process
splitting, melting, and transfer of tungsten particles into to provide improved welding performance for some
the weld limited the useful current range. Since these metals. These include argon-helium mixtures, argon-
early torches were air-cooled, they had only a 75 A cur- hydrogen mixtures, and argon-nitrogen mixtures.
rent capacity. As a result, it soon became apparent that As a tool for increasing deposition rates beyond that
DCEP was not the best polarity to use for this process. of the commonly used cold wire feed during gas tungsten
arc welding, the hot wire feed method8 of filler metal
By making the electrode negative, overheating was
addition was introduced. This allowed the high quality
avoided and weld penetration was improved. Use of
DC electrode negative (DCEN or straight polarity)
proved acceptable for welding of stainless steels. How- 8. A. F. Manz, U.S. Patent 3,122,629, File 2562, issued 2/25/1964.
3
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
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Figure 5Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Figure 6Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Power Source Pulsed Power Source
welds produced by the GTAW process without incurring compositions have been developed for improved arc
the spatter produced by the consumable electrode starting, arc stability, and electrode life. GTAW systems
processes. are available with several tungsten electrodes positioned
Over the last several decades, numerous improve- around the part to be welded, or impinging on a single
ments have been made to the GTAW equipment, process weld pool.
and controls. Welding power sources have been devel-
oped specifically for the GTAW process (see Figures 5
and 6). Some provide pulsed direct current and others
2. Normative References
produce variable polarity alternating welding current. If a code or other standard is cited without a date of
Automatic arc starting systems, automatic arc length/ publication, it is understood that the latest edition of the
voltage controls, vision and penetration sensors, and document referred to applies. As codes and other stan-
positioning equipment are all commercially available. dards undergo frequent revision, the reader is encouraged
Computer controls, automatic sequence controls, and to consult the most recent edition. If a code or other stan-
data acquisition systems are readily available to allow dard is cited with the date of publication, the citation re-
data recording and statistical process control. Water- fers to that edition only, and it is understood that any
cooled torches were developed, which allow welding future revisions or amendments to the code or standard
currents of up to 1500 A. Different tungsten electrode are not included.
4
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
2.1 American Conference of Governmental Industrial (20) AWS B2.1, Specification for Welding Procedure
Hygienists Standards9 and Performance Qualification
(1) ACGIH, Threshold Limit Values for Chemical (21) AWS B2.1-1-002, Standard Welding Procedure
Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Expo- Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Car-
sure Indices bon Steel, (M-1/P-1, Group 1 or 2), 3/16 through 7/8 inch,
in the As-Welded Condition, With or Without Backing
2.2 AWS Standards10 (22) AWS B2.1-1-007, Standard Welding Procedure
(1) ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Specification (SWPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of
Allied Processes Galvanized Steel (M-1), 18 through 10 Gauge, in the As-
(2) AWS A1.1, Metric Practice Guide for the Weld- Welded Condition, with or without Backing
ing Industry (23) AWS B2.1-1-008, Standard Welding Procedure
(3) AWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions Specification (SWPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of
(4) AWS A5.7, Specification for Copper and Copper Carbon Steel (M-1, P-1, or S-1), 18 through 10 Gauge,
Alloy Bare Welding Rods and Electrodes in the As-Welded Condition, with or without Backing
(5) AWS A5.9, Specification for Bare Stainless Steel (24) AWS B2.1-1-009, Standard Welding Procedure
Welding Electrodes and Rods Specification (SWPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Aus-
(6) AWS A5.10/A5.10M, Specification for Bare Alu- tenitic Stainless Steel (M-8, P-8, or S-8), 18 through 10
minum and Aluminum Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, with or without Backing
(7) AWS A5.12/A5.12M, Specification for Tungsten (25) AWS B2.1-1/8-010, Standard Welding Procedure
and Tungsten Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding and Specification (SWPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of
Cutting Carbon Steel to Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-1, P-1, or
(8) AWS A5.13, Specification for Surfacing Welding S-1 to M-8, P-8, or S-8), 18 through 10 Gauge, in the As-
Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding Welded Condition, with or without Backing
(9) AWS A5.14/A5.14M, Specification for Nickel (26) AWS B2.1-22-015, Standard Welding Procedure
and Nickel-Alloy Bare Welding Electrodes and Rods Specification (SWPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of
(10) AWS A5.15, Specification for Welding Electrodes Aluminum (M/P/S-22 to M/P/S-22), 18 through 10 Gauge,
and Rods for Cast Iron in the As-Welded Condition, with or without Backing
(27) AWS B2.1-1-021, Standard Welding Procedure
(11) AWS A5.16, Specification for Titanium and Tita-
Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Fol-
nium Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods
lowed by Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel
(12) AWS A5.18/A5.18M, Specification for Carbon
(M-1/P-1/S-1, Group 1 or 2), 1/8 through 1-1/2 inch
Steel Electrodes and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding
Thick, ER70S-2 and E7018, As-Welded or PWHT Condi-
(13) AWS A5.19, Specification for Magnesium-Alloy
tion (primarily for pipe applications)
Welding Electrodes and Rods
(28) AWS B2.1-8-024, Standard Welding Procedure
(14) AWS A5.21, Specification for Bare Electrodes Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
and Rods for Surfacing Followed by Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Austen-
(15) AWS A5.22, Specification for Stainless Steel itic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 1/8 through
Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding and Stainless 1-1/2 inch Thick, ER3XX and E3XX-XX, As-Welded Con-
Steel Flux Cored Rods for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding dition, Primarily Plate and Structural Applications.
(16) AWS A5.24, Specification for Zirconium and Zir- (29) AWS B2.1-8-025, Standard Welding Procedure
conium Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of
(17) AWS A5.28, Specification for Low Alloy Steel Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 1/16
Electrodes and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding through 1-1/2 inch Thick, ER3XX, As-Welded Condition,
(18) AWS A5.30, Specification for Consumable In- Primarily Plate and Structural Applications.
serts (30) ANSI/AWS B2.1-1-207, Standard Welding Pro-
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(19) AWS A5.32, Specification for Welding Shielding cedure Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Weld-
Gases ing of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1/S-1, Group 1 or 2), 1/8
through 1-1/2 inch Thick, ER70S-2, As-Welded or PWHT
9. Available through American Conference of Governmental Condition, Primarily Pipe Applications
Industrial Hygienists, 1330 Kemper Meadow Drive, Cincin- (31) ANSI/AWS B2.1-1-209, Standard Welding
nati, OH 45240-1634. Procedure Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc
10. Available through Global Engineering Documents, Handling Welding Followed by Shielded Metal Arc Welding of
Services Group, 15 Inverness Way East, Englewood, CO Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1/S-1, Group 1 or 2), 1/8 through
80112-5776, (800) 854-7179 (303) 397-7956, Fax (303) 397- 1-1/2 inch Thick, ER70S-2 and E7018, As-Welded or
2740, Internet: www.global.ihs.com. PWHT Condition, Primarily Pipe Applications
5
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
(32) AWS B2.1-1-210, Standard Welding Procedure (41) AWS B2.1-4-221, Standard Welding Procedure
Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (Con-
Consumable Insert Root of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1/S-1, sumable Insert Root) followed by Shielded Metal Arc Weld-
Group 1 or 2), 1/8 through 1-1/2 inch Thick, INMs-1 and ing of Chromium-Molybdenum Steel (M-4/P-4, Group 1 or
ER70S-2, As-Welded Condition, Primarily Pipe Applications 2), 1/8 through 1/2 inch Thick, As-Welded Condition, 1/8
(33) AWS B2.1-1-211, Standard Welding Procedure through 1-1/2 inch Thick, PWHT Condition, IN515 and
Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with ER80S-B2, and E8018-B2, Primarily Pipe Applications
Consumable Insert Root followed by Shielded Metal Arc (42) AWS B2.1-5A-222, Standard Welding Proce-
Welding of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1/S-1, Group 1 or 2), 1/8 dure Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
through 1-1/2 inch Thick, INMs-1, ER70S-2, and E7018, As- of Chromium-Molybdenum Steel (M-5A/P-5A), ER90S-B3,
Welded or PWHT Condition, Primarily Pipe Applications 1/8 through 1/2 inch Thick, As-Welded Condition, 1/8
(34) AWS B2.1-8-212, Standard Welding Procedure through 3/4 inch Thick, PWHT Condition, Primarily
Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Pipe Applications
Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 1/16 (43) AWS B2.1-5A-224, Standard Welding Proce-
through 1-1/2 inch Thick, ER3XX, As-Welded Condition, dure Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Primarily Pipe Applications followed by Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Chromium-
(35) AWS B2.1-8-214, Standard Welding Procedure Molybdenum Steel (M-5A/P-5A), 1/8 through 1/2 inch
Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Thick, As-Welded Condition, 1/8 through 1-1/2 inch
followed by Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Austen- Thick, PWHT Condition, ER90S-B3 and E9018-B3, Pri-
itic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 1/8 through marily Pipe Applications
1-1/2 inch Thick, ER3XX and E3XX-XX, As-Welded Con- (44) AWS B2.1-5A-225, Standard Welding Procedure
dition, Primarily Pipe Applications Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (Con-
(36) AWS B2.1-8-215, Standard Welding Procedure sumable Insert Root) of Chromium-Molybdenum Steel
Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (M-5A/P-5A), 1/8 through 1/2 inch Thick, As-Welded
with Consumable Inserts of Austenitic Stainless Steel Condition, 1/8 through 3/4 inch Thick, PWHT Condition,
(M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 1/8 through 1-1/2 inch Thick, IN521 and ER90S-B3, Primarily Pipe Applications
IN3XX and ER3XX, As-Welded Condition, Primarily (45) AWS B2.1-5A-226, Standard Welding Procedure
Pipe Applications Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (Con-
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(37) AWS B2.1-8-216, Standard Welding Procedure sumable Insert Root) followed by Shielded Metal Arc
Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with Welding of Chromium-Molybdenum Steel (M-5A/P-5A),
Consumable Insert Followed by Shielded Metal Arc Weld- 1/8 through 1/2 inch Thick, As-Welded Condition, 1/8
ing of Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), through 1-1/2 inch Thick, PWHT Condition, IN521 and
1/8 through 1-1/2 inch Thick, IN3XX, ER3XX and ER3XX- ER90S-B3, and E9018-B3, Primarily Pipe Applications
XX, As-Welded Condition, Primarily Pipe Applications (46) AWS B2.1-1/8-227, Standard Welding Procedure
(38) AWS B2.1-4-217, Standard Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of
Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1/S-1, Groups 1 or 2) to Austenitic
Chromium-Molybdenum Steel (M-4/P-4, Group 1 or 2), Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 1/16 through
ER80S-B2, 1/8 through 1/2 inch Thick, As-Welded Con- 1-1/2 inch Thick, ER309(L), As-Welded Condition, Pri-
dition, 1/8 through 1-1/2 inch Thick, PWHT Condition, marily Pipe Applications
Primarily Pipe Applications (47) AWS B2.1-1/8-229, Standard Welding Procedure
(39) AWS B2.1-4-219, Standard Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding followed by Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel
followed by Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Chromium- (M-1/P-1/S-1, Groups 1 or 2) to Austenitic Stainless
Molybdenum Steel (M-4/P-4, Group 1 or 2), 1/8 through Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 1/8 through 1-1/2 inch
1/2 inch Thick, As-Welded Condition, 1/8 through Thick, ER309(L) And ER309(L)-15, -16, or -17, As-
1-1/2 inch Thick, PWHT Condition, ER80S-B2 and Welded Condition, Primarily Pipe Applications
E8018-B2, Primarily Pipe Applications (48) AWS B2.1-1/8-230, Standard Welding Procedure
(40) AWS B2.1-4-220, Standard Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with Consumable Insert Root of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1/
(Consumable Insert Root) of Chromium-Molybdenum Steel S-1, Groups 1 or 2) to Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/
(M-4/P-4, Group 1 or 2), 1/8 through 1/2 inch Thick, As- S-8, Group 1), 1/16 through 1-1/2 inch Thick, IN309
Welded Condition, 1/8 through 3/4 inch Thick, PWHT Con- and ER309(L), As-Welded Condition, Primarily Pipe
dition, IN515 and ER80S-B2, Primarily Pipe Applications Applications
6
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
(49) AWS B2.1-1/8-231, Standard Welding Procedure arc preheating. An arc that does not melt the base metals
Specification (SWPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with is sometimes used to remove the chill or significantly
Consumable Insert Root followed byShielded Metal Arc raise the temperature of the weld joint. This can be used
Welding of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1/S-1, Groups 1 or 2) to to remove moisture or light residues of oils. This can be
Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 1/8 accomplished by a first pass or a second leading arc.
through 1-1/2 inch Thick, IN309 and ER309, and E309-15,
arc welding torch. A device used to transfer current to a
-16, or -17, or IN309, ER309(L), and ER309(L)-15, -16, or
fixed welding electrode, position the electrode, and
-17, As-Welded Condition, Primarily Pipe Applications
direct the flow of shielding gas.
(50) AWS C5.10, Recommended Practices for Shield-
ing Gases for Welding and Plasma Arc Cutting automatic welding. Welding with equipment that requires
(51) AWS D1.1, Structural Welding CodeSteel only occasional or no observation of the welding, and
(52) AWS D1.2, Structural Welding CodeAluminum no manual adjustment of the equipment controls.
(53) AWS D1.2, Structural Welding CodeStainless backing or back-up bars. Plates or bars that are in con-
Steel tact with the workpieces on either the root or the face
(54) AWS D10.11, Recommended Practices for Root side of the welds should be located so as not to con-
Pass Welding of Pipe Without Backing taminate the weld or base metal or cause gas or flux
2.3 ISO Standards11 (if used) entrapment. These accessories are usually
made of copper or stainless steel.
(1) ISO6848, Tungsten Electrodes for Inert Gas
Shielded Arc Welding, and for Plasma Cutting and brace-technique. A technique used in manual welding of
Welding. vessels, sheet metal and structures. In this welding tech-
nique, the welder stabilizes the torch by resting his wrist,
2.4 OSHA Standards12 arm or elbow as far away from the weld zone as possible
and sliding the wrist in the direction of welding.
(1) Code of Federal Regulations (OSHA), Title 29
Labor, Parts 1910.1 to 1910.1450 direct current electrode negative (DCEN). The
arrangement of direct current arc welding leads in
which the electrode is the negative pole and the work-
3. Definitions piece is the positive pole of the welding arc.
The terms and definitions are divided into two direct current electrode positive (DCEP). The arrange-
categories: ment of direct current arc welding leads in which the
electrode is the positive pole and the workpiece is the
(1) general welding terms (highlighted by bold print)
negative pole of the welding arc.
compiled by the AWS Committee on Definitions and
Symbols (which can be found in the latest AWS A3.0, dragging-the-finger. A technique used in manual weld-
Standard Welding Terms and Definitions); and, ing of all types of joint configurations. It can be used
(2) terms or definitions (highlighted by bold italics) when welding all diameters of pipe and tubing. In this
defined by the AWS C5C Subcommittee on Gas Tung- welding technique a fingerstall is made by over-
sten Arc Welding, which are defined as they relate to this lapping a sleeve of fiberglass material approxi-
Recommended Practice, or are additions or modifica- mately 8 in. [200 mm] long. The fingerstall is placed
tions to AWS A3.0 terms or definitions. over the middle finger and should extend approxi-
mately 1 in. [25 mm] beyond the end of the finger.
air cooled torch. A nonstandard term for a gas-cooled
The fingerstall is used to stabilize the hand holding
torch.
the torch as it is slid along during welding.
arc postheating. The intense heat of an arc can be used dressing pass. The weld bead shape can be changed or
to reduce the cooling rate of a weld after a fusion weld improved by the use of a cosmetic pass after the weld
has been made. This is primarily a nonmelting pass. has been completed. This is primarily accomplished
by remelting of the solidified weld bead surface. This
11. Available through ISO Central Secretariat, International is frequently accompanied with transverse oscillation
Organization for Standardization (ISO) 1, rue de Varemb, of the arc or torch. Sometimes a small amount of filler
Case postale 56, CH-1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland; Online: metal is added.
http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/ISOOnline.frontpage.
12. Available through U.S. Government Printing Office, Super- electrode holder. A device used for mechanically hold-
intendent of Documents, P.O. Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA ing and conducting current to an electrode during
15250-7954. welding. See arc welding torch.
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7
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
fixture. A device designed to hold and maintain parts to run-off weld tab. Additional material that extends
be joined in proper relation to each other. beyond the end of the joint, on which the weld is
terminated.
freehand technique. The free hand technique is a
method where welding is accomplished without the run-on/off tabs. Additional material (devices) used
benefit of stabilization of hand and welding torch. It is mostly on butt and lap joints to facilitate starting and
the most difficult way to effect a weld and is not rec- extinguishing the arc.
ommended unless no other option is available. semiautomatic welding. Manual welding with equip-
gas cup. A nonstandard term for gas nozzle. ment that automatically controls one or more of the
welding conditions.
gas nozzle. A device at the exit end of the torch that
straight polarity. A nonstandard term for direct current
directs shielding gas.
electrode negative.
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). An arc welding tandem arcs. To increase the speed or increase penetra-
process that uses an arc between a tungsten electrode tion in single pass welds, closely spaced arcs can be
(nonconsumable) and the weld pool. The process is employed. Two to five arcs in tandem can be
used with shielding gas and without the application of employed with three arcs common. This multiple arc
pressure. Filler metal may or may not be used. process is primarily employed for high-speed tube or
pipe welding. It can also be employed for sheet and
Heliarc welding. A nonstandard term for gas tungsten
plate splicing.
arc welding. It refers to the earliest use of the process
when only the inert gas helium was utilized as the tooling. Weld tooling can be a variety of devices (fix-
shielding method. tures) that are associated with the welding operation
and their use assists in producing a weldment that
hold down and backing bars. Fixtures which provide the meets all specified requirements. Weld joint backing
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
means to clamp and position the weldment, and sup- and/or chill bars are examples of weld tooling.
ply backing support and/or shielding gas to the under-
side of the weld bead. Backing bars usually contain torch. See arc-welding torch.
passages to facilitate inert gas purging. When grooved tungsten-arc welding. A nonstandard term for gas tung-
backing bars are used, the grooves should be shallow sten arc welding.
to minimize melt through and to limit the height of
root reinforcement. Grooves in backing bars should tungsten electrode. A non-filler metal electrode used in
have rounded corners to be elliptical in shape to pre- arc welding, arc cutting, and plasma spraying, made
vent entrapments and to minimize stress raisers rela- principally of tungsten.
tive to underbead shape. These devices usually extend tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding. A nonstandard term
the full length of the weld. for gas tungsten arc welding. It refers to the early
machine welding. A nonstandard term when used for use of the process when only the inert gases argon and
mechanized welding. helium were utilized as the shielding method.
walking-the-cup. A technique for manipulating the torch
manual welding. Welding with the torch held and
when manually welding groove and fillet welds. With
manipulated by hand. Accessory equipment, such as
this technique, the electrode extension is adjusted to
part motion devices and manually controlled filler-
allow the proper arc length while the edge of the cup
material feeders may be used.
rests on the side of the joint. The torch is manipulated
mechanized welding. Welding with equipment that in a manner to swing the tip of the tungsten back and
requires manual adjustment of the equipment controls forth across the side of the joint by walking-the-cup
in response to visual observation of the welding, with on each edge of the joint. The left or right edge of the
the torch held by a mechanical device. gas nozzle/cup is in constant contact with the mem-
bers giving the cup a walking motion on the weld
opposing arcs. This is a welding process employing two joint.
arcs. Each arc is located on opposite sides of the weld
joint. The purpose is to equalize stresses on plates to welding fixture (also see fixture). A device designed and
reduce the tendency for warping or distortion. built to hold parts to be joined in proper relationship
with each other. Chill bars are often used to help cool
reverse polarity. A nonstandard term for direct current the weld area rapidly and usually result in controlling
electrode positive. weld shrinkage and workpiece distortion.
8
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
4. GTAW Principles (2) The other method involves touch or contact start-
ing where the tungsten electrode is brought in contact
4.1 Process Description. The GTAW process and equip- with the base metal and then withdrawn to initiate the
ment are illustrated in Figures 7 and 8. GTAW produces arc. The electrode is then retracted to the proper arc gap.
fusion (coalescence caused by melting) of base metals
from the heat generated by an electric arc. The arc is es- Note: It is considered good practice, when the touch
tablished between the tip of a nonconsumable tungsten or starting system is used, to initiate the arc in a location
tungsten alloy electrode and the workpiece (also called that will be consumed in the subsequent weld metal. The
base metal). The electrode is held in an arc welding initiation point is termed an arc strike or arc burn and, if
torch, either water-cooled or gas-cooled, through which visible after welding, is cause for rejection by a number
shielding gas is fed. The shielding gas provides the re- of specifications.
quired arc characteristics by becoming a plasma (ion- The GTAW process is adaptable to manual, semi-
ized), and also shields the electrode, filler metal end, and automatic, mechanized, and automatic applications. It
the molten weld pool from contamination by the atmo- can be used to produce continuous welds, intermittent
sphere. Once the arc and weld pool are established, the welds, and spot welds. Unlike other arc welding pro-
torch is moved along the joint and the arc progressively cesses, the GTAW process can be used to produce auto-
melts the faying surfaces (surfaces to be joined). Filler genous (no filler wire) welds because the electrode is
wire, when used, is added to the weld pool to fill the nonconsumable. For many applications, the addition of
joint. Filler wire is usually added to the leading edge of filler wire is desirable or necessary.
the weld pool, but may be added to the trailing edge, or The process can be used to produce welds on essen-
both. tially all joint designs and geometries. It can be used to
To avoid weld contamination, the nonconsumable weld a wide range of thicknesses and sizes of plate,
electrode requires special arc initiation techniques. There sheet, pipe, tube, and other structural shapes. The GTAW
are two main methods utilized. process can be successfully used in any welding position.
(1) One method involves arc starters such as high-
frequency generators or capacitor discharge starters, 4.2 Process Advantages. GTAW has become indispens-
which provide a high voltage across the arc gap. This able as a tool for many industries. If properly utilized, the
causes the shielding gas to ionize and thus makes it con- GTAW process will produce the high quality welds re-
ductive, allowing the arc to initiate. quired for the aerospace, nuclear, pharmaceutical, semi-
conductor and other industries. As illustrated in Figure 9,
weld beads produced with the GTAW process typically
are cleaner than with any other arc welding process be-
cause no slag or spatter is present. Visual and non-
destructive inspecting of GTAW welds is thus easier.
The combination of GTAW for root pass welding with
either shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or gas metal
arc welding (GMAW) for the fill passes is particularly
advantageous for welding pipe. The GTAW process
produces a smooth, uniform root pass weld while the fill
passes are made with a higher deposition rate (more
economical) process. Table 1 presents an overview of
GTAW, GMAW, and SMAW processes for different base
materials.
The following are some advantages of the GTAW
process:
(1) capable of producing superior quality welds, gen-
erally free of defects
(2) is free of the spatter which occurs with most other
arc welding processes
(3) can be used with or without filler metal as
required for the specific application
(4) allows excellent control of root pass weld
penetration
Figure 7Stylized Representation of the (5) can produce inexpensive autogenous welds at high
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Process speeds
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Figure 8Gas-Cooled GTAW Torch and Stylized Representation

of Typical Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Equipment
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(6) can use inexpensive power sources

(7) allows precise control of the welding variables
(8) is very good for joining thin base metals because
of the excellent control of heat input
(9) can be used to weld almost all metals, including
dissimilar metal joints
(10) is especially useful for joining aluminum and
magnesium, which form refractory oxides
(11) is probably the most used process for reactive
metals like titanium
(12) allows the heat source and filler metal additions to
be controlled independently
4.3 Process Limitations. The GTAW process requires
continuous and efficient weld metal shielding. Backup
shielding or enclosed shielding is also required in many
applications. This basic requirement tends to limit the
Figure 9Clean Weld Beads process to indoor types of applications. However, with
Typical of Properly Shielded proper shielding techniques, field (outdoor) welding is
GTAW Welds also readily accomplished.
Table 1
Welding Process Comparison Based on Quality and Economics
Welding Processes(1) and Ratings(2) (All Positions)
Applications GTAW GMAW SMAW
Carbon steel plate >3/16 in. [5 mm] G E E

Carbon steel sheet 3/16 in. [5 mm] E E G
Carbon steel structural F F E
Carbon steel pipe 3 in. [75 mm] IPS E F F
Carbon steel pipe >3 in. [75 mm] IPS G G G
Stainless steel plate >3/16 in. [5 mm] G E G
Stainless steel sheet 3/16 in. [5 mm] E G F
Stainless steel pipe 3 in. [75 mm] IPS E F F
Stainless steel pipe >3 in. [75 mm] IPS G G F
Aluminum plate >3/16 in. [5 mm] G E NR
Aluminum sheet 3/16 in. [5 mm] E G NR
Aluminum structural E G NR
Aluminum pipe 3 in. [75 mm] IPS E NR NR
Aluminum pipe >3 in. [75 mm] IPS E F NR
Nickel and nickel alloy sheet E F F
Nickel and nickel alloy tubing E NR NR
Nickel and nickel alloy pipe 3 in. [75 mm] IPS E F NR
Nickel and nickel alloy pipe >3 in. [75 mm] IPS E F NR
Reactive metalstitaniumsheet, tubing, pipe E NR NR
Refractory metalsTa and Cbsheet, tubing E NR NR
Notes:
(1) GTAW = Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG).
GMAW = Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG).
SMAW = Shielded Metal Arc Welding (Stick).
(2) E = Excellent, G = Good, F = Fair, NR = Not Recommended on basis of cost, usability, or quality.
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4.3.1 Limitations. The following are some limitations change weld pool fluid flow. If present in low levels (less
of the GTAW process: than 30 parts per million [ppm]) in these materials, in-
(1) Deposition rates are lower than the rates possible creasing arc current can produce a dramatic increase in
with the consumable electrode arc welding processes un- weld width without much increase in penetration. If sul-
less used with hot-wire additions. Therefore, it can be fur content is greater than 50 ppm, an increase in arc cur-
less economical than the consumable electrode arc weld- rent can produce a dramatic increase in penetration.13, 14
ing processes for thicker sections (greater than 3/8 in.
[10 mm]). 4.4.1.1 Current Polarity. Three basic categories
(2) For manual welding, there is a need for slightly of welding current are available: direct current (DC),
more dexterity and welder coordination than with gas alternating current (AC), and programmed current. Pro-
metal arc welding or shielded metal arc welding. grammed current is a category combining some of the
(3) Shielding the weld zone properly in drafty envi- features of AC and DC. Variable polarity (VP) can be
ronments is difficult. considered as a subset of programmed current and is
replacing AC and balanced AC in many applications.
4.3.2 Potential Problems. Potential problems with There are two polarities or directions in which the cur-
the process include: rent can flow in the welding circuit; direct current elec-
(1) Tungsten inclusions can occur if the electrode is trode negative [DCEN, so-called straight polarity, see
allowed to contact the weld pool or if the electrode is Figure 10(A)] and direct current electrode positive [DCEP,
overheated. so-called reverse polarity, see Figure 10(B)]. When using
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(2) Contamination of the weld metal can occur if direct current, the tungsten electrode may be connected to
proper shielding of the filler metal by the gas stream is either the negative or positive terminal of the power source.
not maintained or if the torch shielding gas does not When the electrode is negative (cathode), the electrons
properly protect the weld pool. flow from the electrode to the work and the ions move
(3) There is low tolerance for contaminants on filler from the work to the electrode. When the electrode is posi-
or base metals. tive (anode), the electrons flow from the work to electrode
(4) Possible contamination or porosity can be caused and the ions move from the electrode to the work. The
by coolant leakage from water-cooled torches, as with choice of whether to use DC, AC, VP, or programmed cur-
other processes. rent depends largely on the material to be welded.
(5) Arc blow or arc deflection can be a concern, as
with other arc welding processes. 4.4.1.2 Direct Current with Respect to Polarity.
The two types of direct current GTAW to be considered
4.4 Process Variables. The primary variables in GTAW are direct current electrode negative (DCEN), and direct
are welding current, arc voltage (arc length), travel speed, current electrode positive (DCEP). Each type has its own
electrode (condition, shape, and alloy), and shielding gas. characteristics and areas of application.
Additional input parameters include wire feed rate, elec-
Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) when com-
trode orientation, travel angle, arc deflections (magnetic
bined with a thermionic electrode (e.g., tungsten) gener-
and mechanical arc oscillations), and pulsing parameters.
ates approximately 70% of the heat at the anode (work)
The main issue that these variables affect is the energy
and approximately 30% of the heat at the cathode (elec-
transferred from the power source through the arc and
trode). Since DCEN produces the greatest amount of
into the work, and the rate and control of that energy
heat at the workpiece, this offers the advantage of deep
transfer. Variation in chemical composition of the base
penetration and fast welding speeds. DCEN is the most
metal and filler metals as well as condition of the joint
common configuration used in GTAW, and is used with
design, joint preparation (including fixturing and tool-
argon, helium, or a mixture of gases to weld most metals.
ing), and welding position must also be considered.
Helium and helium mixes are frequently the gases of
4.4.1 Arc Current. Weld penetration is directly pro- choice for mechanized welding because of heliums
portional to arc current, i.e., as the current is increased, higher thermal conductivity. Additions of helium or hy-
the weld penetration increases. Arc current also effects drogen to argon are also frequently used for mechanized
the voltage as a function of the power source characteris- welding because these produce a hotter arc.
tic and from the forces (pressure, Lorentz, buoyancy) act-
ing on the weld pool to change the pools position under 13. Burgardt, P. and Campbell, R., 1992, Chemistry Effects on
the arc. For this reason, it is necessary to change the volt- Stainless Steel Weld Penetration, Ferrous Alloy Weldments,
age setting when the current is adjusted to keep a fixed Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland.
arc length in automatic welding. For some materials, such 14. Burgardt, P., and Heiple, C., Interaction Between Impuri-
as stainless steels and nickel alloys, certain trace elements ties and Welding Variables in Determining GTA Weld Shape,
(such as sulfur and oxygen) alter the surface tension and Welding Journal, Vol. 65, No. 6, June 1986, pp. 150-s155-s.
12
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AC Balanced/Variable Polarity
CURRENT TYPE DCEN (A) DCEP (B)
(Programmed) (C)
ELECTRODE POLARITY Negative Positive Negative and Positive
OXIDE CLEANING ACTION No Yes Yes, Once Every Half Cycle
HEAT BALANCE IN THE 50% at Work, 50% at Electrode

70% at Work 30% at Electrode 30% at Work 70% at Electrode
ARC (APPROXIMATE) (Varies with Program Setting)
PENETRATION Deep, Narrow Shallow, Wide Medium
Excellent, e.g., 1/8 in. [3 mm]: Poor, e.g., 1/4 in. [6 mm]: Good, e.g., 1/8 in. [3 mm]:
ELECTRODE CAPACITY
400 A 120 A 225 A
Figure 10Characteristics of Current Types Used for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
With direct current electrode positive (DCEP), a ca- resistance heating and increase thermal conduction into
thodic cleaning action is created at the surface of the the electrode collet, a larger diameter electrode is re-
workpiece. This cathodic cleaning at the work surface quired for a given welding current when using DCEP
can be beneficial in removing oxides present on the sur- (reverse polarity) to reduce electrode tip melting. DCEP
face of some metals. In practice, this method is not used is sometimes used for thin cross sections to reduce heat
as frequently as DCEN, AC, or Variable Polarity (VP) input.
because of the overheating of the electrode that occurs,
but it does have a particular advantage of surface clean- 4.4.1.3 Alternating Current with Respect to
ing on metals whose oxides cause problems to the weld- Polarity. The condition existing when the welding cur-
ing operation. For example, this cleaning action is rent polarity is periodically alternated from electrode
beneficial for the welding of aluminum and magnesium. positive to electrode negative is called alternating current
This same action occurs in the reverse polarity half cycle [AC, see Figure 10(C)]. AC combines the work cleaning
of AC and VP welding. In practice, alternating current action of electrode positive (reverse polarity) with the
(AC) or variable polarity (VP) schemes are usually used deep penetration characteristic of electrode negative
when cathodic cleaning action is needed. (straight polarity).
Unlike DCEN, in which the electrode tip is cooled by Conventional AC welding power sources produce a
the evaporation of electrons, when the electrode is used sinusoidal open circuit voltage output. When changing
as the positive pole (i.e., DCEP), its tip is heated by the from positive to negative flow, the current must pass
bombardment of electrons as well as by its resistance to through zero, which extinguishes the arc. The arc must
their passage through the electrode. Therefore, to reduce then be reignited or it will remain extinguished.
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Figure 11Relationship Between Arc Pressure and Pulse Frequency
Some means of maintaining the arc during the voltage In pulsed DC welding, the peak current level is typi-
reversal is required with conventional sinusoidal welding cally set at 2 to 10 times the background current level.
power sources. This has been done by using high open This condition provides the benefits of the driving, force-
circuit voltage power sources; by discharging capacitors ful arc characteristics of high current with the low heat
at the appropriate time in the cycle; by using high- input of low current. The pulse current is used to obtain
voltage high-frequency generators in parallel with the the good fusion and penetration while the background
arc; and by using power sources with a square wave current maintains the arc and allows the weld area to cool
output. and/or solidify. Low-frequency DC pulsing of the weld
current can be thought of as a moving series of overlap-
4.4.1.4 Pulsed DC Welding. Pulsed GTAW is
ping spot welds.
characterized by a repetitive switching between a peak
(high) current and a background (low) current. Alternate There are several advantages of pulsed current. The
melting and solidification are obtained by switching be- effect of high-frequency switching is to produce a stiff
tween high and low currents. The high (peak) current welding arc. Arc pressure is a measure of arc stiffness.
(5 A200 A) is normally higher than continuous DC As shown in Figure 11,16 as the switching frequency
welding to ensure rapid full penetration, after which nears 10 kHz, arc pressure increases to nearly four times
switching to a low (background) current (1 A15 A) al- that of a steady DC arc. As arc pressure increases, there
lows the molten pool to solidify but maintains a pilot arc is a reduced effect by magnetic fields (such as arc blow),
for application of the next pulse.15 shielding gas movement (wind), etc.
There are three broad categories of pulsing: low fre- For a given average current level, greater penetration
quency (0.5 Hz20 Hz), sometimes called thermal puls- can be obtained by pulsing the current compared with
ing; intermediate frequency (>20 Hz500 Hz); and, continuous current. This is useful on metals sensitive to
high frequency (>500 Hz up to 16 kHz or more).
16. Refer to AWS Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 2:
15. Pulsed Arc Welding. J. A. Street, Abington Publishing, Welding Processes, Chapter 3, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding,
p. 11, (1990). Figure 3.12, and p. 86 for more information.
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Figure 12Programmed (Modulated) Current without Polarity Reversal
heat input and for distortion control. Also, because there source and controller are more sophisticated and rela-
is insufficient time for significant heat flow during the tively more expensive.
current pulse, metals of vastly dissimilar thickness re-
spond nearly equally and thus nearly equal penetration 4.4.1.5 Programmed Current. Welding power
can be achieved. For a similar reason, very thin metals sources have also been developed that are capable of pro-
can be joined with pulsed DC. In addition, one set of viding various types of modulated current with or with-
welding parameters can be used on a joint in all posi- out actual polarity reversal. See Figure 1217 for an
tions, such as a circumferential weld in a horizontal pipe. example. These current pulsation techniques have been
Pulsed DC is also useful for bridging gaps in open root
joints and for welding with consumable inserts. A disad- 17. References: AWS Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume
vantage of pulsed DC current is that the welding power 2: Figure 3.10, p. 85; Muncaster, Figure 4.2, p. 37.
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Figure 13Characteristics of Variable Polarity (Programmed) Weld Current
developed to increase weld penetration, to reduce heat directly proportional to the arc length, while the pool
input, and to control or improve weld root and bead con- depth is inversely proportional to the arc length. There-
tour, grain size, and out-of-position welding capabilities. fore, in most applications the desired arc length is as
Two such programmed current techniques are square short as possible.
wave AC pulsation and pulsating DC. Variable polarity
can be thought of as a subset of programmed current. 4.4.3 Travel Speed. Travel speed affects both the
width and penetration of a gas tungsten arc weld. How-
4.4.1.6 Variable Polarity. The term variable polar- ever, its effect on width is more pronounced than on pen-
ity describes an alternating welding current that is asym- etration. Travel speed is important because of its effects
metrical about the zero current level. This is shown in on cost and weld quality.
Figure 13. The symmetry of the current above and below
High travel speeds minimize distortions caused by
zero is controlled by the current balance adjustment on
thermal expansions and contractions during welding. On
the power source.
the other hand, alloys prone to cold cracking are usually
The variable polarity power source was developed to
not welded at high speeds, since the associated steep ther-
meet the criteria established for effective plasma key-
mal gradients and rapid cooling rates would contribute to
hole welding of aluminum, especially in heavy sections.
crack formation. Lower welding speeds are applied to cir-
While primarily used for plasma arc welding (PAW) it
cumvent this cracking problem (often used in combina-
also is used for certain GTAW applications. This direct
tion with preheating the base metal to further reduce the
current (DC) machine produces cyclic changes of DCEN
possibility of cold cracks and decrease the cooling rates).
and DCEP polarities with independent control of the cur-
rent amplitude and the duration. 4.4.4 Electrodes. The shape of the tungsten electrode
4.4.2 Arc Voltage. The voltage measured between the tip is an important process variable in GTAW. The tung-
tungsten electrode and the work is commonly referred to sten electrodes may be used with a variety of tip configu-
as the arc voltage. The arc voltage is changed by the ef- rations and preparation methods. Electrode tip
fects of the other variables, and is used in describing configuration is a welding variable that should be studied
welding procedures only because it is easy to measure. during the welding procedure development. It is impor-
Since the other variables such as the shielding gas, elec- tant that consistent electrode geometry be used once a
trode, and current have been predetermined, the arc volt- welding procedure has been established. Changes in
age becomes a way to control the arc length. The arc electrode geometry can significantly influence the weld
length is a critical variable that is difficult to monitor bead shape and size as shown in Figure 14.18
without appropriate equipment. Arc length is important
with this process because it affects the width and depth 18. Reference: Key, J., Anode/Cathode Geometry and Shield-
of the weld pool. The arc voltage is a function of gas ing Gas Interrelationships in GTAW, Welding Journal, Vol. 59,
composition and arc gap length. The weld width is No. 12, Dec. 1980, Figure 1, p. 265-s.
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Figure 14Arc Shape and Fusion Zone Profiles as a Function of

Electrode Tip Geometry in Pure Argon Shielding Gas
4.4.5 Shielding Gas. As mentioned previously, the In mechanized or automated welding the electrode
shielding gas has several influences on the GTAW pro- (torch) angle can be an important parameter to counter
cess. Attention should be paid to the gas quality (purity), the effects of arc drag or to force changes to the shape of
to its voltage-current characteristic, and to its thermal the pool (and thus change the resultant solidification) by
conductivity. Shielding gases will be covered in detail in redirecting the arc force either into or away from the
Section 7. direction of travel.
4.5 Related Variables. A number of variables can have
a pronounced effect upon GTAW quality and speed. 4.5.2 Arc Motion and Deflections. Several variations
These include filler metal (type, size, feed mechanism), of arc deflection have been applied in attempts to modify
joint design, material composition, and tooling. In addi- the resultant fusion zone, including grain refinement.
tion, electrode orientation and arc deflections must be These techniques include weld pool stirring, arc oscilla-
considered. tions and arc modulations/pulsations. One of the more
popular techniques is magnetic arc deflections or oscilla-
4.5.1 Electrode to Work Angle and Position. The tions. The application of one or more magnetic poles is
forces exerted on the weld pool vary with the angle of the used to stabilize the arc column and minimize the effects
torch (electrode) with respect to the vertical and the di- of local magnetic disturbances that result in arc blow.
rection of travel. Fixed and/or variable electromagnetic poles have been
In manual welding the welder may use this to: applied in a similar manner to stabilize or to oscillate the
(1) Properly distribute weld deposit relative to the arc column. Stable arc deflections can be used to counter
joint being welded, e.g., fillet or groove weld. the effects of arc drag during higher speed welding.19
(2) Affect multipass or stringer beads that may over-
lap one another. 19. Hicken, G. K. and Jackson, C. E., 1966, The Effects of
(3) Control the amount of weld penetration or drop Applied Magnetic Fields on Welding Arcs, Welding Journal,
through (root reinforcement) and/or weld bead shape. Vol. 45, No. 11, Nov. 1966, pp. 515-s524-s.
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Another variation of arc deflection is the weaving or source are a compromise of cost, weight, size, type of
mechanical motion of the torch (electrode) side to side, input or primary power, performance, and the type of
to be sure that a full fusion weld is achieved. current to be used in the welding process.
Selecting the correct power source, of course, depends
upon process requirements. The first step is to determine
5. Equipment and Supplies the electrical requirements of the welding process with
which it will be used. Other factors to consider include
5.1 Welding Power Sources (Used for GTAW)Intro- such things as future requirements, maintenance, eco-
duction. Constant-current type power sources are nor- nomic considerations, portability, environment, available
mally used for GTAW. Power required for both AC
skills, safety, manufacturers support, code compliance,
(alternating current) and DC (direct current) GTAW can
and standardization. Most electronically controlled power
be supplied by inverter, transistor, or transformer-
sources offer rapid dynamic response; i.e., can change
rectifier power sources or from rotating AC or DC gener-
from one level to another. As a result, these power sources
ators. A description of the types of currents is found in
Section 4. Advances in semiconductor electronics have can be used to provide pulsed welding current. Series lin-
made transformer-rectifier, and more recently, transistor ear regulator and switched secondary designs provide DC
and inverter type power sources popular for both shop welding current from rectified single or three-phase input
and field GTAW. Engine driven power sources continue power. Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) designs can pro-
to be widely used in the field. vide AC and DC current from single-phase power and DC
In constant current power sources the weld current re- current from three-phase power. Depending on the de-
mains nearly constant with variations in output voltage, sign, inverter power sources can provide AC and DC out-
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as shown in Figure 15. It is the goal of the power source put from single or three-phase input power. Inverter
manufacturer to provide power sources that produce the power sources are the most versatile, with many offering
desired type of current (e.g., DC, pulsed DC, AC, etc.) multi-process capabilities and variable welding current
and maintain the current at the desired level regardless of waveform output. Inverters are also lighter and more
external influences such as power line voltage fluctua- compact than standard 60 Hz transformer-rectifier power
tions. The components used for each type of power sources of equivalent current rating.
Figure 15Typical Volt-Amp Characteristic Curves for GTAW Power Sources
18
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
It is important to select a GTAW power source based currents are the major determining factors in the voltages
on the type of welding current required for a particular and currents that each of these devices generate.22
application. The types of welding current include AC
sine wave, AC square-wave, DC, and pulsed DC. The 5.1.3 Transistorized Power Sources. The transistor-
following sections have more information on the types of ized power source derives its name from the fact that the
power sources. Many power sources are available with a output of the welding power source utilizes transistors.
variety of additional controls and functions such as water The transistorized source takes the DC created by a
and shielding gas control, wire feeder and travel mecha- transformer and diodes and uses the transistors to control
nism sequencing, current up-slope and down-slope, and the power source output current. The use of transistors
multiple-current sequences.20, 21 allows for very fast and precise control of the output cur-
rent, which is especially advantageous in pulsed GTAW
5.1.1 Transformer Rectifier Power Sources. One of applications. The two common types of transistorized de-
the most common types of GTAW power sources utilizes signs are referred to as series linear regulators and sec-
transformers and some form of rectification. The rectifi- ondary switchers.
cation can be provided by simple inexpensive diodes or The transistorized power source has a very stable out-
SCRs. The purpose of the transformer in this power put and is fast to respond to control signals. Advanced
source design is to reduce the incoming line voltage and design methods make it possible to obtain a modulated
increase the current to a level that is more closely needed signal whereby the output current is proportional to the
for the welding process. For example, a welding power input control voltage. The fast response of the power
source using 480 V supply voltage needs to be reduced to source when combined with the modulation capability
a voltage in the range of 30 V80 V, and the current is makes it possible to generate sine wave, thermal pulsed
increased proportionally to the reduction in voltage. Sin- DC, and high-frequency pulsed DC all from the same
gle rectifiers, also known as diodes, can be connected to power source by simply changing the input control volt-
create a single polarity of voltage, i.e., direct current. The age or modulation signal.
SCRs are simply controllable diodes that improve the
5.1.4 Inverter/Converter Power Sources. The in-
ability of the electronics to control current. Prior to the
verter power source was originally developed for the
use of SCRs this type of control had been accomplished
military to provide significant reduction in weight and
using mechanically driven magnetic control techniques
size of the power source relative to the other types of
and saturable reactor magnetic controls. The magnetic
sources described thus far in this text. The welding in-
type of control was relatively slow and had many me-
verter power source provides a weight reduction factor of
chanically related deficiencies.
4 to 5. The inverter design is also electrically more effi-
5.1.2 Generator Power Sources. Generators are cient and the output more stable than SCR power source
most commonly used for field applications or in indus- design technologies. This is primarily accomplished by
trial settings where sufficient power is not available from the reduction of the transformer size. This reduction in
the existing power system (mains). The generator-type transformer size is possible by increasing the frequency
power sources convert mechanical energy into electrical used in the transformer section. The transformer section
power suitable for arc welding. The mechanical power of the inverter power source is utilized in the many thou-
can be obtained from an internal combustion engine, an sands of Hertz as opposed to 60 Hz in other power source
electric motor, or from a power take-off from other designs.
equipment. For welding, two basic types of rotating The inverter power source is a type of GTAW power
power sources are used: the generator and the alternator. source that takes AC input power, typically at 60/50 Hz,
Both have a rotating member normally called a rotor or and changes it to DC, which is converted to higher fre-
an armature, and a stationary member, called a stator. A quency AC and then rectifies the higher frequency AC to
system of excitation is needed for both types. Alternators obtain the desired output current. Several variations of
are used to produce alternating currents while generators the inverter design are available. An example of the
are used to produce direct currents. The speed of rota- design schematic is shown in Figure 16. This higher
tion, the winding configuration and external excitation frequency is in the range of 1 kHz125 kHz. The size of
a transformer is indirectly proportional to the frequency
of the voltage. That is, as the frequency increases the size
20. Refer to AWS Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 2:
Welding Processes, Chapter 1, Arc Welding Power Sources,
for more detailed information. 22. For additional information, see AWS Welding Handbook,
21. Grist, F. J., Farrell, W. and Lawrence, G. S. 1993. Power 8th Edition, Volume 2: Welding Processes. Also see ASM
Sources. ASM Handbook, 9th Edition, Volume 6, Welding, Handbook, 9th Edition, Volume 6: Welding, Brazing, and
Brazing and Soldering, pp. 3644. Soldering.
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19
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 16Typical Inverter Power Source Components
and weight of a transformer decreases. Since the voltage measured and controlled, but rather the major process
being transformed is very high in frequency, the size of a variables that affect heat input and torch position are
transformer is significantly less, as noted above, when measured. Control of the process variables improves pro-
compared to a transformer for the same application used cess consistency, but does not ensure consistent welds
at 60 Hz. Thus significant size and weight reduction is under all conditions.
possible. The inverter power source also has a very fast Although the actual weld characteristics cannot typi-
response time compared to many other types of power cally be controlled, it is possible to precisely control a
sources, e.g., transformer-rectifiers. The fast response majority of the process variables that drastically affect
time is useful in pulsed welding applications. weld quality and consistency (repeatability). These
variables include arc voltage, weld current, travel speed,
5.2 Controllers. The term controller is used throughout
wire feed speed, shielding gas flow, and multiple axes of
industry and has many meanings. In the welding field
position.
there are two common types of controllers. The first is
There are two categories of controls used in most
the controller used to control a single process variable.
GTAW processes. The first is the open loop control sys-
The second type of controller is the weld sequence con-
tem. In the open loop control system the process variable
troller that orchestrates all of the individual process vari-
is generated and no corrections are made to this setting to
ables so that each weld variable is set to the proper level
maintain the desired set point, even if the output value is
at the proper time during the weld cycle.
not correct. A closed loop control assures the set point
The most common weld sequence controller is time
value is maintained regardless of the outside influences.
based. That is, the control is programmed in time relative
A sensor measures the process variable and sends this
to the arc start or the pre-flow of electrode shielding gas.
signal back to the comparison circuitry, i.e., feedback.
It is also possible to have a position based weld sequence
The circuitry compares the actual variable value to the
controller. In this type of controller the sequencing of the
desired set point (reference) value. If the actual value is
process variables is determined or programmed using the
lower than the reference value then the signal to correct
relative position or location of the torch with respect to
is increased. This process continues until the reference
the part, e.g., a change in speed.
value is achieved. The ability to maintain a process vari-
5.2.1 General Control Concepts. Each process variable at the desired or set point value, however, is greatly
affected by whether or not the system is governed by
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
able in the GTAW process is set to an appropriate level to

produce desired weld characteristics (e.g., the desired open or closed loop control methods.
weld width, penetration). The variables that are com- Besides the open loop and closed loop control meth-
monly measured and/or controlled are called process ods, either of these types of control can be based on ana-
variables. The desired weld characteristics are not being log or digital principles. The analog controller typically
20
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
uses circuitry to perform the necessary set-point and The simplest and most common travel speed imple-
output comparisons. Such functions are, in many cases, mentations are the simple linear torch movement or the
easily performed using transistor or integrated circuit de- constant rotation speed of a part. These are examples of a
signs. In other situations it is more desirable to imple- single axis of motion. On the other extreme of complex-
ment the control functions using digital circuits, ity is the robotic movement of a torch that may involve
microprocessors, or some other digital computation sys- many axes of rotation and linear motion to weld a com-
tem such as a personal computer. plex part.
In all of the following process variable control discus-
5.2.1.4 Wire Feed Speed. For mechanized and
sions it must be remembered that the open loop and
automatic gas tungsten arc welding, wire feeders (see
closed loop implementations are possible, and, the con-
Figure 17) are often used to deposit filler metal into a
trol may be implemented using digital or analog tech-
weld joint. The wire must be deposited at a constant vol-
niques or a combination of digital and analog methods.
umetric rate so as to not overfill or underfill the weld
The following provides a brief discussion of typical indi-
joint. The typical wire being fed into the joint by the wire
vidual process variable controls.
feeder comes from a supply spool of wire. In most cases,
5.2.1.1 Current. The desired current from the the wire that is fed to the weld is stiff and the amount of
power source is set either using front panel adjustments, force needed to uncoil or feed the wire is not constant
hand or foot controller, or through an external signal that during the feeding process. Friction forces inside the
may come from a computerized weld controller or a ded- conduit, that guide the wire to the arc, vary considerably
icated weld sequence controller. If closed loop control is as the conduit is manipulated during the weld process.
implemented, a current sensor is used to monitor the ac- Since the force required to feed the wire is not con-
tual current that is produced by the power supply. stant, there must be provisions made in the design of
wire feeders to assure constant wire feed rates. In some
5.2.1.2 General Motion Control. Motion control
of the less expensive designs the speed of the electric
is a general term that refers to control of linear or rota-
motor used to feed the wire is reduced or the motor speed
tional speed or position, or a combination of these. In
is geared such as to achieve mechanical advantage to re-
general, for motion to occur there must be some drive
duce the effect of the varying force on the speed of the
source, such as a motor. If there is feedback involved then
motor. Feedback control methods can also be used to as-
there must be some type of sensor to complete the feed-
sure the constant wire feed rate. The latter provides the
back loop and appropriate electronics for the feedback.
best assurance of constant wire feed rate.
There are three major types of motors used for motion
in GTAW. The first and most common is the DC motor. As with other controllers, the wire feed rate may be
The second type sometimes used is the stepper motor. set using front panel control knobs, signals from comput-
The stepper motor is a digitally controlled motor and can ers, or weld sequence controllers. The motors used most
be used with or without feedback. The third, and less often for this application are DC motors, but digital step-
common is the AC motor, which is also used for larger per motors or AC motors can also be used.
For many welding processes the wire feed rate is con-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
applications.
tinuous throughout the welding sequence. That is, the
5.2.1.3 Travel Speed. Travel speed is simply an wire feed rate is maintained at one level throughout the
implementation of a general motion control, but instead portion of the welding sequence that requires weld wire.
of using position feedback sensors, a speed or velocity In thermal pulsed GTAW wire may be fed only during
sensor is used with appropriate modification to the con- the peak pulse current time. This requires synchroniza-
trols to assure that speed is controlled instead of position. tion of the wire feed command signal to the power source
Travel speed in GTAW applications normally refers to current control signal. This places additional demands on
the relative motion between the part and the torch.23 In the controllers and wire feed motor systems to accom-
many GTAW applications, the part is moved with the plish this task.
torch remaining in a fixed position. In other cases it is In addition to the speed and synchronization of the
easier to move the torch with the part remaining fixed. wire feed there are two additional variations for feeding
wire in the GTAW process. These variations are hot and
23. LaCoursiere, E. J., A. H. Farnham, D. G. Howden, L. cold wire feeders as described in more detail in 5.6.
Zhang. 1993. Requirements for High-Speed (GTA) Welding,
Controller Response Time and Speed Resolution, in the 5.2.1.5 Gas. The torch gas flow rate is most often
International Conference Proceedings on Modeling and Con- manually preset using variable area flowmeters, also
trol of Joining Processes, edited by T. Zacharia, Oak Ridge commonly known as rotameters. This is the floating ball
National Laboratory. American Welding Society, December 8 in a tube-type indicator commonly seen on welding
10, 1993, pp. 500509. equipment. Gas flow is then started and stopped using
21
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 17Typical Wire Feeder
electrically controlled solenoid valves. The solenoid AVC a hunting or continual adjustment of the arc length
valves are most often activated at the appropriate time by will occur. Some manufacturers provide an additional
the weld sequence controller. The flow rate is adjusted option for AVC to prevent this unwanted variation, un-
manually on most variable area flowmeters. Flowmeters less some electronic filtration is used. The option allows
that can be preset are available. In cases where it is de- the controller to measure the arc voltage only during the
sired to actually measure or control gas flow, controllers high or peak current times.
are available for this purpose. The most common of these It must be remembered that it is the relationship be-
is the mass flow meter and controller. For reasons of tween arc length and arc voltage that makes the use of
cost, it is not common to use mass flow meters and con- AVC possible. Once a weld is developed, it is assumed
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
trollers except for cases where flow rates must be re- that this relationship will remain constant over time for
motely controlled or for the most accurate control of production runs. However, many variables can change
flow. the arc voltage vs. arc length relationship. For example,
use of helium provides greater sensitivity than argon gas.
5.2.1.6 Arc Voltage and Arc Length Controllers.
Arc voltage controllers (AVC) can be used in mecha- 5.3 Pulse Controllers. There are numerous types of
nized and automated GTAW welding to maintain arc pulse controllers available. These may be added to ap-
length. In this case, the arc itself is the sensor, since its propriate power sources as an option or integrated as part
voltage is a function of its length. A comparison is made of a power source. In either of these cases, the pulse con-
between the actual arc voltage and the desired arc volt- trol options may be set and controlled via computer or by
age. The difference in voltage is used by the AVC to de- manual selector settings. These controllers provide the
termine which direction (i.e., closer to or further away necessary additional controls required to set pulse time,
from) and at what speed the welding electrode will be pulse current, background current and background time
moved. variables.
In pulsed welding the current varies between the peak 5.4 Weld Sequence Controllers. The weld sequence
and background values. This causes corresponding in- controller provides the capability to synchronize the op-
creases and decreases in arc voltage for a given arc eration of many individual process variable controls so
length. If this fluctuating arc voltage is presented to the that the proper weld sequence may occur. For instance a
22
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
weld sequence controller may execute the following 5.5 Arc Welding Torches. GTAW torches hold the tung-
steps: sten electrode, which conducts welding current to the
(1) pre-flow torch gas for 5 seconds, arc, and provide a means for conveying shielding gas to
(2) start the welding arc, the weld zone. Torches are rated in accordance with the
(3) after the arc is successfully started slope the cur- maximum welding current and duty cycle that can be
rent from 10 amps to 100 amps in ten seconds, etc. used without overheating. Most torches are designed to
The weld sequence controller can have many forms. accommodate a range of electrode sizes and different
The simplest form is a multi-channel timer that simply types and sizes of gas cups/nozzles. The heat generated
starts the various individual process variable controllers in the torch during welding is removed by shielding gas
at the required time. For example, the pre-flow of torch cooling and/or water-cooling. Reflected heat can reduce
gas may be started by opening a solenoid valve, the timer the duty cycle rating.
then signals the arc starter, and when the arc is initiated it
5.5.1 Types of Torches. Several types of welding
simply maintains a current for a predetermined length of
torches are available and will be briefly described.
time. In the simplest form, relative torch motion may be
provided manually by the operator. 5.5.1.1 Gas-Cooled Torches. Gas-cooled torches
On the other extreme of capability is the sophisticated (a nonstandard term is air-cooled torches) provide cool-
computerized weld controller. This may be a dedicated ing by the flow of a relatively cool shielding gas through
microprocessor or computer system. All process variable the torch. Gas-cooled torches are limited to a maximum
control values and functions are handled by this one weld current of about 200 A at 60% duty cycle. Gas-cooled
controller. Figure 18 shows a nonpulsed weld sequence torches may be used at high current settings for low-duty
and Figure 19 shows a pulsed weld sequenced schematic. cycles, short weld lengths with frequent starts and stops,
Figure 18Typical GTAW Sequence for Non-Pulsed DC Welding
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AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 19 Typical GTAW Sequence for Pulsed DC Current and Pulsed Wire Feed
and tacking of heavy materials. A gas-cooled torch is Water-cooled torches typically use a water-propylene
illustrated in Figure 8. glycol mixture in a closed system with a recirculator (see
5.5.5 on Water Coolers). This is especially needed for
5.5.1.2 Water-Cooled Torches. Water-cooled
systems employing high-frequency arc stabilization and
torches are cooled by the continuous flow of water
high-frequency arc starts. This reduces mineral build-up
through passageways in the holder. As illustrated in Fig-
in the torch from tap water, as well as conserving water.
ure 20,24 cooling water enters the torch through the inlet
However, tap water is sometimes used when it does not
hose, circulates through the torch, and exits through an
interfere with the high-frequency system.
outlet hose. The power cable from the power source to
A comparison of typical current ratings for gas-cooled
the torch is typically enclosed within the cooling water
and water-cooled torches is shown in Table 2.25
outlet hose.
Water-cooled torches are designed for use at higher 5.5.1.3 Manual Torches. Torches for manual ap-
welding currents and duty cycles than gas-cooled plications have a head angle (angle between the electrode
torches. Typical welding currents of 300 A to 500 A can and handle) of 90, 100, or 120. Torches are also avail-
be used, although some torches have been built to handle able with adjustable angle heads and straight-line (pencil
welding currents up to 1500 A. Most machine or auto- type) heads. Manual torches often have auxiliary
matic welding applications use water-cooled torches. switches, valves, and controls built into their handles for
controlling current and shielding gas flow.
24. AWS Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 2: Welding 25. AWS Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 2: Welding
Processes, Chapter 3: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding. Figure 3.4, Processes, Chapter 3: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding. Table 3.1,
p. 78. p. 77.
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24
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 20Typical Water-Cooled GTAW Torch (Cross-Sectional View)
Table 2
Comparison of Typical Current Ratings for Gas-Cooled and Water-Cooled GTAW Torches(1)
Torch Size
Torch Characteristics Small Medium Large
Maximum Current (100% duty cycle), A 200 200300 500

Cooling Method Gas Water Water
Electrode Diameters accommodated, in. [mm] 0.020 to 3/32 [0.5 to 2.4] 0.040 to 5/32 [1.0 to 4] 0.040 to 1/4 [1.0 to 6]
Gas Cup Diameters accommodated, in. [mm] 1/4 to 5/8 [6 to 16] 1/4 to 3/4 [6 to 19] 3/8 to 3/4 [10 to 19]
Note:
(1) AWS Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 2: Welding Processes, Chapter 3, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, Table 3.1, p. 77.
The welder prefers the lightest torch possible for any 5.5.1.4 Mechanized and Automated Torches.
application because of the tiring effects of positioning The basic mechanized or automatic torch has a straight-
and manipulating the torch with relationship to the weld line (pencil type) head (see Figure 21). The torch is ei-
pool. The angle of the torch head is usually dependent on ther rotated mechanically around a joint to be welded,
the type of welding to be performed. A 120 torch head mounted on a tracking device for longitudinal welds or
is preferred when making fillet welds and a 100 torch on a robot for all configuration welds.
head is preferred when making butt welds. Figure 2126
5.5.1.5 Orbital Weld Heads. Integral electrode
shows typical GTAW torches.
holders are often used in orbital weld heads. With closed-
head types, the electrode is held in a planetary gear hous-
26. Photo courtesy of CK Worldwide. ing that rotates around the stationary workpiece (see
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25
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 21Examples of GTAW Torches
9.4.1.2 for further details). Open head types feature the ramic, fused quartz, lava, or other materials. Ceramic
torch mounted on a gear that rotates around the work- cups are the least expensive and most popular, but are
piece (see Figure 2227). Shielding gases are contained brittle and must be replaced often. Fused quartz cups are
within the weld head for closed head types and are pro- transparent and allow better vision of the arc and elec-
vided through the torch in open head types. trode. However, contamination from metal vapors from
the weld can cause them to become opaque, and they are
5.5.2 Collets. Electrodes of various diameters are se-
also brittle. Water-cooled metal nozzles have longer life
cured in the torch by appropriately sized collets or
and are used mostly for machine and automatic welding
chucks. Collets are typically made of a copper alloy. The
applications where welding currents exceed 250 A.
electrode is gripped by the collet when the torch cap is
tightened in place. Good contact between the electrode 5.5.3.2 Sizes and Shapes of Gas Nozzles (Cups).
and the inside diameter of the collet is essential for The gas nozzle (cup) must be large enough to provide
proper current transfer and electrode cooling. shielding gas coverage of the weld pool area and sur-
5.5.3 Gas Nozzles/Cups. Shielding gases are directed rounding hot base metal. The gas nozzle diameter must
to the weld zone by gas nozzles, which fit onto the head be appropriate for the volume of shield gas needed to
of the torch as illustrated in Figure 23. Nozzles are more provide protection and the stiffness needed to sustain
often called by the nonstandard term gas cup. Also incor- coverage in drafts. A delicate balance exists between the
porated in the torch body are diffusers or carefully pat- gas nozzle diameter and the flow rate. If the flow rate for
terned jets or holes that feed the shield gas to the gas a given diameter is excessive, the effectiveness of the
nozzle (cup). Their purpose is to assist in producing a shield is destroyed because of turbulence. High flow
laminar flow of the exiting gas shield (see 5.5.3.3 for gas rates without turbulence require large diameters; these
lenses). Gas nozzles are made of various heat-resistant are essential conditions at high currents. Size selection
materials in different shapes, diameters, and lengths. depends on electrode size, type of weld joint, weld area
These gas nozzles are either threaded to the torch or held to be effectively shielded, and access to the weld joint.
by friction fit. Suggested gas nozzle sizes for various electrode di-
ameters are covered in Section 6. Use of the smallest gas
5.5.3.1 Gas Nozzle/Cup Materials. Shielding gas nozzle permits welding in more restricted areas, and of-
nozzles are made of ceramic, metal, metal jacketed ce- fers a better view of the weld. However, use of too small
a gas nozzle may cause shielding gas turbulence and jet-
27. Photo courtesy of Arc Machines Incorporated. ting, as well as melting of the lip of the gas nozzle.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
26
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 22Orbital Weld Head with Wire Feeder
HIGH IMPACT O-RING O-RINGS (2)

CERAMIC NOZZLE (5/16 in. [8 mm]) (3/16 in. [5 mm])
COLLET BODY COLLET ELECTRODE
GASKET SHORT CAP

TORCH BODY MEDIUM LONG
INSULATOR
GAS LENS HIGH

IMPACT NOZZLE GAS LENS
COLLET BODY TORCH BODY
Figure 23Components of a Typical GTAW Torch, Including Gas Nozzle/Cup,

Gas Lens, Collet Body, Torch Body, Collet, and Electrode
27
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Larger gas nozzles provide better shielding gas coverage,

especially for welding reactive metals such as titanium.
Gas nozzles (cups) are available in a variety of lengths
to accommodate various joint geometries and the re-
quired clearance between the gas nozzle and the work.
Longer straight gas nozzles generally produce stiffer, less
turbulent shielding; however, they require longer elec-
trode extensions.
The majority of gas nozzles (cups) are cylindrical in
shape with either straight or tapered ends. To minimize
shielding gas turbulence, nozzles with internal streamlin-
ing are available. Nozzles are also available with elon-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
gated trailing sections or flared ends which provide

better shielding for welding metals such as titanium,
which is highly susceptible to contamination at elevated
temperatures.
5.5.3.3 Gas Lenses. One device used for assuring a
laminar flow of shielding gas is an attachment called a
gas lens. Gas lenses contain a porous barrier diffuser and
are designed to fit around the electrode or collet. Gas
lenses produce a longer, undisturbed flow of shielding
gas (see Figure 2428) by streamlining the flow of gas as it
exits the torch. They enable operators to weld with the
gas nozzle (cup) 1 in. [25 mm] or more from the work,
improving the welders ability to see the weld pool and
allowing them to reach places with limited access such as
inside corners.
Figure 24GTAW Torch Without a Gas Lens
5.5.4 Cables, Connectors, and Hoses. Gas-cooled
torches usually have a composite power and shielding
(Left) and with a Gas Lens (Right)
gas cable that goes to the torch body. Water-cooled
torches usually have a water inlet hose, a composite
power input and water outlet cable, and a shielding gas
inlet hose. carefully prior to installation or use. See Table 3 for typi-
A protective sheathing over the cable and hoses helps cal welding cable capacities. Table 4 provides a guide for
to reduce abrasive wear. If the extra weight can be toler- selecting the size of the cable based on the welding cur-
ated by the welder or in machine applications, the cables rent to be used.
and hoses going to the torch can be wrapped in this pro- Neoprene jacket cables have good resistance to wear
tective cover. It is usually easiest to buy this as an assem- and usually remain flexible over a wide range of operat-
bly from the manufacturer. Nylon braid or glass fiber zip ing temperatures. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and other
covers are also available. jacket materials are available but are more susceptible to
damage from heat or abrasive wear.
5.5.4.1 Cables. Good cables that are large enough Stranded copper cables are probably best for the
to handle the maximum weld current should be used. power return (worklead). In certain applications where
Some cables usually have the current rating and other re- lower RF noise is desired or the most flexibility is re-
lated information marked on the outside of the jacket at quired (e.g., a robot) then braided cable may have to be
periodic intervals. Tables 3 and 4 are provided for refer- used. The braided cables are usually larger than stranded
ence only as guides to nominal values for current capac- cables for the same current rating.
ity in a portable welding cable. Actual ratings are Another consideration is the inductance of the cable
established by the product manufacturer and by with respect to the signal going through the cable. In the
NEMA.29 Actual cable properties should be checked use of pulsed arc GTAW the cables should be kept as
short as possible in order to minimize the attenuation and
28. Photo courtesy of CK Worldwide. rounding off of the pulse wave form that occurs because
29. National Electrical Manufacturers Association. of the inductance.
28
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Table 3
Typical Welding Cable Capacities
Approximate Welding Current Typical Voltage Drop
AWG or Net Weight per Typical OD Capacity @104F [40C] per 100 ft [30.5 m] @
MCM Size(1) 100 ft [30.5 m], lb [kg] Minimum, in. [mm] Ambient, Amperes(2) Maximum Current, Volts
8 10 [4.5]. 0.31 [7.9]0 0 60 4.00
6 13 [5.9]. 0.37 [9.4]0 0 90 3.76
5 17 [7.7]. 0.41 [10.4] 0105 3.49
4 20 [9.1]. 0.43 [10.9] 0120 3.17
3 23 [10]0 0.46 [11.7] 0180 3.76
2 29 [13]0 0.52 [13.2] 0240 3.97
1 36 [16]0 0.57 [14.5] 0300 3.95
1/0 43 [20]0 0.63 [16.0] 0360 3.74
2/0 54 [24]0 0.69 [17.5] 0450 3.72
3/0 67 [30]0 0.76 [19.3] 0540 3.54
4/0 83 [38]0 0.83 [21.0] 0640 3.32
250 96 [44]0 0.91 [23.1] 0710 3.12
300 115 [52]0 0.96 [24.4] 0780 2.86
350 131 [59]0 1.02 [25.9] 0860 2.70
400 153 [69]0 1.08 [27.4] 0940 2.59
450 171 [78]0 1.13 [28.7] 1020 2.50
500 189 [86]0 1.18 [29.2] 1090 2.40
600 226 [103] 1.30 [33.0] 1220 2.24
700 260 [118] 1.40 [35.6] 1340 2.10
750 277 [126] 1.43 [36.3] 1400 2.06
800 295 [134] 1.47 [37.3] 1450 2.00
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
900 329 [149] 1.53 [38.9] 1540 1.89
10000 364 [165] 1.61 [40.9] 1630 1.80
Notes:
(1) The sizes of cable recommended by the Machine Group of the NEMA Electric Welding Section for standard hand-welding equipment based on
total lengths up to 90 ft [27.4 m], that is, 45 ft [13.7 m] of welding cable and 45 ft [13.7 m] of return cable, are as follows:
100 A welding machineNo. 2 cable
200 A welding machineNo. 2 cable
300 A welding machineNo. 1/0 cable
(2) Ampacities are based on a copper temperature of 167F [75C] and an ambient temperature of 104F [40C] and yield load factors of from approx-
imately 32% for the No. 2 AWG cable to approximately 23% for the No. 3/0 AWG cable and higher for the smaller sizes.
5.5.4.2 Connectors. The termination of the cables make the hose. Gas hoses should be chosen to reduce the
and hoses (usually called connectors) can vary widely amount of moisture diffusion through the hose wall into
from one manufacturer to another or from one country to the gas stream. This will help to keep the gas as pure as
another. This applies to both the torch end and the power possible. A variety of plastic gas hoses are becoming
source end connectors for the cable/hoses. This detail more readily available; all of these usually perform better
must not be overlooked at the time of purchasing equip- than the traditional rubber hoses because there is
ment for connections to present equipment or for future less permeation of ambient moisture to the gas.31, 32, 33
compatibility. There are many adapter fittings available
to connect from one style to another. 31. Bhadha, P. 1995. Control of Moisture and Contaminants in
5.5.4.3 Hoses. Gas hoses and water hoses/power Shielding Gases. Welding Journal, Vol. 73, No. 5, pp. 5763.
32. Bhadha, P. 1999. How Welding Hose Material Affects
cables may be made from different materials.30 Consid-
Shielding Gas Quality. Welding Journal, Vol. 78, No. 7, pp.
eration should be given as to the type of material used to
3540.
33. Farish, E. 1994. Atmospheric Contamination of TIG
30. Practical TIG (GTA) Welding, Peter W. Muncaster, Welding HosesCauses and Cures, Welding & Metal Fabri-
1991, Abington Publishing, ISBN 1855730200. cation, Vol. 62, No. 7, pp. 300, 301.
29
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Table 4
Guide for Selecting the Size of Cable Based on the Welding Current(1),(2)
Distance from Welding Machine, ft [m]
50 [15.2] 75 [22.9] 100 [30.5] 125 [38.1] 150 [45.7] 200 [61.0] 225 [68.6] 250 [76.2] 300 [91.4] 350 [106.7]
Welding
Current, A Cable Size
100 4 4 2 2 1 1/0 2/0 2/0 3/0 4/0

150 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
200 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0
250 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0
300 1 2/0 3/0 4/0
350 1/0 3/0 4/0
400 2/0 4/0 4/0
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
450 2/0 4/0

500 3/0
550 4/0
600 250 MCM
750 350 MCM
900 500 MCM
Notes:
(1) Neoprene welding cable, 600 volt, Class K (30 AWG), flexible stranding copper. Figures above represent half the length needed for a welding
installation based on voltage drop of 4 volts per IPCEA and NEMA specifications. These figures should be doubled to obtain total cable length
(i.e., welding lead plus the work lead length).
(2) Based on information provided by:
(a) Nehring Electrical Works Company, P.O. Box 965, 813 East Locust Street, DeKalb, IL 60115 (Tel. 815-756-2741), and
(b) ExCel Wire and Cable Co., 108 Elm Avenue, P.O. Box D, Tiffin, OH 44883 (Tel. 419-448-0434).
The flexibility of the material at various temperatures 5.6 Wire Feeders. Wire feed systems are made from a
also must be considered. (See Section 7 for an in-depth number of components and vary from simple to complex.
discussion on gas purity.) Composite water hoses and The basic system consists of a means of gripping the
power cables are usually made from materials that have a wire sufficiently to pull the wire from the spool and push
trade off between the dielectric insulation factors and the it through a conduit to a guide tube to the point of weld-
resistance to other factors such as corrosion, permeation ing. Electronic switches and controls are necessary for
of moisture through the hose, and flexibility. the electric drive motor. The wire can be either ambient
temperature (cold) or preheated (hot). (Note: The hot end
5.5.5 Water Coolers and Re-Circulators. The cool- of the wire must be maintained in the shielding gas
ant in water-cooled torches is usually maintained in a stream.)
closed system including a reservoir, pump, and radiator
or water chiller to disperse heat from the system. The ca- 5.6.1 Cold Wire. The system for feeding cold wire
pacity of these systems ranges from one to fifty gallons. has three components:
The coolant is typically propylene glycol/water mixtures (1) A wire drive mechanism that either pushes or
in approximately 50-50 proportions. This helps to pre- pulls the wire off the wire spool.
vent freezing, minimizes corrosion and provides lubrica- (2) A speed control to regulate the speed at which the
tion for the water pump. These systems can also be used wire is delivered into the weld pool.
for cooling some tooling. (3) A wire guide attachment that ensures proper deliv-
Deionized water is preferred over standard tap water ery and placement of the wire into the weld pool.
because of minerals and contaminants in tap water that The filler wire is normally fed into the leading edge of
can clog the torch. If deionized water is used, the supply the weld during cold wire welding. Cold wire feeders
should be changed periodically. Some manufacturers usually include controls for wire start delay and auto-
recommend every three months. matic retract prior to extinguishing the arc. Cold wire
30
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 26Schematic of
GTAW with Hot Wire Feed
holder from which inert gas flows to protect the hot wire
from oxidation. The hot wire is generally fed into the
weld pool following the arc. This system is schematically
illustrated in Figure 26.34 Normally, a mixture of 75%
helium and 25% argon is used to shield the tungsten elec-
trode and the molten weld pool. Sometimes the interac-
tion of the electrical current used to heat the wire and the
arc can result in unwanted deflection of the arc or arc
Figure 25GTAW Torch blow. In this situation a low voltage AC current is uti-
with Cold Wire Feed lized to correct the arc blow.
5.7 Arc and Torch Oscillators. Oscillation can be used

in manual, mechanized, and automatic welding. For
manual welding, the welder moves the torch side to side
or back and forth along the length of weld. In mecha-
feeders can be used in semiautomatic, mechanized, and
nized welding the oscillation is typically produced by
automatic GTAW applications. They are available in
moving the entire welding torch by mechanical means or
2 in.12 in. [50 mm300 mm] spool versions. Wires
by moving the arc plasma with the aid of an externally
ranging from 0.015 in.3/32 in. [0.4 mm2.4 mm] in
applied magnetic field. The control variables in arc oscil-
diameter are used. Special wire feeders are available to
lation are oscillation speed, displacement direction, end
provide continuous, pulsed or intermittent wire feed.
dwell times, amplitude, and frequency.
Figure 25 shows a GTAW torch with cold wire feed.
Aluminum wire may require other special features built Oscillation allows placing the welding heat at precise
into the wire feeder. locations. Figure 27 shows a deep groove weld where
magnetic arc deflection is used to place stringer beads
5.6.2 Hot Wire. The process for hot wire addition is with limited torch movement. This is advantageous when
similar to that for cold wire, except that the wire is either welding irregular shaped parts. The number of welding
resistance or induction heated to a temperature close to passes and total heat input can be reduced when arc
its melting point just before it contacts the molten weld
pool. When using a preheated (hot) wire in machine and 34. AWS Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 2: Welding
automatic gas tungsten arc welding in the flat position, Processes, Chapter 3: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding. Figure 3.6,
the wire is fed mechanically to the weld pool through a p. 83.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
31
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
1/2 in.
[13 mm]
(A)
Figure 27Magnetically Deflected

Arc Laying a Stringer Bead
1/2 in.
in a Deep Groove Weld [13 mm]
oscillation is used which reduces the cost by as much as

50% as well as reducing the weld shrinkage and upset-
ting. Figure 28 illustrates the differences in distortion by
using magnetic oscillation.35 Arc oscillation is suited to a
wide range of materials including stainless steel, carbon
(B)
manganese steels, and nonferrous alloys. Some high
strength low alloy steels should be welded using the
stringer bead technique to meet weld toughness require-
Figure 28Cross Sections of Welds Made in
ments, for which arc oscillation may be detrimental. 1/2 in. [13 mm] Thick Stainless Steel;
Weld performance testing should be completed prior to (A) with Magnetic Arc Oscillation, and
using arc oscillation. (B) without Magnetic Arc Oscillation
5.8 Arc Initiation Equipment. There are several com-
mon methods used to initiate the welding arc between the
electrode and the work. These methods are necessary
since an arc cannot be initiated using a standard power following methods are the most commonly used to help
source voltage when the electrode to work distance is at initiate an arc at the beginning of the weld cycle.
normal welding arc lengths. Arc initiation requires a
much shorter gap between the electrode and work, higher 5.8.1 High-Frequency Starters. High-frequency
voltage, or a means of making the gas conductive. The starting can be used with DC or AC power sources for
both manual and automatic applications. High-frequency
generators usually consist of a spark-gap oscillator that
superimposes a high voltage AC output at radio frequen-
35. Hicken, G. K., Stucki, N. D., and Randall, H. W., Appli- cies in series with the welding circuit. The generator out-
cation of Magnetically Controlled Welding Arcs, Welding put is transferred from the spark-gap circuit to the
Journal, Vol. 55, No. 4, April 1976, pp. 264267. electrode leg of the welding circuit by means of an air
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
32
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
AIR CORE tance to establish the arc. The advantage of this method
TRANSFORMER of arc initiation is its simplicity of operation for manual
welding. Depending on the instantaneous short circuit
current capability of the welding power source, the cur-
ELECTRODE rent through the welding electrode upon arc initiation
SPARK GAP may cause damage to the weldment or the electrode. This
OSCILLATOR is corrected by limiting the current upon arc start. The
disadvantage of touch starting is the tendency for the
WELDING electrode to stick to the workpiece, causing electrode
POWER GAS
contamination and transfer of tungsten to the workpiece.
SUPPLY NOZZLE
HIGH FREQUENCY 5.8.4 Touch And Retract Starters. The touch and re-
GENERATOR
tract starters are similar to contact starting in that the tip
of the electrode is lowered to make contact with the
WORKPIECE
workpiece. However, the controls in this starter do not
allow current to flow until the electrode begins to be
withdrawn, thus striking the arc. This eliminates the ten-
Figure 29High-Frequency Arc Starting dency for electrode contamination. Another variation in-
volves a low current to be passed through the electrode,
which heats the electrode tip and allows the arc to more
easily be initiated upon retraction.
core transformer, as illustrated in Figure 29.36 The high-

frequency generator produces a series of closely spaced 6. Tungsten Electrodes
bursts of high voltage energy. This high voltage ionizes
the gas between the electrode and the work. The ionized 6.1 General. In GTAW the word tungsten refers to the
gas will then conduct welding current that initiates the pure element tungsten and its various composites used as
welding arc. welding electrodes. Tungsten electrodes are called non-
Because radiation from a high-frequency generator consumable (if the process is properly used), because
may disturb radio, electronic, and computer equipment, they do not melt or transfer to the weld as a filler metal.
the use of this type of arc starting equipment is governed In other welding processes, such as SMAW, GMAW, and
by regulations of the Federal Communications Commis- SAW, the electrode is the filler metal. The function of a
sion. The user should follow the instructions of the tungsten electrode is to serve as one of the electrical ter-
manufacturer for the proper installation and use of minals in the welding circuit. An electric arc is formed at
high-frequency arc starting equipment. the electrode tip and this arc supplies the heat required
for welding.
5.8.2 Pulse/Capacitor Discharge Starters. Applica- Pure tungsten has a melting point of 6170F [3410C]
tion of a high-voltage pulse between the tungsten elec- and a boiling point of 10220F [5660C]37; the melting
trode and the work will ionize the shielding gas and and boiling points of tungsten electrodes vary with the
establish the welding arc. This method is generally used dopant composition. Approaching the high melting tem-
with DC power sources in machine welding applications. perature, tungsten becomes increasingly thermionic,
This technique utilizes capacitors and/or inductors to which means that the tungsten can more easily emit or
store energy. The stored energy is typically discharged in give off electrons. It reaches this temperature by cathodic
the form of a high voltage impulse to ionize the gas sur- or anodic spot heating and resistance heating. Were it not
rounding the welding electrode, thus initiating the arc. If for the significant cooling effect of electrons emitting
the arc start is unsuccessful, the process is repeated. from its tip, during DCEN (straight polarity) operation,
the heating would cause the tip to melt. Provided the
5.8.3 Contact Starting (Scratch or Touch Start). electrode is used within the current-carrying capacity
With the power source energized, and the shielding gas range for its specific type, diameter and polarity, it is
flowing from the cup, the torch is lowered toward the virtually impossible to melt and/or vaporize a tungsten
workpiece until the tungsten electrode contacts with the electrode during welding in an inert shielding gas
workpiece. The torch is quickly withdrawn a short dis-
37. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 54th Edition,
36. AWS Welding Handbook, Eighth Edition, Volume 2: Fig- p. B-35, 1973-74. Robert C. Weast, Editor. CRC Press, Cleve-
ure 3.21, p. 93. land, OH.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
33
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Table 5
Chemical Composition Requirements for Tungsten Electrodes(1)
Weight Percent (wt-%)
Other Oxides
AWS Color UNS W Min. or Elements
Classification Code(6),(7) Number(2) (Difference)(3) CeO2 La2O3 ThO2 ZrO2 Total
EWP(5) Green R07900 99.5 0.5

EWCe-2(5) Orange(8) R07932 97.3 1.82.2 0.5
EWLa-1(5) Black R07941 98.3 0.81.2 0.5
EWLa-1.5 Gold R07942 97.8 1.31.7 0.5
EWLa-2 Blue R07943 97.3 1.82.2 0.5
EWTh-1(5) Yellow R07911 98.3 0.81.2 0.5
EWTh-2(5) Red R07912 97.3 1.72.2 0.5
EWZr-1(5) Brown R07920 99.1 0.150.40 0.5
EWG(4) Gray 94.5 Not Not Not Not 0.5
Specified Specified Specified Specified
General Note: See AWS A5.12/A5.12M-98, Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten-Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding and Cutting, Table 1.
Notes:
(1) The electrode shall be analyzed for the specific oxides for which values are shown in this table. If the presence of other elements or oxides is indicated
in the course of the work, the amount of those elements or oxides shall be determined to ensure that their total does not exceed the limit specified
for Other Oxides or Elements, Total in the last column of the table.
(2) SAE/ASTM Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys.
(3) Tungsten content shall be determined by subtracting the total of all specified oxides and other oxides and elements from 100%.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(4) Classification EWG must contain some compound or element additive and the manufacturer must identify the type and minimal content of the
additive on the packaging.
(5) See AWS A5.12/A5.12M for closely matching grades in ISO 6848.
(6) The actual color may be applied in the form of bands, dots, etc. at any point on the surface of the electrode.
(7) The method of color coding used shall not change the diameter of the electrode beyond the tolerances permitted.
(8) Color varies in ISO 6848, Tungsten Electrodes for Inert Gas Shielded Arc Welding and for Plasma Cutting and Welding.
atmosphere. A number of desirable performance char- coniated, Th is for thoriated, Ce is for ceriated, La is for
acteristics result from additives to tungsten which lower lanthanated and G stands for general or unspecified
the electronic work function. oxide additions. Finally, the numbers40 specify the
nominal alloying composition (in wt-%). For instance,
6.2 Classifications of Electrodes. Tungsten electrodes EWTh-1 is a thoriated tungsten electrode that contains a
are classified on the basis of their chemical composi- nominal 1 wt-% thoria.
tions, as summarized in Table 5. Requirements for tung-
A marking system was developed to provide identifi-
sten electrodes are given in the latest edition of AWS
cation of the various types of electrodes, and each tung-
A5.12, Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten Alloy
sten electrode classification has a color code, as shown in
Electrodes for Arc Welding and Cutting.38 In the AWS
Table 5. Individual electrodes are marked, typically with
classification system, E stands for an electrode, which is
a band (or dot) of the appropriate color, on one end of the
used as one terminal of the arc welding circuit.39 The W
electrode. See the latest revision of AWS A5.12 for more
stands for the chemical symbol for tungsten (also called
information.
Wolfram). The final letters indicate the alloying element
or oxide additions. P designates a pure tungsten electrode The doped (alloyed) tungsten electrodes contain oxide
without intentional alloying elements, while all other additions, which should be evenly dispersed throughout
designations are for certain oxide additions. Zr is for zir- the entire length of the electrode. These additions lower
the temperature at which the electrodes emit electrons, to
a temperature below the melting point of the tungsten.
38. Additional information can be found in various ISO docu-
These doped tungsten electrodes are able to handle
ments, including ISO6848, Tungsten Electrodes for Inert Gas
Shielded Arc Welding, and for Plasma Cutting and Welding.
39. AWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, 40. An exception is EWZr-1 which is not 1% ZrO2, but rather
American Welding Society, Miami, FL. 0.15%0.40%.
34
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Table 6
Typical Current Ranges For Tungsten Electrodes(1) and Recommended Gas Cup Sizes
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Direct Current, A Alternating Current, A
(3)DCEN(3) (3)DCEP(3)
Electrode Diameter Gas Cup I.D. (DCSP) (DCRP) Unbalanced Wave AC(3) Balanced Wave AC(3)
in. mm in. mm EWX-X(2) EWX-X EWP EWX-X EWP EWX-X
0.010 0.30 1/4 6 Up to 15 N/A Up to 15 Up to 15 Up to 15 Up to 15

0.020 0.50 1/4 6 520 N/A 515 520 1020 520
0.040 1.00 3/8 10 1580 N/A 1060 1580 2030 2060
(4)0.060(4) 1.60 3/8 10 70150 1020 50100 70150 3080 60120
0.093 (3/32) 2.40 1/2 13 150250 1530 100160 140235 60130 100180
0.125 (1/8) 3.20 1/2 13 250400 2540 150200 225325 100180 160250
0.156 (5/32) 4.00 1/2 13 400500 4055 200275 300400 160240 200320
0.187 (3/16) 4.80 5/8 16 500750 5580 250350 400500 190300 290390
0.250 (1/4) 6.40 3/4 19 7501000 80125 325450 500630 250400 340525
Notes:
(1) All values are based on the use of argon as a shielding gas. Other current values may be employed depending on the shielding gas, type of equipment,
and application.
(2) EWX-X refers to the X-X dopant and percentage of dopant in the tungsten electrode. See the latest AWS A5.12. Ce-2, La-1, La-1.5, La-2, Th-1,
Th-2, Zr-1 and others may be included in this category.
(3) DCEN = Direct current electrode negative (straight polarity); DCEP = Direct current electrode positive (reverse polarity); AC = Alternating current.
(4) Although the metric size 1.6 mm (0.063 in.) is closer to 1/16 in. (0.0625 in.), it has been common industry practice to refer to the U.S. customary
size 0.060 in. as 1/16 in.
higher welding currents,41 and they typically provide im- The pure tungsten electrodes are more prone to con-
proved arc starting characteristics, help stabilize the arc, tamination of the weld than the other types of tungsten
and increase the life of the electrodes. However, each has electrodes. They are generally only used for AC welding,
distinct electrical and arc characteristics, which may re- because DC welding with pure tungsten electrodes typi-
sult in different welding performances and weld bead cally produces small amounts of tungsten inclusions (dis-
shapes. continuities) in the weld.
6.2.1 Pure Tungsten Electrodes (EWP). Pure tung-
6.2.2 Zirconiated Tungsten Electrodes (EWZr-1).
sten electrodes (EWP) contain a minimum of 99.5%
Zirconiated tungsten electrodes (EWZr-1) contain a
tungsten, with no intentional alloying elements, as sum-
small amount of zirconium oxide (ZrO2, referred to as
marized in Table 5. The current-carrying capacity of pure
zirconia), as listed in Table 5. Zirconiated tungsten elec-
tungsten electrodes is lower than that of the doped (al-
trodes have welding characteristics that generally fall be-
loyed) tungsten electrodes (see Table 6). Pure tungsten
tween those of pure tungsten and thoriated tungsten.
electrodes are used mainly with AC for welding alumi-
They are normally the electrode of choice for AC weld-
num and magnesium alloys. The tip of the EWP elec-
ing of aluminum and magnesium alloys because they
trode maintains a clean, balled end (see Figure 3042),
combine the balled end typical of pure tungsten along
which provides good arc stability. The pure tungsten
with the higher current capacity (see Table 6), desirable
electrodes also may be used with DC but they do not pro-
arc stability and better arc starting characteristics of tho-
vide the arc initiation and arc stability characteristics of
riated tungsten electrodes. They are more resistant to
thoriated, ceriated, or lanthanated electrodes. DCEP (re-
tungsten contamination of the weld pool than pure tung-
verse polarity) welding causes splitting and melting of
sten and are preferred for radiographic-quality aluminum
pure tungsten electrodes.
welding applications where tungsten contamination of
the weld must be minimized.
41. Ushio, M. and Matsuda, F., 1986, Study on Gas-Tungsten-
Arc Electrodes: Comparative Study on Characteristics of 6.2.3 Thoriated Tungsten Electrodes (EWTh-X).
Tungsten-Oxide Cathode. IIW Doc. #212-648-86. Thorium oxide (ThO2, called thoria) is the present industry-
42. Photo courtesy of Pratt & Whitney. standard additive to tungsten electrodes. Two types of
35
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
The EWTh-1 and EWTh-2 tungsten electrodes were

designed for DCEN applications. They maintain a sharp-
ened tip configuration during welding, which is desirable
for the welding of steel, nickel alloys, and most alloys
other than aluminum or magnesium. Thoriated tungsten
electrodes are not normally used with AC welding be-
cause it is difficult to maintain the balled end, which is de-
sirable with AC welding, without splitting the electrode.
EWTh-3 is a discontinued classification of tungsten
electrode, which had a blue color code. Note: the new
EWLa-2 now uses a blue color code. This tungsten elec-
trode had an integral longitudinal or axial segment
throughout its length which contained 1.0 wt-%2.0 wt-
% thoria and the average thoria content of the electrode
was 0.35 wt-%0.55 wt-%. Advances in powder metal-
lurgy and other processing developments have caused
this electrode classification to be discontinued, as it has
limited commercial applicability.
SAFETY NOTE*
Thoria is a very low-level radioactive oxide. How-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ever, if welding is to be performed in confined spaces
for prolonged periods of time or if electrode grinding
dust might be ingested, special precautions relative to
ventilation should be considered. The user should
consult appropriate safety personnel.
The level of contamination/radiation has not been

found to represent a health hazard during welding, but
rather the grinding dust from the electrodes may be a
concern.43, 44, 45, 46 However, in other nations, especially
Figure 30Balled Tip on the End of a Pure European countries, tungsten electrodes containing
Tungsten Electrode Used for AC Welding greater than 2% thoria are used less now because of
concerns with radiation exposure to the welder. Alter-
native rare earth doped tungsten electrodes are available
and are discussed below.
thoriated tungsten electrodes are readily available, as *ANSI/AWS A5.12/A5.12M-98, Specification for Tungsten and
shown in Table 5. The EWTh-1 electrodes contain a Tungsten-Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding and Cutting, p. 8.
nominal 1% thoria and the EWTh-2 electrodes contain a
nominal 2% thoria, evenly dispersed through their entire 6.2.4 Ceriated Tungsten Electrodes (EWCe-2). The
lengths. EWCe-2 electrodes are tungsten alloy electrodes
Thoriated tungsten electrodes are superior to pure
tungsten electrodes in several respects. The thoria is re- 43. Thoriated Tungsten Electrodes Studied for Effects on Welders
sponsible for increasing the usable life of these elec- Health, Welding Journal, Vol. 73, No. 5, May 1994, pp. 8889.
trodes compared with the pure tungsten electrodes. This 44. Vinzents, P., Poulsen, O. M., et al., 1994. Cancer Risk and
Thoriated Welding Electrodes, Occupational Hygiene, Vol. 1,
is because the thoria provides higher electron emissivity,
no. 1, 1994 pp. 2733.
typically 20% higher current carrying capacity (see Table
45. McElearny, N. and Irvine, D., 1993. A Study of Thorium
6), generally longer life, lower electrode tip tempera- Exposure During Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding in an Air-
tures, and greater resistance to contamination of the line Engineering Population, Journal of Occupational Medi-
weld. With these electrodes, arc starting is easier, and the cine, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993, pp. 707711.
arc is more stable than with pure tungsten or zirconiated 46. British Health and Safety Executive Information Document
tungsten electrodes for DC welding. HSE 564/56, June 1991.
36
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
containing a nominal 2% cerium oxide (CeO2referred

Table 7
to as ceria), as shown in Table 5. These electrodes were
developed as possible replacements for thoriated tung- Comparison of Surface Finish Designations
sten electrodes because ceria, unlike thoria, is not a Grit RMS(1) (in.) RMS (m) Ra (in.) Ra (m)
radioactive material. Compared with pure tungsten, the
ceriated tungsten electrodes provide similar current lev- 500 416 0.10.4 3.614.4 0.10.4
els (Table 6) and the improved arc starting and arc stabil- 320 1032 0.20.8 9.028.8 0.20.7
ity characteristics of thoriated tungsten electrodes. 240 1563 0.41.6 13.556.8 0.31.4
180 7090 1.82.3 63.181.1 1.62.1
EWCe-2 electrodes are recommended for DCEN weld- 120 100 2.5 90 2.3
ing but can operate successfully with AC.
Note:
Because these electrodes contain a different oxide (1) RMS (in.) = 1.1 Ra (in.).
than the thoriated tungsten electrodes, the electrical char-
acteristics are slightly different. The ceriated tungsten
electrodes operate at slightly different arc voltages/arc
lengths than the thoriated tungsten electrodes. For mech-
anized and automated welding slight changes to the 6.3 Surface Finishes. Electrodes with a ground finish
welding parameters and procedures may be required. are recommended. Electrodes with a ground finish are
6.2.5 Lanthanated Tungsten Electrodes (EWLa-X). processed to produce a uniform size (usually by center-
The EWLa-X categories of tungsten electrodes were de- less grinding which is done to remove surface imperfec-
veloped as nonradioactive alternatives to thoria. These tions). They are then chemically cleaned to remove any
electrodes contain lanthanum oxide (La2O3, referred to surface impurities. The ground-finish electrodes typi-
as lanthana) in various contents from 1 wt-% to 2 wt-%, cally provide better electrical current conduction from
as shown in Table 5. The electrodes with higher concen- the collet to the electrode and behave more predictably
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
trations of dopants provide greater electron emission ef- and more uniformly over time and from electrode to
ficiencies. The current levels (see Table 6), advantages, electrode. The ground-finish electrodes are supplied with
and operating characteristics of these electrodes are very a bright, polished surface with a maximum surface
similar to the ceriated tungsten electrodes (although roughness of 32 in. AARH [0.8 m Ra]. See Table 7 for
these electrodes operate at slightly different arc voltages a comparison of surface finishes. Clean-finished elec-
than thoriated or ceriated tungsten electrodes). trodes (produced by chemically cleaning the surface to
remove only surface impurities after the forming opera-
6.2.6 Other Tungsten Electrodes (EWG). The EWG tion) are no longer part of AWS A5.12. Electrodes with
electrode classification was assigned for electrode com- a clean (only) finish may be available but are not
positions not included in the above classes. These elec- recommended.
trodes contain an unspecified addition of some oxide or
combination of oxides (rare earth or others). The purpose
of the addition is to improve the nature or characteristics 6.4 Electrode Sizes and Current Capacities. Tungsten
of the arc, or the life of the electrode. electrodes are available in a variety of standard diameters
Several EWG electrodes are either commercially (sizes), as listed in Table 6. These tungsten electrodes are
available or are being developed. These include additions commercially available in standard lengths of 2, 3, 6, 7,
of yttrium oxide or magnesium oxide, or ceriated and 12, 18, and 24 in. [50, 75, 150, 175, 305, 455, and 610
lanthanated tungsten electrodes that contain these oxides mm48] with blunt ends (i.e., no end preparation). Shorter
in amounts other than as listed in Table 5 or in combina- electrodes for applications such as orbital welding equip-
tion with each other or with other oxides. AWS A5.12 re- ment are usually available from the equipment manu-
quires that the specific type and nominal content of the facturers or other suppliers. Lengths from 1/4 in.2 in.
alloy (dopant) addition shall be marked on the packages. [6 mm50 mm] are typically used and can be purchased
Potential increase in electrode life and improved operat- cut to exact lengths and pre-ground with exact tip config-
ing characteristics may result from oxide additions of urations (see Figure 3149).
several rare earths in combination.47 The choices of an electrode classification, size, and
welding current are influenced by the type and thickness
47. Ushio, M., Matsuda, F. and Sadek, A. A. 1992. GTA
Welding Electrodes, International Conference on Trends in 48. Standard sizes and lengths in ISO6848 Tungsten elec-
Welding Science and Technology, June 1992, p. 405409; trodes for inert gas shielded arc welding, and for plasma cutting
ASM Conference Proceedings. Edited by S. A. David and J. M. and welding, although tolerances differ in some cases.
Vitek. 49. Figure 2, Welding Journal, Vol. 74, No. 1, Jan. 1995, p. 41.
37
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
ing. For DCEN welding, tapering of the electrode tip is

usually done for all but the smallest electrodes.
THE ELECTRODES ARE PRECUT Various electrode tip geometries affect the weld bead
TO LENGTHS FOR AUTOMATIC shape and size. In general, as the included angle in-
ORBITAL WELDING MACHINES.
THE ELECTRODES SHOWN
creases, weld penetration increases and the width of the
HAVE NOT BEEN TRUNCATED. weld bead decreases (see Figure 1450). Electrode tip con-
figuration is a welding variable that should be studied
during welding procedure development and adhered to
during production, especially for mechanized and auto-
mated welding.
Regardless of the electrode tip geometry selected, it is
important that a consistent tip configuration be used once
a welding procedure is established. Changes in electrode
geometry can have a significant influence not only on the
Figure 31Ground Tapered Tip on End weld bead width, depth of penetration, and resultant
of Doped Tungsten Electrodes quality, but also on the electrical characteristics of the arc
(e.g., arc voltage), arc stability, and electrode life. If the
electrode geometry is not selected correctly, tungsten in-
clusions may result.
6.5.1 Balling. With AC welding, a hemispherical tip,
of base metals being welded, as listed in Table 8. The or ball, is most desirable. Before use in welding, the
current carrying capacities of all types of tungsten elec- electrode tip is balled by striking an arc on a copper
trodes are affected by the type of welding torch, the type block or other suitable material using AC or DCEP. Arc
of power source (DCEN, DCEP, AC, or variable polar- current is increased until the end of the electrode turns
ity), the electrode extension beyond the collet, and the white hot and the tungsten begins to melt, causing a
shielding gas. Tables 6 and 9 list suggested current small ball to form at the end of the electrode, as illus-
ranges for each electrode type and size using argon trated in Figure 30. The current is downsloped (de-
shielding gas, along with gas cup diameters recom- creased gradually) and extinguished, leaving a
mended for use with different types of welding power. hemispherical ball on the end of the tungsten electrode
Since the maximum current capacity of an electrode de- (shielding gas flow must be maintained while the tip is
pends on many factors (see 4.4.1.2 and 4.4.1.3), the typi- cooling). The size of the hemisphere should be between
cal current ranges should be used only as a guide. In 1 and 1-1/2 times the electrode diameter.
general, all of the electrodes may be used with argon or
helium, or with a combination of these shielding gases. 6.5.2 Grinding. The most common method of prepar-
ing the tip is by grinding. Figure 33 illustrates typical
6.5 Electrode Tip Configurations. The shape of the grinding, cutting, and truncating methods in preparing
tungsten electrode tip is an important process variable in tungsten electrodes for DCEN welding.
GTAW. Tungsten electrodes may be used with a variety To produce optimum arc stability, grinding of thori-
of tip preparations. With AC welding, pure or zirconiated ated, ceriated, and lanthanated tungsten electrodes
tungsten electrodes form a hemispherical balled end (see should be done with the axis of the electrode perpendicu-
Figure 30). Thoriated, ceriated and lanthanated tungsten lar to the axis of the grinding wheel and ground on the
electrodes do not ball as readily as pure or zirconiated flat face of the wheel (i.e., the electrode should be
tungsten electrodes, and are typically used for DC weld- ground in the longitudinal direction) as shown in Figure
ing. For these, the end is typically beveled to a conical 33.51 A polished surface condition of better than 10 in.
shape with a specific included angle, usually with a trun- RMS [0.2 m] will help to extend the electrode life. Cir-
cated end (see Figure 32). A small flat at the tip of the cumferential grinding of the electrode tip is not recom-
electrode is important to avoid the tip breaking off. These mended because it can result in arc instability if the
doped electrodes maintain a ground tip shape much bet-
ter than the pure tungsten electrodes. Table 9 is a guide
50. J. F. Key, Anode/Cathode Geometry and Shielding Gas
for electrode tip preparation for a range of sizes with rec-
Interrelationships in GTAW, Welding Journal, Vol. 59, No. 12,
ommended current ranges. Dec. 1980, p. 365-s.
Tungsten electrode tip configurations are prepared by 51. A Guide to Tungsten Electrode Geometry and Prepara-
balling or grinding. For AC welding the square end of the tion, Practical Welding Today, Vol. 2, No. 2, March/April
electrode is sometimes slightly chamfered prior to ball- 1998.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
38
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Table 8
Recommended Types of Current, Tungsten Electrodes,
and Shielding Gases for Welding of Various Metals and Alloys
Type of Alloy Thickness Type of Current(1),(2) Electrode(3) Shielding Gas
Aluminum All AC Pure or zirconiated Argon or argon-helium
> 1/8 in. [3 mm] DCEN Thoriated Argon-helium or argon
1/8 in. (3 mm) DCEP Thoriated or zirconiated Argon
Copper, copper alloys All DCEN Thoriated Helium or argon-helium
< 1/8 in. [3 mm] AC Pure or zirconiated Argon
Magnesium alloys All AC Pure or zirconiated Argon
< 1/8 in. [3 mm] DCEP Zirconiated or thoriated Argon
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Nickel, nickel alloys All DCEN Thoriated Argon

Plain carbon, low-alloy steels All DCEN Pure or zirconiated Argon or argon-helium
< 1/8 in. [3 mm] AC Thoriated Argon
Stainless steel All DCEN Thoriated Argon or argon-helium
< 1/8 in. [3 mm] AC Pure or zirconiated Argon
Titanium All DCEN Thoriated Argon
Notes:
(1) Where AC is listed, variable polarity or pulsed current could be used.
(2) AC = Alternating current; DCEP = Direct current electrode positive; DCEN = Direct current electrode negative.
(3) Where thoriated electrodes are recommended, ceriated or lanthanated electrodes may also be used.
Table 9
Tungsten Electrode Tip Shapes and Examples of Current Ranges
DCEN (Electrode Negative/Straight Polarity)(1),(2)
Electrode Diameter Diameter at Tip Included Constant Pulsed
Angle, Current Current
in. mm in. mm Degrees Range, A Range, A
0.040 1.00 0.005 0.125 12 215 225
0.040 1.00 0.010 0.250 20 530 560
0.060 1.60 0.020 0.50 25 850 8100
0.060 1.60 0.030 0.80 30 1070 10140
0.093 2.40 0.030 0.80 35 1290 12180
0.093 2.40 0.045 1.10 45 15150 15250
0.125 3.20 0.045 1.10 60 20200 20300
0.125 3.20 0.060 1.50 90 25250 25350
Notes:
(1) All values are based on the use of argon as the shielding gas. Other current values may be used, depending upon the shielding gas, type of equipment
and application.
(2) These values will vary depending on duty cycle, pulse frequency, peak/background ranges, etc.
Figure 32Ground Electrode Tip Geometry
39
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
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Figure 33Typical Preparation Method of Tungsten Electrodes Used for

GTA Welding, Including Tip Truncation, Grinding, and Cutting
40
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
surface finish is not smooth enough. The desired surface POLISHED FINISH:
finish of a ground electrode is illustrated in Figure 34.52 Maximum electrode life
Ideal for high purity welding
The grinding wheel should be reserved for the grind- Extremely consistent finish and
ing of only tungsten to eliminate possible contamination angle
Diamond ground and polished
of the tungsten tip with foreign matter during the grind- longitudinally
ing operation. Grinding on diamond wheels is preferred Excellent arc starting and
over silicon carbide or aluminum oxide wheels. Equip- stability
ment designed specifically for grinding and cutting tung-
sten electrodes is available. Exhaust hoods and personal STANDARD FINISH:
protective equipment (PPE) should be used when grind- Consistent finish and angle
ing tungsten and tungsten alloy electrodes to remove the Diamond ground in longitudinal
direction
grinding dust from the work area.53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60 Good to excellent electrode life
Exceeds all standards set by
6.6 Electrode Cutting. One of the most overlooked automatic welding equipment
areas of tungsten electrode preparation is the removal of manufacturers
the contaminated and/or oxidized tip. A contaminated
electrode produces an erratic arc and a dirty, contami-
nated weld. Although many welders will simply regrind HAND GROUND FINISH:
contaminated electrodes, the recommended practice is to Inconsistent finish
Incorrectly ground angle
cut off the contaminated portion prior to regrinding. Poor arc stability and starting
The way to cut tungsten electrodes or remove a Reduced electrode life
Risk of tungsten inclusions and
contaminated tip is noted in Figure 35.52 The tungsten potential X-ray defect from
should be rigidly secured on either side of the cut. The tungsten erosion
cutting wheel preferably should be diamond to provide a Involves potentially hazardous
hand grinding
clean, contamination free, smooth separation. This will
insure the electrode is not fractured or splintered during
the cut off operation. The use of a silicon carbide Figure 34The Desired Surface Finish
type wheel, which contaminates the tungsten, is not
of a Ground Electrode
recommended.
Improper methods of removing the electrode tips in-
clude breaking with wire cutters, by hand, with a ham-
mer, on a grinding wheel, or other similar means. These
produce splintering or shattering of the electrode tip, and
also create safety concerns. 6.7 Factors Affecting Electrode Life. The life of any
tungsten electrode is shortened by excessive electrode
52. Photo courtesy of Diamond Ground Products. extension from the collet, excessive welding current, or
53. Thoriated Tungsten Electrodes Studied for Effects on electrode contamination, all of which can adversely af-
Welders Health, Welding Journal, Vol. 73, No. 5, May 1994, fect the arc characteristics. The electrode extension be-
pp. 8889. yond the collet should be kept to a minimum to ensure
54. Vinzents, P., Poulsen, O. M., et al., 1994. Cancer Risk and protection of the electrode by the inert shielding gas. Too
Thoriated Welding Electrodes, Occupational Hygiene, Vol. 1,
long of an extension can cause overheating and possible
No. 1, 1994, pp. 2733.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
melting or cracking of the electrode.
55. McElearny, N. and Irvine, D., 1993. A Study of Thorium
Exposure During Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding in an Air-
line Engineering Population, Journal of Occupational Medi- 6.7.1 Improper Current Levels. Excessively high
cine, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993, pp. 707711. current levels for the specific tungsten electrode size can
56. British Health and Safety Executive Information Document cause the electrode to quickly erode, melt or split. In
HSE 564/56, June 1991. many cases of excessive current, tungsten particles will
57. MSDS sheets, tungsten mfg.
be deposited into the weld pool and become a discontinu-
58. Practical TIG (GTA) Welding, Muncaster, P. W., 1991,
pp. 25, Abington Publishing, ISBN 1855730200.
ity in the weld joint. In certain high amperage applica-
59. Campbell, R. D. and LaCoursiere, E. J., 1995. A Guide to tions, a cold electrode can exhibit tungsten spitting if it
the Use of Tungsten Electrodes for GTA Welding. Welding is brought rapidly or instantaneously up to the welding
Journal, Vol. 74, No. 1, Jan. 1995, pp. 3945. current. This will usually result in high-density tungsten
60. AWS A5.12/A5.12M-98, Specification for Tungsten and inclusions in the weld. This condition can be reduced or
Tungsten-Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding and Cutting, p. 8. eliminated by starting the arc at a low current and slowly
41
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 35Proper Cutting of Tungsten Electrodes with a Diamond Cut-Off Blade
increasing it to the welding current. Current that is too 6.9 Grinding Dust.61 The grinding (sharpening) of tung-
low for a specific electrode diameter may cause arc wan- sten electrodes generates tungsten metal dust. This dust
dering and arc starting problems. may also contain small amounts of oxides like zirconia,
ceria, lanthana and/or thoria. Dust generated by grinding
6.7.2 Contamination of the Electrode. Metal con- can be considered a health hazard and most health author-
tamination of the tungsten electrode is most likely to ities recommend that all metal grinding machines provide
occur when a welder accidentally dips the tungsten into transparent eye shields, dust extractors and filters. No
the molten weld pool or touches the tungsten with the dust produced by tungsten grinding should be inhaled by
filler metal. These often produce tungsten inclusions in the person doing the grinding or by adjacent personnel.
the weld. The tungsten electrode may also become oxi- Metal dust can cause pulmonary illness over long periods
dized by use of an improper shielding gas, insufficient of inhalation, so it is common sense to protect oneself.
gas flow, loose/leaking gas fittings or gas nozzle (cup), Good shop practice and common sense should be used for
wind or high air movements, or prematurely shutting off grinding anything. Wear a full-face shield and safety
the shielding gas flow. Other sources of contamination glasses fitted with side shields, and do not wear loose fit-
include: metal vapors from the welding arc, weld pool ting clothing that could get caught in the machine.
eruptions or spatter caused by gas entrapment, and evap- If electrode-grinding dust might be inhaled, special
orated surface impurities. precautions relative to ventilation should be considered.
A vacuum or exhaust system should be used when grind-
ing electrode tips. Grinding dust from electrodes must not
6.8 Removing Contamination. When the tungsten elec-
be inhaled. The user should consult the appropriate safety
trode becomes contaminated, the welding operation
procedures, the manufacturers suggested procedures,
should be stopped and the contaminated portion of the
and follow all company internal safety requirements.
electrode removed. The contaminated portion of the elec-
trode should be cut off and then properly redressed to the
appropriate tip configuration (see 6.5.2). 61. See footnotes from 6.5.2.
42
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
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6.10 Storage. No firm guidelines have been established 7.1 Torch Shielding Gas
for the storage of thoriated tungsten electrodes by the
American Welding Society62 or the IIW Commission VII. 7.1.1 Purpose of Torch Shielding Gas. The primary
Guidelines may be incorporated in the Material Safety purpose of the torch shielding gas is to protect the elec-
Data Sheets (MSDS) provided by the manufacturers.63 trode, the molten weld metal and the hot end of any
filler metal from atmospheric contamination. This con-
Thorium is a naturally occurring radioactive element
tamination is caused mainly by oxygen and water vapor
that is used in a wide range of industrial processes and
present in the atmosphere.
applications. The main hazard is associated with inhala-
tion of dust particles generated during tip grinding. Note: Many of the examples in this section are, in detail,
Thoriated tungsten electrodes, when not in use, related to the welding of pipe or tubing. The basic princi-
should be stored together in a steel cabinet or similar ples that these examples are meant to amplify, extend and
metal container. The number of electrodes in storage apply to all GTAW applications.
should be kept to a minimum, taking into account the ex-
pected usage and availability of further stock from the 7.1.2 Types and Selection of Shielding Gases.
manufacturer or supplier. As discussed in an earlier sec- Argon and helium or mixtures of the two are the most
tion, local exhaust ventilation should be provided at the common types of inert gases used for shielding. Argon is
grinding operation. The spent tips and grinding dust from preferred for most applications, except where heliums
the collection unit should be disposed of in a sealed con- higher heat input is required for welding thick sections of
tainer to the appropriate location as may be required by metals and alloys with high heat conductivity, such as
any local, state and federal laws and any company poli- aluminum and copper. In addition, the lower unit cost
cies. A manager or supervisor should be given the re- and the lower flow rate requirements of argon make
sponsibility to ensure that a safe system is in place and argon preferable from an economic point of view.
followed. Argon-hydrogen mixtures and sometimes argon-nitro-
gen mixes are used for special applications. The different
gas mixtures are used to tailor the weld penetration ge-
7. Gas Shielding, Purging, and ometry and to improve deposition rates or travel speeds.
Later sections will provide guidelines for using shielding
Backing64 gas mixtures. Tables 8 and 13 provide a summary of
Shielding gas is directed through the torch to the arc some common shielding gases and shielding gas mix-
and the weld pool to protect the electrode, the filler metal tures used for gas tungsten arc welding of different base
and the molten weld metal from atmospheric contamina- metals.
tion. Backup purge gas can also be used to protect the un- Depending on the volume of usage, these gases may
derside of the weld and its adjacent base metal surfaces be supplied in compressed gas cylinders or as a liquid in
from oxidation during welding. Uniformity of root bead insulated tanks. The liquid is vaporized and piped to
(underbead) contour, freedom from undercutting, and the points within the plant, thus eliminating cylinder han-
desired amount of root bead reinforcement are more dling. Leaking manifold systems are quite common; thus
likely to be achieved when using gas backup under con- care must be taken to keep the system leak tight.
trolled conditions. In some materials, gas backup reduces
root cracking and porosity in the weld. Most alloys when 7.1.2.1 Argon (AWS classification SG-A). The
welded require shielding gas backing; two exceptions most commonly used shielding gas is argon. Argon is a
may be aluminum and carbon steel. Some general and heavier-than-air monatomic gas with an atomic weight of
thermodynamic properties of gases are summarized in 40 and a density of 1.7837 g/L at standard temperature
Tables 10 and 11 for reference. See Table 12 for dew and pressure (STP).65 Argon is available in various
point conversions. See 7.6 and 15.7 for additional infor- grades (see 7.3). It is a chemically inert, colorless, odor-
mation on gas safety. less, tasteless nontoxic gas. It is obtained from the atmo-
sphere by the separation of liquid air. AWS classification
SG-A is defined as having a minimum purity of 99.997%
62. Thoriated Tungsten Electrodes Studied for Effects on
in the gaseous state.
Welders Health, 1994, Welding Journal, Vol. 73, No. 5, May
1994, pp. 88-89.
63. Other countries may have specific recommendations; for 65. Standard conditions for a gas: measured volumes of gases
example, the British Health and Safety Executive Information are generally recalculated to 32F [0C] temperature and
Document HSE 564/6 (June 1991). 760 mm Hg (approximately 1 atm) pressure, which have been
64. Further information on this subject is available in AWS arbitrarily chosen as standard conditions. These conditions are
A5.32 and AWS C5.10. referred to as standard temperature and pressure or STP.
43
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Table 10
General Properties of Gases(1),(2)
Description Argon Helium Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen
Formula Ar He H2 N2 O2
State Compressed Gas Compressed Gas Compressed Gas Compressed Gas Compressed Gas
Ionization Potential (eV) 15.7 24.5 15.6 15.5 12.5
Molecular Weight 39.95 4.003 2.02 28.01 32.00
Boiling Point, C 185.7 268.93 252.87 195.8 182.96
Boiling Point, F 302.5 452.08 423.17 320.4 297.33
Boiling Point, K 87.3 4.07 20.13 77.2 90.04
Melting Point, C 189.2 272.2 259.14 209.86 218.4
Melting Point, F 308.6 458.0 434.45 345.75 361.1
Melting Point, K 83.8 0.8 13.86 63.14 54.6
Density (gm/liter) @21.1C 0.00165 0.00016 0.00008 0.00115 0.00133
Density (lb/ft3) @70F 0.103 0.010 0.005 0.072 0.083
Specific Volume (ft3/lb) @70F, 1 Atm 9.67 96.06 192.31 13.8 12.1
Specific Gravity (air = 1) @70F 1.380 0.138 0.0695 0.967 1.105
Critical Temp, C 122.4 267.95 240.0 146.9 118.5
Critical Temp, F 188.4 450.30 399.8 232.4 181.1
Critical Temp, K 150.6 5.05 33 126.1 154.5
Critical Pressure (psia) 705.4 33.2 188.1 492.9 731.4
Critical Pressure (Atm) 48.8 2.336 13.0 34.0 50.5
Critical Density (lbs/ft3) 33.07 4.32 1.93 19.38 27.17
Notes: References:
(1) CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 54th Edition, 19731974. ISBN: 087819-454-1.
(2) Compressed Gas Association, Pamphlet P-9-92.
Table 11
Thermodynamic Properties of Gases(1)
Description Argon Helium Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen
Heat Capacity
(BTU/lbMole F) 4.97 4.98 6.89 6.90 7.03
(Cal/gmC) 4.97 4.98 6.89 6.97 7.03
Thermal Conductivity
(BTU/hrsq ftF/ft) 0.0093 0.0823 0.096 0.0146 0.0142
(Watts/sq meterC) 0.0530 0.4670 0.545 0.0830 0.0806
Specific Heat @1 Atm
(J/KgK) 521.3 5192.0 1490.0 1041.0 917.0
(BTU/lbF) 0.1246 1.241 3.561 0.2487 0.219
Vapor Pressure(2),(3)
where A = 1739.9 27.5 250.6 1489.8 1726.1
where B = 7.131953 4.178969 5.581833 7.05041 7.039904
Valid Range K 54.8148.1 1.35.0 9.731.2 46.9124.7 53.9148.9
Notes:
(1) References:
(a) CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 54th Edition, 19731974. ISBN: 087819-454-1.
(b) Compressed Gas Association, Pamphlet P-9-92.
(2) Vapor Pressure P in Torr is given by the following:
Log10P = (0.2185 A/K) + B
where:
K = Kelvin
A = Molar heat of vaporization in cal/gm-mole
(3) Definition of Vapor Pressure: The pressure exerted when a solid or liquid is in equilibrium with its own vapor. The vapor pressure is a function of
the substance and of the temperature.
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44
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Table 12
Dew Point Conversions(2)
Dew Point(1) Moisture Dew Point Moisture
F C ppm (v/v) F C ppm (v/v)
75 59 11.4
74 59 12.3
130 90 0.10 73 58 13.3
120 84 0.25 72 58 14.3
110 79 0.63 71 57 15.4
105 76 1.00 70 57 16.6

104 76 1.08 69 56 17.9
103 75 1.18 68 56 19.2
102 74 1.29 67 55 20.6
101 74 1.40 66 54 22.1
100 73 1.53 65 54 23.6

99 73 1.66 64 53 25.6
98 72 1.81 63 53 27.5
97 72 1.96 62 52 29.4
96 71 2.15 61 52 31.7
95 71 2.35 60 51 34.0
94 70 2.54 59 51 36.5
93 69 2.76 58 50 39.0
92 69 3.00 57 49 41.8
91 68 3.28 56 49 44.6
90 68 3.53 55 48 48.0
89 67 3.84 54 48 51.0
88 67 4.15 53 47 55.0
87 66 4.50 52 47 59.0
86 66 4.78 51 46 62.0
85 65 5.30 50 46 67.0
84 64 5.70 49 45 72.0
83 64 6.20 48 44 76.0
82 63 6.60 47 44 82.0
81 63 7.20 46 43 87.0
80 62 7.80 45 43 92.0
79 62 8.40 44 42 98.0
78 61 9.10 43 42 105.0.0
77 61 9.80 42 41 113.0.0
76 60 10.5 41 41 119.0.0
Notes:
(1) Dew Point: The temperature at which, in a given mixture of gas and water vapor, the water vapor will condense out of the gas.
(2) Conversion of ppm to %:
1 ppm = 0.0001%
10 ppm = 0.001%
100 ppm = 0.01%
1000 ppm = 0.1%
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45
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Table 13
Advantages of Shielding Gases
Metal Welding Type Shielding Gas Advantages
Aluminum and Manual Argon Better arc starting, cleaning action and weld quality; lower gas
Magnesium consumption.
Argon-helium High welding speeds possible.
Machine Argon-helium Better weld quality, lower gas flow than required with straight helium.
Helium Deeper penetration and higher weld speeds than can be obtained with
(DCSP) argon-helium.
Carbon Steel Spot Argon Generally preferred for longer electrode life. Better weld nugget
contour, ease-of-starting, and lower gas flows than helium.
Manual Argon Better pool control; especially for position welding.
Machine Helium Higher speeds obtained than with argon.
Stainless Steel Manual Argon Excellent control of penetration on light gage materials.
Argon-helium Higher heat input, higher welding speeds possible on heavier gages.
Machine Argon-hydrogen Prevents undercutting, produces desirable weld contour at low current
(up to 35%-H2) levels, requires lower gas flows.
Argon-helium An excellent selection for high speed tube mill operation.
Helium Provides highest heat input and deepest penetration.
Copper, Nickel, and Argon Ease of obtaining pool control, penetration, and bead contour on thin
Cu-Ni Alloys gage metal.
Argon-helium Higher heat input to offset high heat conductivity of heavier gages.
Helium Highest heat input for welding speed on heavy metal sections.
Titanium Argon Low gas flow rate minimizes turbulence and air contamination of
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
weld; improved heat-affected zone.
Helium Better penetration for manual welding of thick sections (inert gas
backing required to shield back of weld against contamination).
Silicon Bronze Argon Reduces cracking of this hot short metal.
Aluminum Bronze Argon Less penetration of base metal.
Although argon itself is chemically inert it is readily (2) Reduced penetration (e.g., for thin materials)
ionized to form a plasma. Impurities such as moisture (3) Cleaning action when welding materials such as
and oxygen can cause variable arc behavior, and in aluminum and magnesium with AC or DCEP current
the case of sensitive materials such as the reactive (4) Lower cost and greater availability
and refractory metals, a reduction in weld metal proper- (5) Lower flow rates for good shielding
ties. Oxygen, even at relatively low levels of 50 ppm or (6) Better cross-draft resistance (i.e., denser)
lower, can also cause the oxidation of the tungsten (7) Easier arc starting
electrode. (8) Better control of the weld pool
Argon is used more extensively than helium because The bead profile of an argon-shielded weld is particu-
of the following advantages: larly helpful when manual welding thin material because
(1) Smoother, quieter arc action the tendency for excessive melt-through is lessened (see
46
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
VERTEX ANGLE GAS MIXTURE

(TRUNCATION,
[mm]) 100 Ar 75 Ar25 He 50 Ar50 He 25 Ar75 He 100 He 95 Ar5 H2
39 [0.125]
60 [0.125]
90 [0.500]
180
Figure 36GTA Weld Bead Shape as a Function of Shielding Gas Composition

and Electrode Tip Geometry (on 304 Stainless Steel)
Figure 36 66 for an example of the penetration character- lium is a mined resource obtained by the separation of
istics). The weld profile characteristic is advantageous in natural gas.
vertical or overhead welding since the tendency for the The higher ionization potential of helium, approxi-
base metal to sag or run is decreased. mately 25eV compared to 16eV for argon, produces a
Argon is used for welding a wide range of materials, significantly higher arc voltage at the same arc length
including mild steel, aluminum, copper, stainless steel, and therefore a hotter arc. For given values of welding
nickel alloys and the reactive metals, titanium and current and arc length, helium transfers more heat into
magnesium. the work than argon. Because helium has a higher ther-
mal conductivity, it can often promote higher welding
7.1.2.2 Helium (AWS classification SG-He). He-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
speeds and improve the weld bead penetration.

lium is the lightest monatomic gas, approximately ten The greater heating power of the helium arc can be
times lighter than argon with an atomic weight of four advantageous for joining metals of high thermal conduc-
(4). The density of helium is 0.166 g/L at room tempera- tivity and for high-speed mechanized applications. Also,
ture. Its cost is significantly higher than that of argon. helium is used more often than argon for welding heavy
AWS classification SG-He is defined as having a mini- plate. Mixtures of argon and helium are useful when
mum purity of 99.995% in the gaseous state. A high pu- some balance between the characteristics of both is de-
rity grade of 99.998% is readily available. Helium is a sired (see Figure 36 for an example of weld penetration
chemically inert, colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. He- characteristic).
Although helium offers definite advantages for some
66. J. F. Key, 1980, Anode/Cathode Geometry and Shielding applications, it produces a less stable arc and less desir-
Gas Interrelationships in GTAW, Welding Journal, Vol. 59, able arc starting characteristics than argon. As little as
No. 12, Dec. 1980, Figure 3, p. 366-s. 5% argon in helium dramatically increases the ability to
47
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
initiate the arc. Helium usually requires higher shielding ARC LENGTH
flow rates (typically 2 to 3 times greater) than argon be- 30 TUNGSTEN ARC, 0.08 in. [2 mm]
ALUMINUM 0.16 in. [4 mm]
cause helium is lighter than argon. Helium is more
25
ARC VOLTAGE, V
expensive and is usually provided in high-pressure cylin-
ders that tend to contain more impurities (e.g., oxygen 20 HELIUM
and moisture) than argon.
15
7.1.2.3 ArgonHelium Mixtures (AWS classifi-
ARGON
cations SG-AHe and HeA). Helium is added to argon to
10
take advantage of the best operating characteristics of
each gas. The superior arc starting and stable arc charac-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0
teristics of argon, with heliums higher thermal conduc- 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
tivity, produce high quality GTAW welding of aluminum ARC CURRENT, A
using AC. Increased travel speeds and depth of fusion,
for both manual and mechanized welding, can be ex-
pected as helium content increases (see Figure 36). He-
Figure 37GTA VoltageCurrent
lium content usually ranges between 25% and 75%.
The chief factor influencing shielding effectiveness is
Relationships with Argon and Helium
the gas density. Argon is approximately one and one- Shielding Gases for Different Arc Lengths
third times as heavy as air and ten times heavier than he-
lium. Argon, after leaving the torch gas nozzle (cup),
forms a blanket over the weld area.
Helium, because it is lighter, tends to rise around the
gas nozzle (cup). Experimental work has consistently metals having high thermal conductivity or relatively
shown that to produce equivalent shielding effectiveness, high melting temperatures.
the flow volume67 of helium must be two to three times However, it should be noted that at lower currents, the
that of argon. The same general relationship is true for volt-current curves pass through a minimum voltage,
mixtures of argon and helium, particularly those high in after which the voltage increases as the current de-
helium content. creases. For helium, this increase in voltage occurs in the
The important characteristics of these gases are the range of 50 A150 A where much of the welding of thin
voltage-current relationships of the tungsten arc in argon materials is done. Since the voltage increase for argon
and in helium that are illustrated in Figure 37.68 At all occurs below 50 A, the use of argon in the 50 A150 A
current levels, for equivalent arc lengths, the arc voltage range provides the operator with more latitude in arc
obtained with helium is appreciably higher than that with length to control the welding operation.
argon. Since heat in the arc is roughly measured by the It is apparent that to obtain equal arc power, apprecia-
product of current and voltage (arc power), helium offers bly higher current must be used with argon than with
more available heat than argon. The higher available heat helium. Since undercutting with either gas will occur at
favors its selection when welding thick materials and about equal current levels, helium will produce satisfac-
tory welds at much higher speeds.
67. Weight Percent. This is the percentage composition by Another influential characteristic is arc stability. Both
weight. This is contrasted with atomic percent, which is the gases provide excellent stability with direct current
number of atoms of an element in a total of 100 representative power. With alternating current power, which is used ex-
atoms of a substance. tensively for welding aluminum and magnesium, argon
Volume Percent. This is the fraction of the volume of one yields much better arc stability and the highly desirable
substance with respect to the total volume of all the constituents cleaning action, which makes argon superior to helium in
(then multiplied by 100). Weight percent gives the absolute
this respect.
quantity of one substance with respect to the total, whereas
volume percent gives the relative amount of one substance ver- 7.1.2.4 Argon-Hydrogen Mixtures (AWS classi-
sus the others where the density of each of the constituents vary fications SG-AH).69 Hydrogen is the lightest and most
individually with conditions of temperature and pressure. This
abundant of all the elements in the universe. It is a flam-
is why, for comparison, gases are usually normalized referring
mable, colorless, odorless, nontoxic gas. Hydrogens gas
to conditions of Standard Pressure and Temperature (STP).
Notwithstanding, volume percent is most practical for metering
gas flow. 69. See AWS A5.32, Specifications for Welding Shielding
68. Reference: AWS Welding Handbook, Eighth Edition, Vol- Gases, Section A8, General Safety Considerations, and A9,
ume 2: Figure 3.15, p. 89. Safety References.
48
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
density is 0.08988 g/L at STP. As with the other gases

used for GTAW, several grades are available.
Argon-hydrogen mixtures are employed in special
cases, such as mechanized welding of light gage stainless
steel and nickel based alloys, where the hydrogen does
not cause adverse metallurgical effects such as porosity
and hydrogen-induced cracking. Excessive hydrogen
can cause porosity. Increased welding speeds can be
achieved in almost direct proportion to the amount of hy-
drogen added to argon because of the increased arc volt-
age and thermal conductivity. However, the amount of
hydrogen that can be added varies with the metal thick-
ness and type of joint for each particular application.
Hydrogen can be added to argon or helium to increase
the temperature of the arc and to provide a slightly reduc-
ing atmosphere. Argon-hydrogen mixtures are typically
1%7% hydrogen in argon, although higher hydrogen Figure 38Improved Surface Cleanliness on
concentrations have been used. Up to 10% hydrogen ad- Monel Welds Produced with the
dition to either argon or nitrogen is common.
5% Hydrogen Mixture in Argon
Hydrogen is most commonly used for welding in
combination with argon or nitrogen to improve the wet- Shielding Gas with GTAW
ting characteristics of the weld root by reducing the sur-
face tension of the weld metal. In high-speed tube
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
welding this helps to reduce the undercut. Mixtures of
hydrogen and argon and mixtures of nitrogen and argon
have been used on specialty tube mill applications. joints in austenitic stainless steel up to 0.154 in.
The higher heat input is derived from the dissociation [3.9 mm] thick at speeds comparable to helium (50%
of the hydrogen in the arc to form atomic hydrogen, faster than argon). It is also used for welding stainless
which then recombines to the molecular form in the steel barrels, and tube-to-tube sheet joints in a variety of
cooler regions of the arc and at the workpiece surface re- stainless steels and nickel alloys.
leasing energy to the weld pool. The arc voltage of a hy-
drogen mixture is correspondingly higher compared to
pure argon or helium for identical arc length and current WARNING
settings. The actual voltage will be determined by the arc
All hydrogen mixtures are potentially flammable
length and the welding current level (as a function of the
and explosive. Mixtures above 5% may require
power source volt-current [V-I] characteristic).
special procedures and equipment.
The arc itself in an argon (or helium)-hydrogen gas
mixture is more constricted which improves the weld
penetration, i.e., it produces a greater depth to width ratio 7.1.2.5 Nitrogen (AWS classification SG-N). Ni-
(see Figure 36) and enables higher welding speeds to be trogen is nontoxic and for all practical purposes it can be
achieved. Additionally, the slightly reducing atmosphere considered chemically inert at room temperature. Nitro-
produces a cleaner weld bead surface and, in multipass gen is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. The density
welds, reduces the risk of oxide/slag build up. Figure 38 is 1.2506 g/L. AWS classification SG-N is defined as
shows improved surface cleanliness with the 5% hydro- having a minimum purity of 99.9% in the gaseous state.
gen mixture. Much higher arc temperatures are available when using
It should be noted, however, that the use of hydrogen nitrogen, particularly for automatic welding. Copper, du-
may cause cracking in carbon and alloy steels, and exces- plex stainless steels and other alloys are sometimes
sive hydrogen may produce weld metal porosity in fer- welded with nitrogen or nitrogen mixtures with either or
ritic steels, aluminum, copper and in multi-pass welds in both argon and helium. Nitrogen/argon mixtures provide
nickel and austenitic stainless steels. Argon-hydrogen higher arc stability and easier arc starting. To overcome
mixtures are normally limited to use on austenitic stain- arc-starting problems in nitrogen, the arc is sometimes
less steel, nickel-copper, and nickel-base alloys. started in argon and then switched to nitrogen or nitrogen
An argon-hydrogen mixture containing 5% hydrogen mixtures. In practice, the tungsten electrodes erode faster
is commonly used for mechanized welding of tight butt in nitrogen.
49
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Small amounts (1%5%) of nitrogen are sometimes

Table 14
mixed with argon and other inert gases to improve weld-
ing speeds or penetration. Excessive nitrogen can cause
Typical Argon Flow Rates
porosity and change the properties of the weldments. Gas Flow Rate Range
Therefore, user testing should be performed to assure an
acceptable weld is made when nitrogen mixtures are Current Range (A) (SCFH) [SLPM]
applied. The most extensive use of nitrogen has been in
Europe. 550 710 35
50150 1020 510
Welding of austenitic stainless steels with nitrogen- 150350 1525 712
containing shielding gas may reduce weld ferrite content 350450 2030 914
and increase susceptibility to hot cracking. This is
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
because nitrogen enhances formation of austenite. Care

should always be exercised when using nitrogen-
containing gases to ensure that detrimental metallurgical
effects do not occur. screens to prevent interference by the wind or draft are
preferred to an increase in the flow of the shielding gas.
7.1.3 Selection of Shielding Gas. No set rule governs
Turbulence in the gas flow system can cause instabili-
the choice of shielding gas for any particular application.
ties in the welding arc, which can introduce defects into
Either argon or helium, or a mixture of argon and helium
the weld. Sharp bends, sharp edges and massive volume
may be used successfully for most applications, with the
possible exception of manual welding on extremely thin changes in the gas supply system may cause turbulence
material, for which argon is essential. Argon generally in the gas flow. A good rule of thumb is that the diame-
provides an arc that operates more smoothly and quietly, ters of the hoses or pipes should provide approximately a
is handled more easily, and is less penetrating than an arc 5:1 reduction ratio (to the torch inside diameter) to assure
shielded by helium. A guide to the selection of gases is a laminar (nonturbulent) flow. Simply increasing flow
provided in Tables 8 and 13. rates may cause more turbulence.
7.1.4 Shielding Gas Flow Rates. Shielding gas flow 7.1.5 Lack of Shielding. Discontinuities related to the
rates are based on the type of gas, gas nozzle (cup) size, loss of inert gas shielding are tungsten inclusions,71 po-
weld pool size, and ambient air movement. In general, rosity, oxide films and inclusions, incomplete fusion, and
the flow rate increases in proportion to the cross- cracking. The extent to which they occur is strongly re-
sectional area of the gas nozzle. The gas nozzle diameter lated to the characteristic of the metal being welded. In
is selected to suit the size of the weld pool and the reac- addition, the mechanical properties of titanium, alumi-
tivity of the metal to be welded. The minimum flow rate num, nickel, and high-strength alloys can be seriously
is determined by the need for a stiff stream of shielding impaired with loss of inert gas shielding. Gas shielding
gas to overcome the heating effects of the arc and local effectiveness can often be evaluated prior to production
cross drafts. With the more commonly used manual welding by making a spot weld and continuing gas flow
torches, typical shielding gas flow rates are 10 SCFH until the weld has cooled to a low temperature. A bright,
25 SCFH70 [5 SLPM12 SLPM] for argon and silvery spot will be evident if shielding is effective. Fig-
25 SCFH45 SCFH [12 SLPM21 SLPM] for helium. ure 39 shows effects of shielding gas contamination on
Excessive flow rates cause turbulence in the gas stream, titanium weldments.
which may aspirate atmospheric contamination into the
weld pool. Typical argon flow rates for various current 7.2 Purging
levels are listed in Table 14. A cross wind or draft of
approximately 5 mph [8 km/hr] and sometimes less can 7.2.1 Purpose of Purging. The purpose of purging is
disrupt the shielding gas coverage. The stiffest, non- to replace unwanted air and other vapor contaminants
turbulent gas streams (with high flow velocities) are ob- from the backside of the weld root by a gas that prevents
tained by incorporating gas lenses in the nozzle (cup) and oxidation during welding (see Figure 40).72 Oxidation
by using argon as the shielding gas. Figure 24 illustrates can produce a variety of problems such as root oxidation
similar gas flow rates in torches without a gas lens (left) (sugaring), incomplete fusion, porosity and changes in
and with a gas lens (right). Windbreaks or protective
71. AWS Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 2: p. 102.
70. SCFH = standard cubic feet per hour; SLPM = standard 72. See AWS D18.2:1999, Guide to Weld Discoloration Levels
liters per minute; SCFM = standard cubic feet per minute. on Inside of Austenitic Stainless Steel Tube.
50
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
DISCOLORATION FROM CHILL BLOCKS

IS EXPECTED AND IS ACCEPTABLE
1. ACCEPTABLENO DISCOLORATION IN
WELD OR HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE
2. NOT ACCEPTABLEWHITE DEPOSITS IN 3. NOT ACCEPTABLEBLUE COLOR IN

WELDS (ARROWS) WELD AND HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE
(ARROW)
4. NOT ACCEPTABLEBLUE COLOR 5. NOT ACCEPTABLESEVERE

THROUGHOUT HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE DISCOLORATION
Figure 39The Effects of Shielding Gas Contamination on Titanium Weldments

(Color Chart for Titanium Welding Acceptance)
51 --``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 40GTAW Weld Underbead Contamination with

Various Levels of Oxygen Contents in the Purging Gas
weld metal chemical composition, which can affect the Combinations of argon and helium are used in selected
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
weld metals mechanical and corrosion properties. applications. Nitrogen is not a chemically inert gas but
Purging is recommended when welding stainless has been used with success in purging austenitic stainless
steel, nickel alloys, and most nonferrous base metals. steel, carbon steel, copper and low alloy steel. Nitrogen
Purging is usually not required when welding aluminum, should not be used to purge reactive alloys.
carbon steels and some low alloy steels. Purging is bene-
ficial in reducing scaling when welding carbon steel hy-
CAUTION
draulic lines.
The tube shown in Figure 40 was prepared by making Hydrogen and hydrogen mixes are not used for
10 full-penetration autogenous welds on the outside diam- purging because of the potential explosion and fire
eter of a 2 in. [50 mm] 316L stainless steel tube. Welds hazard.
on 304L tubing showed no significant difference in heat
tint from 316L. The torch shielding gas was 95% argon,
5% hydrogen (with <6 ppm of oxygen, moisture, and hy- 7.2.3 Preparation for Purging. The weld root should
drocarbons) to assure full-penetration welds. The hydro- be isolated by means of dams or other suitable contain-
gen addition to the torch shielding gas is considered to ment devices. Purging requires entrance and exit open-
have no effect on the heat-affected zone (HAZ) heat-tint ings through which the purging gas can enter and exit the
oxide on the inside surface. To provide controlled weld joint area at controlled rates. When argon is used,
amounts of oxygen in the backing gas, medical-grade the gas inlet should be located lower than the exit open-
compressed air was mixed with 99.996% min pure argon ing to prevent entrapment of air. Where lighter than air
(<5 ppm of oxygen, moisture, and hydrocarbons). The gases are used for purging, such as nitrogen, helium or
oxygen content was measured with a calibrated commer- mixtures where helium is the major component, the inlet
cial oxygen indicator. The amount of oxygen in the back- gas opening should be higher than the exit. It should also
ing gas was measured to be as follows: be noted that the size of the exit port must be equal to or
No. 110 ppm No. 6500 ppm greater than the entry to prevent pressure increase. Spe-
No. 225 ppm No. 71000 ppm cial precautions must be taken to ensure that all leak
No. 350 ppm No. 85000 ppm paths are blocked and areas where air may be entrapped
No. 4100 ppm No. 912 500 ppm are well vented. Where open root weld joints are used,
No. 5200 ppm No. 1025 000 ppm tape may be placed over the joint to eliminate air from
re-entering the purged system and to reduce purging gas
7.2.2 Types of Purging Gases. Argon and helium, losses. The tape should be peeled back as the weld is
being chemically inert, can be used as purging gases with made.
all gas shielded welding processes and base metals.
Argon is commonly used in the United States due to its 7.2.4 Purging Flow Rates. The purge flow rate is
lower cost and ample supply. Helium is not commonly based on the volume to be purged. A general rule of
used for purging due to low gas density and higher costs. thumb is to purge at flow rates and times that will
52
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
produce 5 to 10 system volume changes. The recom- On applications where the joints are taped closed during
mended maximum flow rate is a function of the volume the purge procedure, it is common for the welder to re-
and shape to be purged. Typically it should not exceed move only enough tape to permit access for welding rela-
90 SCFH [45 SLPM]. tively short lengths of weld at a time when welding pipe
Reasonable purge flow rates and times can be esti- greater than 4 in. [100 mm] in diameter.
mated from calculations of the system volume and by ap-
plying time factors. The time for one system volume 7.2.5 Purge Gas Exhaust. Provisions for an adequate
change is found by dividing the system volume by the vent or exhaust are important to prevent excessive pres-
purging gas flow rate. sure build-up during welding. The area of vents through
For example, the purge time for one volume change in which the back-up gas is exhausted to the atmosphere
a 20 ft [6 m] length of 18 in. [450 mm] diameter pipe should be at least equal to the area of the opening
purged at 50 SCFH [25 SLPM] would be: through which the gas is admitted to the system. Extra
care should be taken to assure the back-up purge exhaust
Volume = Cross-sectional Area Length is not excessive when welding the last inch or two
= Pi (Radius)2 Length [25 mm to 50 mm] on the root pass.
= (Pi/4) (Pipe Diameter)2 Length
= 0.785 (1.5 ft)2 20 ft 7.2.6 Methods of Purging. Several examples of
= 35.3 ft3 methods or techniques of purging are given below.
= Rate Time. 7.2.6.1 Purging of Pipe or Vessel. The most com-
Volume = Rate Time, therefore: mon method for purging pipe consists of blanking off the
Time = Volume/Rate flanges or ends of the piping system as shown in Figure
= 35.3 ft3/50 SCFH 42. Tape (duct, masking, or similar) is often used, but
= 0.70 hours or blanks may be made from sheet metal, plastic, plywood,
= 42 min for one volume exchange. heavy paper, or cardboard. When using wood, it is sug-
gested that it be wrapped in a material that will minimize
Due to the size of the purge volume, and the amount of air/moisture transmission. The purge gas is introduced
time needed for purging, consideration should be given to through one of the blanks and then vented through to one
purging cost. The calculations above are guides to help or more of the other blanks. The gas inlet and venting lo-
estimate the purge time; but it is recommended that resid- cations are chosen so that the joints to be welded are lo-
ual oxygen measurements, using an oxygen analyzer, be cated between the inlet and venting locations. Venting
taken prior to welding to ensure purge purity. Figure 4173 must be adequate to eliminate dead air pockets in the sys-
shows recommended purging times for various pipe sizes. tem and to prevent the closure or tie in of the root
After purging is completed, the flow of purge gas pass from blowing out (see Figure 43).
prior to welding should be reduced until only a slight When the purge gas is heavier than air (e.g., argon), it
positive pressure74 exists in the purged area to avoid pres- is preferable to admit the gas at the lowest point and to
sure increase in the system. Excessive pressure can cause vent at the highest point in the system in order to displace
root concavity and porosity in the root pass. After the the atmosphere upward.
root and first filler passes are completed, the purge can
When the purge gas is lighter than air (e.g., helium
sometimes be discontinued. However, care must be taken
and nitrogen), it is preferable to admit the gas at the high-
to avoid premature discontinuation of the purge. In many
est point and to vent at the lowest point in the system in
instances where corrosive environments are involved, the
order to displace the atmosphere downward.
oxidation/heat tint that occurs once the purge has been
discontinued, leads to premature corrosion failure. 7.2.6.2 Removable Plugs. The volume of pipe that
When welding with consumable inserts, where the must be purged can be reduced by inserting removable
unfused insert seals the joint root and prevents the escape plugs into the pipe assembly on one or both sides of the
of purge gas, flow rates on the order of 8 SCFH12 SCFH joint to be welded (see Figure 44).
[3.5 SLPM6 SLPM] are typical. Flow rates of 15 SCFH
7.2.6.3 Removable Chamber. A removable isolat-
18 SCFH [7 SLPM9 SLPM] are typical for joints having
ing chamber device can be inserted into the piping as-
open roots. For small diameter pipe and tubing, it may be
sembly beneath the joint to be welded so that the joint is
necessary to reduce the flow rates below the values stated.
isolated (see Figure 45). This can significantly reduce the
volume to be purged.
73. Data from AWS D10.4-86, Recommended Practices for
Welding Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Piping and 7.2.6.4 Purge Distributor Ring. Use of purge dis-
Tubing, Figure 4, p 17. tributor rings is a method that can be used for purging
74. To reduce the back diffusion of air into the purged system. welds in large diameter pipe (such as 12 in. [300 mm]
53 --``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Preweld purge time for 12 in. [300 mm] of pipe at a flow rate of 50 ft3/hr (23.5 L/min].
To calculate the purge time for any length of pipe, multiply the value obtained from the chart by the length of the pipe. For example, For
finding the time to purge 200 ft [60 mm] of 5 in. [127 mm] pipe, the chart indicates 1 min is required for 12 in. or 1 ft [300 mm] of pipe
length. Thus, 200 ft [60 m] of pipe length requires 200 x 1 min, which equals 200 min or 3 hrs and 20 min.
Figure 41Purging Times for Various Pipe Sizes
and over) as shown in Figure 46. This method consists of the joint opening to permit the joint to be tacked. After
placing a ring, made from a small diameter pipe contain- tacking, peel back the tape as the root pass is welded
ing numerous small holes around the periphery, beneath leaving approximately 1 in. [25 mm] at the tube not
the joint. This arrangement distributes the purge gas to welded. Complete the second filler pass to this point, then
the underside of the joint. remove the tube and tape and then complete the root and
filler pass as soon as possible. Follow the manufacturers
7.2.6.5 Soluble Paper Dams. When a piping sys- directions for flushing out the water-soluble dams.
tem permits water flushing after welding, dams made
from water-soluble paper and tape may be used to con- 7.2.6.6 Backing Channel. In welding sheet or
tain the purge. The water-soluble paper is placed on both plate, the purge may be introduced through a channel
sides of the weld joint. In this scheme, the joint opening held beneath the joint as shown in Figure 48. The chan-
is covered with masking tape and the purge is introduced nel is covered at both ends, and gas is admitted through
into the pipe through a long, small diameter tube, which the perforated pipe inside the channel. Gas is vented
is inserted through the tape covering the joint opening through the weld joint and the unsealed edges of the
(see Figure 47). After purging, remove enough tape from channel.
54
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 42Purging a Piping System with Open Ends Blanked
General Note: The total area of all vents should approximate the area of the inlet.
Figure 43Purging of a Piping System with Appropriate Venting

to Eliminate Dead Air Pockets
55
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 44Purging with Removable Plugs
Figure 45Purging with Removable Chamber
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 46Purge Distributor Ring
56
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 47Purging with Water Soluble Paper Dams
Figure 48Purging with a Backing Channel
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
57
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 49Purging with a Gas Distributor (Diffuser)
Figure 50Typical Inert Gas Glove Box Chamber
7.2.6.7 Purge Distributors. Another method for vision for containing the pieces to be welded in a glove
purging sheet or plate during welding uses a length of box containing sight glasses, glove ports, etc. or in a
pipe having numerous small holes that is placed beneath plastic bubble. After the parts have been put in the
the joint as shown in Figure 49. The holes in the pipe are chamber, purging is begun, and readings can be taken
located so as to distribute the purging gas over and under with oxygen and moisture analyzing instruments to
the surface of the joint. assure that welding is not started until the oxygen content
7.2.7 Additional Methods of Purging is at a suitable low level, usually less than 20 ppm. In
some special applications, such as welding of stainless
7.2.7.1 Glove Boxes and Bubbles. Maximum ben- steels in the pharmaceutical industries, the glove box
efits can be obtained when the entire object to be welded inert gas atmosphere must be maintained at less
can be placed in a controlled atmosphere chamber (glove than 10 ppm oxygen in order to produce the ultra-clean
box). Such chambers, as shown in Figure 50,75 have pro- internal tube surface finishes required. Still in other
industries, such as the manufacture of semiconductor
75. Photo courtesy of Vacuum Atmosphere. components, it is required that the inert atmosphere be
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
58
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
less than 1 ppm. High purity atmospheres can produce welding (e.g., weld lathes or tube mills) fixed barriers or
improved properties. shields may be built into the fixturing.
7.2.7.2 Flexible Purge Bags. When size, config-
7.2.8 Backing Methods. In addition to trailing shields
uration, or location of welds to be made preclude weld-
and backing channels noted above, other methods to
ing in the rigid chamber, bag welding may be done. In
back-up the weld and minimize oxidation are used.
this technique the piece to be welded is enclosed in a
These include fluxes and backing tapes.
clear vinyl plastic bag, 0.004 in.0.006 in. [0.1 mm
Commercial fluxes are available for backing welds, in
0.16 mm] thick, and of sufficient optical quality to see
lieu of purging, when welding stainless steels, alloy
through (see Figure 51). The atmosphere in the bag is
steels, and high nickel alloys. Each of these groups of
evacuated, and the bag or pillow is inflated with
materials requires a specific type flux. (This method is
argon. The GTAW torch is introduced through a small
not as effective as purging with an inert gas and is pro-
slit that is cut in the bag, and the weldment is submerged
hibited in many high-purity applications.) The user is
in the argon atmosphere inside of the bag.
cautioned to evaluate the compatibility of the flux with
7.2.7.3 Trailing Shields. Trailing shields may be the material to be welded and the temperature and the
necessary. For example, with titanium, the use of a trail- service in which the weldment will be used.
ing shield ensures inert gas coverage over the weld area Backing tapes generally consist of a thick, dense mass
until the molten metal has cooled to the point that it will of woven refractory fibers or ceramic segments affixed to
not react with the atmosphere. Two types of trailing the centerline of an adhesive coated high temperature
shields using porous stainless steel material are shown in tape. The backing tapes are quick to apply and easily
Figures 52 and 53 for circumferential and straight joints, used on complex shapes. They are widely used on one-
respectively. A third type of trailing shield is shown in sided welding where a smooth, convex underbead is
Figure 54. In semiautomatic and automatic machine desired (see Figure 55).
Figure 51Flexible Plastic Purge Bag
59
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 52Trailing Shields. Bottom View of Inert Gas Trailing Shield Fabricated
Using Stainless Porous (100 micron) Tubing (Shown with High Temperature Tape)
Figure 53Trailing Shields. Inert Gas Trailing Shield Fabricated Using

Stainless Porous (100 micron) Tubing (Shown with High Temperature Tape)
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
60
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 54Trailing ShieldsInert Gas Trailing Shield
Fabricated Using Stainless Porous (40100 micron) Sheet Metal
Figure 55Shielding with the Use of a Backing Tape
7.2.9 Comments on Materials Used in Gas Recircu- for most plastics, simply measuring the oxygen content
lating, Purging, and Distribution Systems. All rubber of a glove box is not necessarily sufficient. The moisture
and plastic materials (e.g., hoses and flexible bags) allow content must also be measured.76, 77 Moisture levels in-
permeation of significant levels of atmospheric oxygen side flexible glove boxes (glove bags) can easily exceed
and moisture (e.g., into the hose or flexible bag). Perme- 1000 ppm. Even a thoroughly purged box with all metal
ation of oxygen or moisture occurs even in systems sides and a single front panel made of plastic (such as
under pressure (e.g., gas hoses) because it is dependent acrylic or polycarbonate) can easily contain 10 ppm
not upon the total pressure of the system but rather upon 50 ppm oxygen and 50 ppm500 ppm moisture during
the difference in partial pressures or concentration of the use.
contaminant (e.g., oxygen or moisture) inside and out- For welding of titanium and other reactive metals, it is
side the system. For example, the partial pressure of oxy- recommended that glove boxes be made of all metal
gen inside a hose may be 20 ppm, but it is in a location
where there is 210 000 ppm on the outside of the hose
76. Bhadha, P. 1994. Control of Moisture and Contaminants
(i.e., air contains 21% oxygen). Thus there is a tremen- in Shielding Gases. Welding Journal, Vol. 73, No. 5, May
dous driving force for oxygen to diffuse (permeate) into 1994, pp. 5763.
the system. 77. Bhadha, P. 1999. How Welding Hose Material Affects
As the permeation rates for moisture can be easily 10 Shielding Gas Quality. Welding Journal, Vol. 78, No. 7, July
to 100 times greater that the permeation rates for oxygen 1999, pp. 3540.
61
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
construction with glass (not acrylic) panels or ports.

Table 15
Glove box gloves should be made of butyl rubber rather
than nitrile rubber. Although nitrile rubber is softer and Gas Purity Specification by Industrial
provides more flexibility of motion, nitrile rubber also Grade(1)
allows four (4) times as much permeation of atmospheric Minimum Maximum
moisture as butyl rubber. Grade Purity(2) Impurities(2
Because of the difficulty in purging atmospheric air Grade by 9s (%) (ppm)
and moisture from dead pockets inside large metal glove
boxes, it is recommended that parts be transferred via a 6.0 Six 9s 99.9999% 1
5.5 99.9995% 5
vacuum-capable antechamber. The antechamber must be 5.0 Five 9s 99.999%0 10
subjected to alternate vacuum and pressurization (with 4.8 99.998%0 20
an inert gas) cycles. A minimum of three, preferably five 4.7 99.997%0 30
pressure/vacuum cycles with a vacuum greater than 4.5 99.995%0 50
25 in. [625 mm] Hg are recommended. 4.0 Four 9s 99.99%00 100
Notes:
7.3 Shielding and Purging Gas Purity. The quality of (1) Grades by trade names (e.g., high purity, etc.) may vary with the
the welds made by GTAW will depend on the purity of suppliers.
the shielding and purging gas as well as the control of the (2) If the purity is determined by the difference method, then the results
reported may have excluded some gases/elements.
other variables. Data on gas purity levels are shown in
Tables 1518. Purification of the shielding and purging
gas at the point of use ensures consistency within the
limits of the purification. Regardless of the alloy system 99.950% to 99.995%. Table 16 lists the purity levels for
being welded, the purer the gas delivered to the welding different grades of argon. For some commercial applica-
process the more consistent will be the results. See addi-
tions, the minimum purity limit is typically 99.950% ar-
tional notes on gas purity in 7.3.5 and 7.5. Additional in-
gon. Often a higher purity argon is not only desirable but
formation is contained in AWS A5.32.
also required, either by the process application or by the
7.3.1 Argon (SG-A). Welding grade argon is refined product specification. For example, military applications
to a high purity and is defined in AWS classification may often require a minimum argon purity level of
SG-A as having a minimum purity of 99.997% in the 99.985%, a maximum oxygen content of 50 ppm and a
gaseous state. The term high purity may have different dew point of 65F or lower temperature. The dew point
definitions when comparing other standards and/or gas is a measure of the temperature at which water vapor
suppliers. Standard welding grade as defined by differ- begins to condense from a gas at atmospheric pressure.
ent suppliers and end users can vary from as low as In effect, the dew point is a measure of the quantity of
Table 16
Purity Requirements for Gaseous Argon
Grade/Quality Minimum % Water, Oxygen, Dew Point, Dew Point, Other Gas,
Standard(1) Level Mole/Mole Max. ppm Max. ppm Max. F Max. C Total ppm
B All 99.9850 (2)27.5(2) 50 65 54 100

C A 99.9850 23.0 50 65 54 100
C B 99.9960 14.3 7 72 58 21
A SG-A 99.9970 10.5 (1) n/s (3) 76 60 n/s
C C 99.9970 10.7 5 76 60 24
C D 99.9980 3.5 2 90 68 14
C E 99.9990 1.5 1 100 73 8
C F 99.9995 1.0 2 104 76 14
Notes:
(1) Standard A = AWS A5.32/A5.32M-97, Specification for Welding Shielding Gases.
Standard B = MIL-A-18455-C (Dept. of Defense Specification).
Standard C = CGA G-11.1-1992 (Compressed Gas Assn. Commodity Specification).
(2) Converted from Requirement of 0.02 mg/L.
(3) The symbol n/s means limits are not specified.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 62
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Table 17
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Purity Requirements for Gaseous Helium

Grade/
Quality Minimum % Water, Oxygen, Dew Point, Dew Point, Other Gas,
Standard(1) Level Mole/Mole Max. ppm Max. ppm Max. F Max. C Total ppm
B A 99.995 n/s(2) n/s n/s n/s (2)50(3)
B B n/s n/s n/s n/s n/s n/s

C H 97.500 n/s n/s n/s n/s n/s
C J 99.000 n/s n/s n/s n/s (2)10(4)
C K 99.990 n/s n/s n/s n/s n/s

A SG-He 99.995 15 n/s 71 57 n/s
C L 99.995 15 5 n/s n/s n/s
C M 99.995 9 3 n/s n/s 79
C N 99.997 3 3 n/s n/s 30
C P 99.999 . 1.5 1 100 73 9
C G 99.999 Note (5) Note (5) n/s Note (5)
Notes:
Standard B = BB-H-1168B (Federal Specification).
(3) Total of all impurities.
(4) Carbon Monoxide = 10 ppm maximum.
(5) Sum = 1 ppm maximum.
Table 18
Purity Requirements for Gaseous Hydrogen
Grade/
Quality Minimum % Water, Max. Oxygen, Max. Dew Point, Dew Point, Nitrogen, Other Gas,
Standard(1) Level Mole/Mole ppm ppm Max. F Max. C Max. ppm Total ppm
B Type I 99.000 Note (2) n/s(3) n/s n/s n/s 3000

B Type II(4) 99.500 Note (2) n/s n/s n/s n/s 3000
C A 99.800 Note (2) n/s n/s n/s n/s 30
C B 99.950 32.0 10 60 51 400 30
A SG-H 99.950 32.0 n/s 60 51 n/s n/s
C C 99.950 7.8 10 80 62 400 34
C D 99.990 3.5 5 90 68 25 .06.5
C E 99.995 3.5 5 90 68 20 1
C F 99.995 1.5 1 100 73 2 .00.5
C L 99.999 3.0 1 .0 92.5 69 2 5
C M 99.9997 0.2 0.2 n/s n/s 2 .00.6
Notes:
Standard B = BB-H-886-B (Federal Specification).
(2) None condenses.
(4) Type II is liquid state.
63
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
water vapor present. In this way it is often used to assess purging gas. It is less frequently used as the gas that ini-
gas purity since it is relatively easy to do, as compared to tiates or maintains the arc. This purity is acceptable for
a quantitative chemical analysis (see Table 12). general purpose shielding and purging of copper base al-
For reactive metals (e.g., titanium) and refractory alloys loys, nickel base alloys, austenitic stainless steel, carbon
and/or special applications, a very high purity argon is steel and low alloy steel. Irrespective of the purity, nitro-
required because contamination of the weld in these alloys gen shielding of alloys other than those listed above
can degrade not only the corrosion resistance but also the should be done only after in-depth investigation. Nitro-
mechanical properties. The term very high purity may gen shielding should not be used for the reactive metals.
have different purity definitions when comparing different The main attraction of nitrogen is its lower cost compared
gas suppliers. For titanium a minimum purity of 99.997%, to both argon and helium. Depending upon quantity of
a maximum moisture content of 10 ppm and a dew point the gas being utilized, nitrogen gas is often less than half
of 76F [60C] or lower is recommended. For very the cost of argon and can be one-fifth the cost of helium.
high/ultra high purity applications such as bio-tech, aero-
space, and semiconductor industries the purity levels are Note: Pre-mixed blends can contain significantly higher
often specified significantly higher, such as 99.999%. An levels of oxygen as compared to the pure gases (e.g., ar-
example of ultra high purity is in the semiconductor gon, helium or hydrogen). Air leaks during the mixing pro-
industry SEMI Specification E49.6 which requires a maxi- cess are the major cause of this discrepancy. Stratification
mum impurity level of 0.25 ppm. of contents, from settling of the heavier components is also
Many alloys, such as titanium, stainless steel, and a possibility, resulting in a changing blend concentration.
nickel alloys for high-purity applications, are fabricated
in chambers from which all traces of air have been purged 7.3.4 Hydrogen (SG-H). Welding grade hydrogen is
prior to initiating the welding operation. Figure 40 illus- refined to slightly lower purity levels than the inert gases
trates the effects of chamber oxygen content on gas tung- (see Table 18). (AWS A5.32 defines AWS classification
sten arc weld underbead contamination in stainless SG-H as having a minimum purity of 99.95% in the gas-
steels.78 Gross discoloration occurred with 200 ppm oxy- eous state and 99.995% in the liquid state). The main rea-
gen but little or no discoloration occurred with 57 ppm son for this is that the principal impurity of concern is
oxygen or less. The discoloration with 200 ppm oxygen oxygen. Oxygen will react preferentially with hydrogen
level may be sufficient to cause corrosion problems. (reaction rate increases as temperature increases) to form
water vapor rather than reacting with the metal being
7.3.2 Helium (SG-He). Welding grade helium is re- welded. Section 11 provides additional information re-
fined to a purity of at least 99.995% in the gaseous state garding which alloy systems can be welded using hydro-
per AWS A5.32. Other purity-related information is gen additions. Hydrogen is rarely used by itself either in
shown in Table 17 of this document. This level may be the arc or as a shielding gas. It is NOT used for purging
usable for almost all alloy systems. For reactive metals, or as a back-up gas for safety reasons (i.e., it is highly
such as titanium, pure helium is not frequently used due
flammable and can be an explosion hazard). Safety de-
to the increased difficulty of keeping the solidified weld
tails are covered in Section 15.
metal blanketed with an inert gas. Helium is not often
used in glove boxes or similar devices. Helium is fre- 7.3.5 Purity Specification. One measure of purity is
quently mixed with argon for greater depth to width ratio the grade of gas as expressed by the number of nines
welds. When mixed, the purity of the helium should be in the percentage of purity. See Table 15 for these purity
equal to or better than that of the argon. The dew point conversions. The reader is cautioned that the grade
data in Table 12 can be used for mixtures of argon and may not give the purity that one thinks one is getting.
helium since individually or as mixtures they can be con- For example, the stated grade may exclude a particular
sidered ideal gases. gas (e.g., argon in nitrogen) from the measurement dif-
7.3.3 Nitrogen (SG-N). Welding grade nitrogen is ference from 100%. A detailed, definitive discussion of
usually refined to a purity of at least 99.998%. (AWS welding gas purity is beyond the scope of this document.
A5.32 defines AWS classification SG-N as having a min- The reader is encouraged to review additional reference
imum purity of 99.9% in the gaseous state and 99.998% sources. For example, Measurement and Definition of
in the liquid state.) Nitrogen is widely used in Europe as a Gas Purity,79 by Krippene, et al., gives a summary of
the subject.
78. See also Tapp, J., McKeown, M., and Stanes, I. Reduced
Oxygen Levels During Welding Improve Stainless Steel Corro- 79. Krippene, D. T., Kurek, W. T., and Samuels, S. L. 1989.
sion Resistance, Tube International, Vol. 13, No. 59, March Measurement and Definition of Gas Purity. American Labora-
1994. tory, September 1989.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
64
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
When specifying gas purity, it is important to distin- all purifiers), do not eliminate the need to properly purge
guish between the assay and the total purity values; and shield the weld zone; sufficient pre-flow and post-
and, whether or not the total purity value is a total purity flow shielding gas should be maintained.
by difference (TPD). Assay is defined by direct mea-
7.5.1 Reactive Resins. Reactive resin purification can
surement of the major components. Total purity is a
be designed to remove a wide range of impurities includ-
means of defining gas purity by measuring certain impu-
ing moisture, oxygen, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide and
rities or minor components and subtracting from 100%.
many other impurities in the welding gas. The life of the
Products from different vendors and different products
active element depends upon the volume of the impurity
from the same vendor, when reported by the nines val-
that is passed through it, i.e., the cleaner the gas and the
ues (e.g., 99.995%), may have been derived by different
gas system, the longer the life of the purifier. The reac-
methods of analysis.
tive compound design varies with the manufacturer. For
7.4 Shielding and Purging Gas Economics. Argon is example, Cu, Cr, Mn and Li products are known to be
the most economical torch shielding gas and can be used available. These compounds form solid, nonvolatile reac-
for welding most materials, including refractory/reactive tion products that remain in the purifier. The gaseous by-
materials. Helium is not as widely used as argon due in products of the chemical reaction and its effects on the
part to its higher cost. Although cost varies substantially weld metal, if any, must be understood and considered by
with quantity, a rough comparison would be: if bulk (liq- the user. For example, if small amounts of hydrogen
uid) argon = X, then cylinder argon = 1.5X and cylinder were to be liberated in the reaction, it would most likely
helium = 2.5X. Due to its higher cost, helium is not nor- be burned up in the arc, but if the same gas was used for
mally used for purging or back-up purposes. Nitrogen is backing gas, the hydrogen might be absorbed by the mol-
the most economical purging gas and can be used as a ten pool and end up as porosity in the solidified metal or
root shielding gas for steels. However, it is not inert and cause hydrogen-induced cracking in the heat-affected
may produce nitrogenization of the weld metal. In auste- zone.
nitic stainless steel this can produce a decrease in the fer- Some of the compounds used to purify the gases
rite content, which may increase hot cracking. Nitriding change color as they are consumed. This color change is
of the root bead in some steels could render them more useful for end-point detection to trigger alarms when the
hardenable. Care should always be exercised when using purifier is no longer effective.
nitrogen as a root purging gas to ensure that detrimental These systems usually do not require external heating
metallurgical effects do not occur. or cooling to operate or control the purification. Thus,
Methods to reduce purging gas costs include: a) elim- purification comes as soon as flow of gas is established
inating the purging (backing) gas after the root and first through the purifier. See Figure 56 for an example of this
filler passes have been completed if this will not be detri- type of purifier. Generally, the reactive compound sys-
mental to the welds service, and b) reducing the volume tems are not regenerated, but may be, depending on the
to be purged by using dams, plugs, collapsible bags, etc. reactive compound; they are usually replaced when the
reactive compound is no longer active.
7.5 Purifiers. Contamination of shielding gases, usually In the reactive resin systems, the reaction times are
by moisture, air, and/or hydrocarbons from gas compres- very fast (essentially instantaneous) and the gas flow rate
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sors adversely affects many welding properties. Variabil- does not affect nor limit the purity level. The oxygen ab-
ity in shielding and backing gas quality can come from sorbing capacity (volume) of the different products var-
many sources, including contaminated gas cylinders or ies with the chemical composition and size of the system
bulk storage tanks, cylinder to cylinder purity variations purchased. Flow rates of 100 SCFH [50 SLPM] are typi-
and/or manifold/piping/delivery system, and other com- cally available, but higher flow rates can be designed. For
ponent leaks in the flow control equipment. example, systems capable of flow rates up to 2000 SCFH
One solution is to purify the shielding gas at the point [950 SLPM] are available in the semiconductor industry.
of use (POU); in welding this is as close to the torch as These systems are lightweight and can be portable.
possible. A variety of gas purifying systems are commer- The safety aspects of these systems need to be consid-
cially available, many of these are spin-offs from the gas ered. For example, if compressed air or oxygen or an Ar-
purification technology used in semiconductor manufac- CO2 mixture were to be passed through the reactive
turing. These systems typically use a high-surface-area, resin, sufficient heat can be generated to fuse or char
reactive material to react with the gas impurities. These the resin and perhaps decompose the resin into its basic
systems require regeneration or replacement of the active by-products. Some resins are designed to minimize or
elements at intervals to maintain their effectiveness. The eliminate this problem. The MSDS sheet and other infor-
investment in any purification system must be weighed mation should be studied carefully to determine the exact
against the benefits. Purifiers, in general (this applies to safety cautions that should be exercised.
65
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 56Point-of-Use (POU) Purifiers

--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(Waferpure Reactive Resin Type) Below a Welding Fixture
7.5.2 Heated Metal Getters. These systems are usu- End point detection is typically not built into the system
ally designed to react with specific compounds like H2O, to determine when the getter needs regeneration. The
O2, CO, CO2, H2, N2, and hydrocarbons. These systems economics of these large systems need to be studied
contain reactive compounds of titanium or alloys of carefully. Operating temperatures as low as 750F
zirconium or vanadium. See Figure 57 for an example of [400C] or as high as 1300F [720C] or more may be
these systems. The heated metal getter system, when op- required to purify at the desired levels. These systems are
erating at normal welding flow rates, can be quite large generally not portable. Very large systems are typically
in volume (size). The time to scrub the gas is usually required to remove reactive impurities, such as nitrogen
dependent upon temperature of the sieve compound as and carbon monoxide.
well as the level of impurity. The smaller cartridge units The safety aspects of these systems need to be consid-
can be limited to flow rates as low as 1 SCFH ered. If compressed air or oxygen were to be passed
[0.5 SLPM]. Larger systems are available to handle the through the hot getter bed, sufficient heat can be gener-
typical welding gas flow rates of 21 SCFH [10 SLPM]. ated to melt the entire system.
66
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
typically not built into the system to determine when the

sieves need regeneration.
7.6 Purging Gas Safety. 80 It is not possible to list each
gas mixture that may be encountered. In general, labels
should be checked to identify those that are classified as
flammable or as oxidizers. Mixtures of inert gases should
be handled with the same precautions as argon, carbon
dioxide, helium or nitrogen.
Argon, helium, hydrogen and nitrogen are odorless,
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
colorless and tasteless. All can cause rapid asphyxiation
and death in confined, poorly ventilated areas. Any atmo-
sphere containing less than 18% oxygen will cause dizzi-
ness, unconsciousness or possible death. Use an oxygen
analyzer with an adequate scale range and alarm to check
for adequate oxygen prior to entering a room, tank, en-
closed fixture or other confined space.
Argon and nitrogen supplied in liquid form require
the same precautions. Additional care should be taken to
avoid exposure to the cold gas or liquid, which may
cause severe frostbite to exposed parts of the body, espe-
cially to the eyes. Do not touch frosted pipe or valves. If
exposure to these cryogenic liquids or cold gases does
occur, immediately contact a physician or seek other first
aid.
Hydrogen is an odorless, colorless, tasteless gas.
Being the lightest element, any escaping hydrogen has a
tendency to rise to the highest elevation in an enclosed
area. Hydrogen is a flammable gas, and burns with a
nearly invisible flame. Mixtures with oxygen or air in an
enclosed room or area can explode if exposed to any
source of ignition, spark or flame. Since it is odorless, it
is not possible to detect a concentration of hydrogen by
smell. Be sure to keep all areas where hydrogen is used
well ventilated. In hydrogen mixed gases, hydrogen
could possibly stratify or separate in cylinders, mani-
folds, etc. and could cause an explosion or fire.
When a question arises regarding the proper handling
or storage of a gas, contact your safety department or the
supplier of the gas cylinders. A simple status tag as
shown in Figure 58, if used properly, for example can
help minimize the number of empty cylinders in the
Figure 57Point-of-Use Gas Purifier shop.
(Heated Metal Getter Type) Never identify a gas by the color of the cylinder, as
there is no standard code on cylinder colors, and some
cylinder colors change when exposed to light. ALWAYS
READ THE CYLINDER LABEL. Gases should al-
7.5.3 Molecular Sieves. Molecular sieves typically ways be referred to by their proper names. They should
remove only moisture but not oxygen (sieve types 4A not be referred to as Air. Compressed air is a specific
and 5A) and sometimes carbon dioxide (sieve type 13X) product.
depending on the pore size of the sieve compound. This
type of purifier requires activation (heating)/regeneration 80. Additional information is contained in AWS A5.32. Further
to remain effective. The volumes needed are typically information may be available from the Compressed Gas Asso-
large for welding gas flow rates. End point detection is ciation or from the welding gas suppliers.
67
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
remedy for this would be to either nickel plate the tool or

fabricate it from an austenitic stainless alloy. Low alloy
and carbon steels may be used for certain tooling appli-
CYLINDER
cations but due to their tendency to oxidize (rust) and
TAG their magnetic properties they must be carefully used.
Storage of tooling is important, as it must be kept in a
MAINTAIN 50 PSIG MINIMUM clean dry area. Cleaning of weld tooling prior to use is
SECURE TANK PROPERLY important regardless of the material from which it is
FOLLOW ALL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS made. Magnetic materials used for weld tooling can
contribute to a condition known as arc blow, which is
RETURN TO VENDOR deflection of the arc from its normal path as a result
of magnetic forces. Materials that contain iron, nickel
and/or cobalt can be magnetized or affected by a
IN SERVICE magnetic/electromagnetic field.
Due to some of the aforementioned conditions it is
highly recommended that weld tooling be made from
quality material, which is an important part of the overall
FULL effort required to make high quality weldments. The use
of nonmagnetic material such as copper, aluminum or
austenitic stainless steel is suggested to reduce the effects
Figure 58Cylinder Status Tag of magnetic forces, and as mentioned prior, certain tool-
ing may be nickel flashed to reduce contamination and
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(The Use of a Simple Tagging eliminate oxidation.
System Can Be Very Helpful)
8.1.1 Principles Governing Fixture Design. The de-
cision to use fixturing for the fabrication of a weldment
is governed by economics and quality requirements. The
proper use of fixturing, including heat sinks, can reduce
welding time and can be the difference between success
HAZARD ALERT and failure of the welding operation. The one-time fabri-
cation of an assembly may not justify the use of fixtur-
If a person accidentally enters an enclosed area and
ing; however, the fabrication of a larger number of
becomes dizzy or unconscious do not enter the area to
assemblies could easily justify the use. Also, high quality
render aid unless equipped with an oxygen breathing
work may dictate that fixturing be used to maintain and
apparatus or mask with a fresh air supply. Rescue at-
control close dimensional tolerances for either design or
tempts should only be conducted by a trained team of
nondestructive examination requirements. A decision not
a minimum of two persons; the backup person should
to build fixturing usually means that the part to be
not enter the room, but remain outside the area to pro-
welded can be fitted and tack welded together with the
vide assistance in the removal of the victim.
resultant structure to be self-supported during welding.
After welding, the resultant distortion can either be toler-
ated or corrected by either thermal or mechanical
8. Fixturing and Tooling straightening. Care should be taken to avoid excessive
restraint, which can result in weld cracking.
8.1 Material Selection. When designing, specifying and The primary functions of fixtures are:
fabricating weld tooling, careful selection of its material
(1) To locate parts relative to an assembly
must be made. This can be accomplished by reviewing
the part and/or assembly requirements relative to part (2) To maintain alignment during welding
material type, its thickness or mass and its thermal con- (3) To control distortion in the weldment
ductivity. Dimensional tolerances of the finished part and
8.2 Tooling/Fixturing Considerations
its function must also be considered as it may influence
tooling design and material choice. 8.2.1 Heat Control and Cooling. Welded materials
Another important issue is to consider if the tooling may suffer severe distortion or even burn through unless
could react adversely with the part material. An example the heat generated by the welding arc is removed from
of this condition is that the workpiece can be contami- the joint as rapidly as possible. This is especially true
nated with copper or braze material from the tooling. A when welding thin gauge materials.
68
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Heat sinks to accomplish rapid dissipation of welding likely fabricated with temporary or even expendable
heat are generally manufactured from either copper or tooling. If it were a close tolerance job or one with many
aluminum. In certain applications, rapid removal of pieces to be processed, it would most likely dictate
welding heat can be assisted by water-cooled weld tool- permanent or hard tools or fixtures.
ing. This is usually accomplished by circulating water Welding tooling can be as simple as using a C-clamp to
through passages in the tool for this purpose. In rare large exotic fixtures (refer to Figure 60) that may be re-
cases, water can be very carefully sprayed on the tooling quired for the nuclear or aerospace applications. Many
to assist heat removal. times, weld tooling can be fabricated on the job. Obviously
8.2.2 Distortion Control. Severe localized distortion large exotic tools would usually require a formal design
can occur due to the extreme differences in temperatures and be manufactured by a tool and die type shop or depart-
of the weld metal, heat-affected zones (HAZ) and the ment. Welding aids or tools that may be made up on the job
base metals. For example, Figure 59 illustrates a dis- would fall into the category of temporary or soft tooling.
torted weldment when fixturing was not used. Figure 60
8.3.1 Run-On/Off Tabs. Run-on and run-off tabs are
shows an example of tooling to hold a component during
pieces of metal placed on either end of the weld joint on
welding in order to control distortion.
which the weld is started and ended. These will insure
Very thin materials will tend to distort more than
that the complete weld joint has been joined and that trim
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
heavier weldments; thicker materials will normally re-
allowance is not required. The tabs are usually tack
quire heavier restraints. Certain materials, due to their
welded to the ends of the joint, but in some cases they
coefficients of thermal expansion and contraction will
can be held in place with weld fixturing. Figure 61 is an
demonstrate greater distortion than others. Welding trials
example of a strip weld with tabs. They are commonly
conducted on representative test samples may at times be
used with mechanized GTAW, but can also be used when
required to determine what tooling is required to ade-
manually welding, especially on thin gauge materials.
quately control weldment distortion. Heat sinks can be
The tabs should be made from the same material as the
used to evenly distribute heat and hold the welded mate-
parts being welded. For butt weld joints the tabs should
rials in place while cooling takes place.
be the same thickness as the actual weld joint thickness.
8.3 Temporary (Soft)/Permanent (Hard) Tooling. For lap joint configuration, using tabs equal to the pre-
Welding tooling and fixturing is sometimes referred to as weld lap thickness may be of some benefit. The accurate
soft and hard or temporary and permanent. The type fit-up between the tab and the weld joint of the material
of weldment, its requirements and the number of pieces being welded can prove to be a critical parameter. If
processed usually will influence the type of tooling se- blowholes occur at the junction of tab to joint, then
lected and used. For example, a one-of-a-kind job that greater control is required. Backing and shielding gas
has no or few tolerance requirements would be most can also impact the result of using weld joint tabs.
Figure 59Weld Distortion in Ti-6AL-V Bead-on-Plate (Sheet) Weld
69
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 60Tooling for GTAW of Fuel Cell Components to Control Distortion of Weldment
Figure 61Run-On/Run-Off Tabs Used for Welding Ends of Strip Material
70
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
The procedure for using tabs is briefly outlined here. pital beds to nuclear power plant piping and jet engines.
The start (run-on) and run-off tabs are fixed in place. The The process is used during original component manufac-
welding arc is initiated on the start tab, the joint is ture or during component repair.
welded and the arc is extinguished on the run-off tab. The manual GTAW process allows the skilled welder
After completion of the welding, the tabs are removed by to control the weld pool width and depth of penetration
either cutting or grinding and in many cases can be re- by varying current level, arc length (voltage), travel
used several times before discarding. speed, and filler metal addition. GTAW is the preferred
arc process for joining thin gage metals and for making
welds close to heat sensitive components because it al-
9. Welding Techniques lows for the precise control of process variables. GTAW
is also used for small jobs and repair welding in many
9.1 General. Prior sections have covered the principals fabrication shops because of the ease of control of the
of the GTAW process, power source and auxiliary equip- process and the ability to add filler metal as necessary.
ment, shielding and purging gases, and tungsten elec- GTAW is used with or without filler metal to produce
trodes. These sections provide a sound foundation for high-quality welds with smooth, uniform shapes. The
understanding the key elements of the GTAW process. GTAW process can also be used for spot welding in
However, these sections have not tied the key process el- sheet metal applications.
ements together and shown how the GTAW process is The process is used to weld most metals. It is espe-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
applied in day-to-day shop operations. This section will cially useful for joining aluminum and magnesium,
describe the different welding techniques and provide ex- which form refractory oxides, and for reactive metals
amples of how the GTAW process is applied to each like titanium and zirconium, which can become embrit-
technique. tled if exposed to air (i.e., oxygen, moisture, and nitro-
Definitions of the welding techniques to be covered gen) while molten.
are provided below: GTAW is used to weld all types of joint geometries
(1) manual welding per AWS A3.0: Welding with and overlays in plate, sheet, pipe, tubing and structural
the torch, gun, or electrode holder held and manipulated shapes. It is particularly appropriate for welding sections
by hand. less than 3/8 in. [10 mm] thick. Welding of pipe is often
(2) semiautomatic welding per AWS A3.0: Manual accomplished using GTAW for the root pass and either
welding with equipment that automatically controls one SMAW or GMAW for the fill passes.
or more of the welding conditions. The following sections will briefly describe equip-
(3) mechanized welding per AWS A3.0: Welding ment requirements and process techniques relative to
with equipment that requires manual adjustment of the manual welding.
equipment controls in response to visual observation of
the welding with the torch held by a mechanical device. 9.2.1 Equipment Requirements. Manual GTAW
(4) automatic welding: Welding with equipment equipment may include all or part of the items listed in
that requires only occasional or no observation of the Table 19. After this equipment is assembled and readied
welding, and no manual adjustment of the equipment for welding per individual plant standards and equipment
controls. supplier installation and operation manuals, the welder is
ready to begin welding operations.
9.2 Manual and Semiautomatic Welding. Welders 9.2.2 Manual Welding Operation Techniques.
must be comfortable and relaxed before they weld. No When manually welding, there are six basic areas that
matter what torch manipulation technique is used, the should be considered by the welder:
welder must try to maintain optimum torch and travel an-
gles. By maintaining a slight leading travel angle (fore- (1) Arc initiation
hand technique) and a torch angle perpendicular to the (2) Torch manipulation
weld joint, the leading edge of the weld pool can easily (3) Current level control
be seen by the welder. This orientation of the welding (4) Workpiece manipulation
torch will minimize undercutting of the base metal. (5) Filler metal addition
Manual GTAW is used for the welding work where (6) Extinguishing the arc
complex shapes, limited production runs, difficult to ac-
cess weld joints or cost of capital equipment preclude the 9.2.3 Arc Initiation. There are a variety of ways the
use of mechanized or automatic GTAW. The manual welder can initiate an arc. The welders choices of arc
GTAW process can be applied to a wide range of prod- initiation techniques will be mostly dictated by what
ucts like stairway railings and tubing assemblies for hos- capabilities are built into the GTAW power source.
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AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Table 19
Welding Equipment or Components
Equipment/Techniques Manual Semiautomatic Mechanized Automatic
Power Sources X X X X
Current Control Mechanism

remote foot pedal rheostat X X X
finger control rheostat X X X
contactor X X X X
programmable weld controller X X
Arc Voltage Control X X
Electrodes X X X X
Gas Regulators X X X X
Gas Flowmeters X X X X
Gas Supply, (shielding, backing, trailing) X X X X
Gas Hoses (shielding, purging, etc.) X X X X
Electrical Cables (workpiece lead, etc.) X X X X
Torch Cooling System X X X X
Wire Feeder X X X X
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Vision System X X
Seam Tracking Equipment X X
Workpiece Manipulators
manual X X X
mechanized X X X X
Safety Equipment (eye protection, etc.) X X X X
Fume Exhaust Equipment X X X X
Descriptions of these initiation techniques are provided IMPORTANT NOTE: Because radiation from a high-
below. frequency generator may disturb radio service, the use of
this type of equipment is governed by regulations of the Fed-
9.2.3.1 High Frequency. High-frequency arc start- eral Communications Commission. The user should follow
ing can be used with DC or AC power sources for both the instructions of the manufacturer for the proper installa-
manual and automatic applications. In manual operation and use of high-frequency generating equipment. The
tions, a foot switch is usually used to initiate the high- high-frequency radiation and conduction can also trigger
frequency unit and to raise or lower the weld current. The electronic alarms and interfere with electronic and com-
high-frequency generator superimposes a high voltage puter equipment, heart pacemakers and telephone systems.
upon the welding circuit. The ionized gas will then con-
duct welding current that initiates the welding arc. 9.2.3.2 Touch or Scratch Start. With the power
The addition of continuous high-frequency energy on source energized, the contactor closed, and shielding gas
the AC welding circuit also assists in reestablishing the flowing through the torch, the torch is lowered to the de-
arc at points of current reversal, i.e., twice every cycle. sired welding location until the tungsten electrode makes
This technique of arc stabilization finds its greatest appli- contact with the workpiece. The torch is then quickly
cation in gas tungsten arc welding of aluminum and withdrawn in a backward motion a short distance, similar
magnesium. to striking a match, to establish the arc.
72
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
The advantage of this method of arc initiation is its 9.2.4.3 Brace Technique. The brace technique is a
simplicity of operation for manual welding. The disad- technique used in manual welding of vessels, sheet metal
vantage of touch starting is the tendency for the electrode and structures. In this welding technique, the welder sta-
to stick to the workpiece, causing a tungsten inclusion. bilizes the torch by resting his wrist, arm or elbow as far
To overcome this limitation, an arc initiation coupon or away from the weld zone as possible and sliding the
run-on tab can be used where the arc is initiated on the wrist in the direction of welding. Figure 65 shows the
tab. The welder then manipulates the weld arc onto the wrist-brace technique.
workpiece.
9.2.4.4 Freehand Technique. The freehand tech-
9.2.3.3 Pulse Start/Capacitor Discharge. Appli- nique should be used only when no other technique is
cation of a high voltage pulse between the tungsten elec- feasible. Most welders are not steady enough to perform
trode and the work will ionize a path through the quality welding without some technique to stabilize the
shielding gas, which will enable the weld current to start torch. Uncontrolled torch motion can lead to tungsten
flowing. This method is generally used with DC power contact with the work or filler.
sources.
9.2.5 Workpiece Manipulation. During the planning
9.2.4 Torch Manipulation. After the welder has initi-
of the welding operation sequence and qualifying the
ated the arc, the torch must now be manipulated to move
welding procedure and welders, the welding engineer
the molten weld pool along the welding joint. Depending
must establish in which welding position the joint will be
upon the joint type, weld position and accessibility to the
welded in production. Many considerations must be
weld joint, the welder can employ different torch manip-
made relative to welding joint position. Can the compo-
ulation techniques. Care should be taken when using any
nent be mounted on a positioner? Can the part be lifted
torch manipulation technique to prevent the tungsten
with an overhead crane; or, is the component mounted in
electrode from contacting the molten pool. If this hap-
a fixed installation? Once these questions are answered,
pens, the arc should be extinguished and the electrode re-
the welding procedure that is developed must match how
ground. If the weld is to be of radiographic quality then
the component will be manipulated during welding to
the tungsten inclusion should be ground out.
maintain the proper joint position.
9.2.4.1 Walking-The-Cup. Walking-the-cup is a The highest deposition rates in GTAW can be ob-
technique for manipulating the torch when manually tained when welding is conducted in the flat position be-
welding groove and fillet welds. With this technique, the cause gravity keeps the molten metal in the joint.
electrode extension is adjusted to allow the proper arc Welding in the flat position allows for the fastest travel
length while the edge of the cup rests on the side of the speeds. The next best is the horizontal position. Due to
joint. The torch is manipulated in a manner to swing the these facts, all efforts should be made to orient the weld
tip of the tungsten back and forth across the side of the joint in either the flat or horizontal position. However, on
joint by walking-the-cup on each edge of the joint. The some jobs, the workpiece cannot be manipulated and
left or right edge of the gas nozzle/cup is in constant con- therefore vertical or overhead welding may be required.
tact with the members giving the cup a walking motion Excluding fixed position welding, there are two basic
on the weld joint. One limitation of this technique is that ways (manual and mechanical) the welder can manipu-
it is very difficult to walk-the-cup when welding pipe late the workpiece to maintain the optimum joint posi-
less than 2 in. [50 mm] in diameter. Figure 62 shows a tion. Figure 66 shows an example of a workpiece
photo where the walking-the-cup technique is being manipulator used in manual welding.
used.
9.2.5.1 Manual Manipulation. For small pipe
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
9.2.4.2 Dragging-The-Finger. Dragging-the-finger welds that can be rotated, it may be economical to make
is a technique used in manual welding of all types of the welds using pipe rollers, welding the top quarter, then
joint configurations. It can be used when welding all manually rotating the pipe and completing the weld in
diameters of pipe and tubing. Figure 63 shows dragging- quarters. Other ways the weld joint can be manually po-
the-finger technique. sitioned are by physically moving the component or
In this welding technique, a fingerstall is made by using lifting devices such as overhead cranes or universal
overlapping a sleeve of fiberglass material approxi- balance positioners that are manually operated.
mately 8 in. [200 mm] long. The fingerstall, shown in
Figure 64, is placed over the middle finger and should 9.2.5.2 Mechanical Manipulation. Mechanical
extend approximately 1 in. [25 mm] beyond the end of manipulation of the workpiece can be done with one or
the finger. The fingerstall is used to stabilize the hand more motions. An example is rotation about one axis.
holding the torch as it is slid along during welding. This is normally accomplished with turning rolls, head-
73
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 62Walking-the-Cup Technique
Figure 63Dragging-the-Finger Technique
74
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 64Folding Fingerstall Technique
Figure 65Brace Technique Showing Wrist in Contact

with Workpiece to Stabilize the Torch
75
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
stock and tail stock arrangements, or turntables, all of

which rotate the assembly about a single axis. Axis
motion can be provided by electrically driven gears (see
Figure 67).
9.2.5.3 Rotating and Tilting. Rotating and tilting

is normally accomplished with a positioner that has a tilt-
ing table as well as rotation. A third example of position-
ing is accomplished by adding vertical or linear
movement.
9.2.6 Filler Metal Addition. The majority of joints

that are GTA welded require the addition of filler metal to
eliminate underfill of the joint or to fill up a prepared joint
preparation such as a V-groove. Filler metal comes in a
variety of forms: cut length filler wire, spooled filler wire,
consumable inserts, and integral sockets. Each of these
filler metal forms requires different welder techniques.
When the addition of filler metal is necessary, a fore-
hand technique is used; the filler metal is held about 15
to the work and about one inch away from the starting
point until the weld pool is formed. When the weld pool
becomes fluid, filler metal is added. The rate of forward
speed and filler metal added will depend upon the de-
Figure 66Small Rotary Positioner sired width and height of the bead. See Figure 65, which
Used for Workpiece Manipulation shows a welder adding filler metal.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 67Mechanical Manipulation in a Mechanized Welder
76
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
9.2.6.1 Cut Length Filler Wire. When welding include more consistent weld bead fusion, and smooth,
sheet metal, filler material is normally dipped in and out uniform underbead surfaces. Additionally, the chemical
of the weld pool to control weld size, heat input and weld composition of the consumable insert can be varied to
bead geometry. When retracting weld filler rod from the obtain an optimum weld microstructure. An example of
pool, care should be exercised to insure the hot end of the this would be to vary the composition of the insert for
rod is not removed from within the welding torchs pro- automatic stainless steel welding so that the proper
tective gas envelope. If the end of the filler wire should amount of delta ferrite would be formed during solidifi-
become oxidized, then the oxidized end should be cut cation. Disadvantages include higher cost and quality
prior to using the remaining wire. When welding a root control of consumable.
pass, filler metal is normally held in one position and not The consumable-insert method of root-pass welding
manipulated. When welding filler and cover passes, filler originally was developed for use in the fabrication of nu-
metal may be manipulated a slight amount based on joint clear powered submarines, for which the highest quality
opening. During welding, the welder must be careful not weld joints are essential and where access to a part of a
to touch the filler wire to the tungsten electrode, since the joint is limited because of the congested environment.
electrode would become contaminated. This method is intended primarily for applications in
Prior to using the filler wire, the welder should verify which:
that the type of the filler wire matches the filler material (1) accessibility is limited to one side of the joint;
specified81 on the welding procedure. Additionally, the (2) smooth, uniform, crevice-free inner weld surface
welder should assure cleanliness of the filler material. contours are essential; and
Training of the welder is necessary to assure that ap- (3) the highest quality attainable in the root pass is
proved weld wire identification and storage procedures mandatory.
are followed. This method involves the use of an insert that is com-
9.2.6.2 Spooled Filler Wire. Wire feeders may be pletely fused by a gas tungsten arc. The insert permits the
used to add spooled filler metal to the weld joint. By deposition of a root pass bead that is smooth and uniform
using this technique, cold wire is fed into the leading even though welding is done from one side only, such as
edge of the molten pool while hot wire typically is fed in pipe welding. The insert method is especially useful in
into the trailing edge. When retracting weld filler rod butt-welding of pipe, although there are no particular re-
from the pool, care should be exercised to insure the hot strictions on its application. However, consumable in-
end of the rod is not removed from within the welding serts must be precisely fitted.
torch protective gas envelope. Filler additions may be 9.2.6.4 Pre-machined Integral Filler. A variation
continuous or pulsed. By mechanically feeding wire to of a consumable insert is a physical feature machined
the welding operation, the manual operation is now con- into one component that will be welded. This feature
sidered a semiautomatic GTAW process. Figure 6882 provides the filler metal, e.g., fillet welds on socket
shows two ways spooled wire can be added during man- joints. The mating component slips inside the socket.
ual welding operations. This type of joint design/filler metal addition is used pri-
As with cut length wire, proper identification proce- marily in small diameter, thin walled tubing applications.
dure and storage requirements must be strictly followed Joint tolerances should not allow gaps between the inside
when using spooled wire. Also, see 5.6.2 related to hot and outside diameters of the mating parts. During fit-up
wire. of socket weld joints, the welder must assure proper
depth of the mating components. This is an autogenous
9.2.6.3 Consumable Inserts. Consumable in-
weld with integral filler metal.
serts83 are preplaced filler metal that becomes part of the
weld. The consumable insert is fit between the compo- 9.2.7 Autogenous Welds. Autogenous welds are fu-
nents to be joined prior to welding. Cross sections of sion welds made without the addition of filler metal.
typical insert rings are shown in Figure 69. The welder Some materials with specific joint geometries such as
must assure that there are no excessive gaps in the joint square butt, lap and edge type joints may be welded au-
after placing the insert into the weld joint. Consumable togenously. The welder needs to maintain close control
inserts provide filler metal additions when welding the of the weld pool to prevent excess penetration, underfill,
root pass in pipe and other groove joints. Advantages and undercut of the weld joint. Joint configurations such
as V-groove butt welds and fillet welds cannot be welded
81. See Table 20 for examples of AWS specifications related to autogenously since they require the addition of filler
GTAW and filler metals. metal to fill the joint.
82. Photos courtesy of CK Systematics. Metals with thickness up to 1/8 in. [3 mm] can be
83. Ref: AWS A5.30-97, Specification for Consumable Inserts. welded autogenously. Some materials are not suitable for
77 --``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
(A) SEPARATE GUIDE TUBE WITH CONTROL SWITCH FOR SEPARATE CONTROL OF WIRE FEED
(B) GUIDE TUBE WITH CONTROL SWITCH MOUNTED ON GTAW TORCH
Figure 68Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Torch with

Wire Feeders [(A) and (B)] for Spooled Wire
being welded autogenously (i.e., without filler metal ad- 9.2.8 Extinguishing the Arc. The previous sections
ditions). When filler metal is not added to the weld pool, have briefly described initiating the arc and manipulating
the welding engineer must ascertain whether the result- the torch, filler metal and workpiece. Now that the
ant weld microstructure will be susceptible to hot crack- welder has successfully welded the component, the
ing. Prior to selecting the autogenous welding method, welding arc must be extinguished. Care must be taken
all parts or assembly requirements should be carefully when extinguishing the arc to avoid forming crater
checked to ensure that an autogenous weld will meet the cracks and porosity. The welder can achieve this in
specifications. several ways.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
78
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
CLASS 1INVERTED T-SHAPED

CL
0.005 in. [0.13 mm] MAX RIB OFFSET
CLASS 2J-SHAPED
W W
h1 h2
H H h1 h2
d1 d2 d1
IDENTIFICATION
MARKING SHALL BE
ON THIS SURFACE
IDENTIFICATION
D MARKING SHALL BE D
ON THIS SURFACE
General Notes:
1. Lands (d1, d2) on either side of the rib shall be on the same plane within 0.005 in. [0.13 mm].
2. Rib surfaces (h1, h2) shall be parallel within 0.002 in. [0.05 mm] and square with lands (d1, d2) within 0.005 in. [0.13 mm].
3. For dimensions and tolerances, see AWS A5.30-97, Table 8.
CLASS 1 AND 2 INSERTSCROSS-SECTIONAL CONFIGURATION
IDENTIFICATION 1/16 0.002 in.

STYLE [1.6 0.05 mm]
TYPE
D-8
2 0
S- SCHEDULE
M
1/8 0.005 in.

[3.2 0.13 mm]
I.D. (STYLE E)
O.D.
3/16 0.005 in.

[4.8 0.13 mm]
(STYLE D)
CLASS 3SOLID RING INSERTSPLAN VIEW AND CROSS-SECTIONAL CONFIGURATION
Figure 69Cross Sections of Typical Consumable Inserts
After the arc has been extinguished, it is good practice effective methods for extinguishing the arc. In this
to flow the shielding gas from the torch over the end of method, the size of the weld pool is decreased by decreas-
the weld to permit this area to cool under the protective ing the current with a foot or hand controlled rheostat.
gas. At the same time, this allows the tungsten electrode
to cool under the shielding gas and prevents its oxida- 9.2.8.2 Weld Tie-In. Moving the arc up and over
tion. The filler material end should be maintained under to the side of the joint (while remaining in the joint) or
the shielding gas to prevent oxidation. over the previous pass or back stepping is effective in
minimizing disturbance of the final weld pool. A gradual
9.2.8.1 Decreasing the Current (Down Slope, breaking of the arc will reduce the possibility of porosity
Down Ramp). Decreasing the current is one of the most and crater cracks.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
79
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
IDENTIFICATION MARKING SHALL

BE ON THIS SURFACE 37-1/2 2-1/2
C
L
(e)
(f )
NOTE (1)
H
(d)
H/2
(a)
(c)
(b)
General Notes:
For dimensions and tolerances, see AWS A5.30-97, Table 8.
When specified, rings 1-1/2 in.2 in. [38 mm509 mm] in diameter shall be formed of 5/32 in. [4 mm] material.
Note:
1. Reference diameter for correlating with pipe I.D.
CLASS 4 INSERTSCROSS-SECTIONAL CONFIGURATION
W WIDEST PORTION
OF INSERT
1/8 in. x 5/32 in. [3.2 mm x 4.0 mm]
308
H
WITH SLIGHT RADIUS ON EDGES
CLASS 5 INSERTSCROSS-SECTIONAL CONFIGURATION
Figure 69 (Continued)Cross Sections of Typical Consumable Inserts
9.2.8.3 Filling the Crater. In this method a small proved shop procedures prior to releasing the component
quantity of filler metal is added just as the electrode is to final inspection. This part of the welding operation is
being withdrawn. This will compensate for the solidifi- also applicable to mechanized and automatic welding
cation shrinkage of the weld pool and provide a little techniques.
extra filler material to help prevent a shrinkage cavity.
After welding is complete, the welder should visually 9.3 Mechanized Welding. Mechanized welding is used
inspect the welds for undercut, underfill, excess penetra- for large production run applications where there is good
tion or reinforcement, crater cracks, and surface porosity. welding joint accessibility and where consistent joint fit-
These conditions should be reworked according to ap- up can be maintained. Additionally, mechanized welding
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
80
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
is used when quality requirements are more critical. Part- equipment variations for mechanized welding that range
to-part consistency is significantly more important for from lathe-type welding set-ups (see Figure 70) to large
mechanized welding as compared to manual welding. gantry type welding systems (see Figure 67). In these
Planning for manufacturing components that will be examples, a mechanical device holds the welding head
welded with mechanized GTAW techniques begins and the operator can make manual adjustments to the
when the component is being designed. Joint access must equipment controls to vary travel speed, welding current,
be provided for the welding head (torch holder) and the or torch position.
wire feed guide tube (if used). Fixturing concepts need to
9.3.1 Equipment Requirements. Mechanized
be established to assure proper joint fit-up and that di-
GTAW equipment may include all or part of the items
mensions are maintained after welding. Fixturing for
listed in Table 19. After this equipment is assembled and
mechanized welding is generally more complex than the
readied for welding per individual plant standards and
fixtures used during manual welding. Considerations
equipment supplier installation and operation manuals,
need to be made for how filler material will be added and
the welder or welding operator is ready to begin welding
whether trailing gas shields are required.
operations.
Mechanized GTAW can be used to weld a variety of
joint geometries and part configurations. The basic 9.3.2 Circumferential Mechanized Welding. A typ-
equipment requirements to perform mechanized GTAW ical circumferential welding operation using mechanized
are shown in Table 19. There are many different types of GTAW equipment would have an operation sequence
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 70Lathe-Type Welding Setup
81
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
similar to manual welding, except that the torch position Prior to initiating the welding cycle or weld controller,
(side-to-side placement relative to the joint) would be the welding operator sets the RPM of the headstock to
controlled manually. The welding operation would still the proper setting so that the travel speed of the work-
include arc initiation, torch manipulation, filler metal ad- piece relative to the stationary torch will match the speed
dition, workpiece manipulation and extinguishing the arc specified in the welding procedure. The welding operator
as basics to the operation. Figure 67 shows a mechanized can check the workpiece travel speed by simply timing
circumferential welding operation. how long it takes the workpiece to make one revolution.
Travel speed is then determined by dividing the circum-
9.3.2.1 Arc Initiation. Mechanized welding em- ference of the workpiece by the time required to com-
ploys the same variety of arc initiation techniques as of- plete one revolution. On more complex systems the
fered by manual welding, except that touch (scratch) workpiece positioner can have a tachometer that controls
starting is rarely used. These techniques were discussed the RPM of the positioner. The welding travel speed and
previously in Section 5. part diameter are entered into the weld controller, and the
When an automatic voltage control (AVC) system is computer control calculates and controls the positioners
used in conjunction with mechanized welding, the weld rotational speed.
torch is positioned over the weld joint and the AVC unit
is instructed to set the initial arc gap. This is accom- 9.3.3 Filler Metal Addition. During mechanized
plished by the AVC head slowly lowering the welding welding, filler metal is typically added in three different
torch towards the workpiece until the tungsten electrode ways. The first way is the use of spooled wire (cold or
contacts the workpiece. An electrical circuit is made hot), which is added by a mechanical wire feeder where
when the AVC system senses the contact between the the wire speed is controlled by a programmable weld
electrode and the workpiece. Once the circuit is made, controller or an independent speed controller. The wire
the AVC head retracts the welding torch a preset dis- may be continuously fed at a constant speed, pulsed at a
tance. Once the arc gap position is set, the AVC unit sig- programmed feed rate, or mechanically dipped into and
nals the weld controller and the arc initiation cycle is out of the pool. In an example of this method, an eccen-
started. During the welding operation, the AVC monitors tric device rotates and causes the filler metal guide tube
the arc voltage to maintain a constant electrode tip to to be pulled and pushed, thus causing the constantly fed
workpiece distance. If the AVC unit detects a change in filler metal to be dipped into and out of the weld puddle.
voltage, the AVC unit promptly adjusts the height of the This action simulates how a welder would manually feed
welding torch so that the programmed arc gap can be filler metal into the weld puddle. With the advances in
maintained. computer controls, the weld controller can now be pro-
grammed to electrically control the wire feeder to pulse
9.3.2.2 Torch Manipulation. Now that the weld- feed the wire into the weld puddle, thus simulating the
ing operation is progressing, the welding operator may manual process of adding filler metal to the weld puddle.
monitor the position of the tungsten electrode relative to
The second and third ways filler metal can be added
the welding joint centerline. The operator must adjust the
during mechanized welding are by using a consumable
position of the weld pool to assure complete fusion of the
insert or as an integral socket. Requirements and descrip-
joint sidewalls. This is accomplished by manually adjust-
tions of these filler metal addition techniques were previ-
ing the welding head cross slide so that the arc is cen-
ously described in 9.2.6.3 and 9.2.6.4. There is no
tered over the joint. Welding current can either be
difference between the use of inserts or sockets between
controlled manually or by a programmable weld logic
manual and mechanized welding except that fit-up be-
controller. If the weld logic controller were used, the
comes even more critical for mechanized welding. High
welding current, pulse frequency and voltage would be
deposition rates can be achieved with the use of hot wire
programmed prior to starting the welding operation.
feed techniques.
9.3.2.3 Current Control. Additionally, the current
ramp-up and slope-down cycles can also be pro- 9.3.4 Extinguishing the Arc. After the weld is com-
grammed. If the welder manually adjusts the current pletely made around the parts circumference, the arc
level, a foot or hand controlled rheostat would be used to must be extinguished. As with manual welding there are
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
vary the current level during current ramp-up and down. a variety of techniques like current down slope and weld
The current can also be manually controlled during weld- overlap that can be used. The current down slope tech-
ing, to maintain a constant bead width and penetration nique can either be controlled manually or by the pro-
profile. grammable weld logic controller. The initiation of the
current down slope by the programmable weld logic con-
9.3.2.4 Workpiece Manipulation. After the arc is troller can be initiated manually (welding operator
initiated, the welder starts the workpiece manipulator. pushes end of weld cycle button on control console), or
82
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
automatically initiated by a position feedback device lo- merged arc welding (SAW). Like the other arc processes,
cated on the headstock positioner. An encoder or resolver heat input to the weldment is fairly high, resulting in re-
feedback device that is mounted to the positioners drive duced mechanical properties and increased weldment
motor or rotational axis can send a signal to the weld distortion. Perhaps the most restrictive factor is the large
logic controller when the component has passed through number of welding variables that must be controlled. In
360 of rotation. Once this position signal is received, the addition to welding current, travel speed, electrode posi-
weld logic controller initiates the current down slope tion, and wire feed speed, arc manipulators (hard auto-
cycle and stops the positioners motion. After the arc is mation) or robots (flexible automation) must be designed
extinguished, the shielding gas continues to flow for a to meet these additional requirements, and this complex-
preset amount of time. This protects the weld crater from ity adds to the cost of the system.
excessive oxidation. Where weld quality requirements are high, when the
This is just one example of a mechanized welding op- materials cannot be joined by any other process or when
eration. As this example illustrates, the complexity of the production quantities are large, automation of the GTAW
system can vary from almost all manually controlled process can save considerable time and money. The key
welding parameters to almost a completely automatic to a successful automatic welding operation is to get con-
welding system. When assessing welding needs, many sistent joint fit-up in the first place and make sure that the
decisions need to be made. The foremost question that joint is located consistently from part to part.
needs to be answered is What GTAW technique pro-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
duces the part for the lowest cost yet still meets the fit- 9.4.1 Orbital Welding. In selecting orbital welding
ness for purpose? Assuming that the cost of the capital applications, many considerations should be made. A
equipment can be justified and that consistent, high- few of the key questions that should be answered are:
quality welds are required the next technique that could (1) What size (outside diameter)/wall thickness will
be considered is automatic GTAW. be welded?
(2) What kind of welding head will access the joints?
9.4 Automated Welding. Manual GTAW is a labor- (3) What kind of joint fit-up does the joint preparation
intensive process that places great demands on operator process yield? Does it need to be improved?
skill levels. Automation can reduce level of skill required A thorough evaluation of the equipment and installa-
of the operator, thus reducing direct labor costs. Auto- tion needs should be conducted prior to selecting the
mation places fewer physical demands upon the operator, equipment. Once the process selection work is com-
resulting in increased arc on time and higher deposition pleted, a welding parameter development program
rates. The basic equipment requirements to perform should be run to determine the relationships between the
automated GTAW are shown in Table 19. key welding parameters. Parameters that need to be con-
Quality improvements can be realized through auto- trolled are: current levels (if pulsed current is used, high
mation because of the greater consistency of electrode and low values need to be established), travel speed,
and filler wire placement and the greater level of control pulse frequency, shielding gas type, backside shielding
possible over the welding parameters. Automation can pressure, electrode diameter, and tip preparation. Also,
also overcome problems associated with synchronizing work should be completed to define joint fit-up require-
filler wire movement, travel speed, and arc current at the ments and what the joint preparation geometry should
start and end of the weld. be. Also, if filler metal is to be used in the form of inserts
or integral sockets, or if the weld is to be made autoge-
As with any of the other welding processes, the deci-
nously, evaluations should be performed to determine the
sion to automate GTAW should be preceded by a careful
metallurgical structure of the resultant weld. Once this
analysis of production volume, floor space, inventory,
work is complete and the welding operators are trained,
manpower, and investment requirements. Thought
production can be initiated.
should also be given to changes in product design, toler-
ances and fit-up, processing and scheduling, and fix- 9.4.1.1 Arc Initiation. Arc initiation is controlled
turing that might simplify the design of the automatic by the orbital weld controller. The arc can be initiated
welding station. with high-frequency or capacitance discharge. Details of
After concluding that automation is feasible, consid- arc initiation are provided in Section 5.
eration should be given to the selection of the welding
process itself. GTAW produces very high weld quality 9.4.1.2 Torch Manipulation. In orbital welding,
and can be used with a broad array of metals, but there the welding head is clamped rigidly over the tubing or
are several disadvantages as well. The GTAW process pipe to be welded. The tungsten electrode is centered
has an inherently low deposition rate when compared to over the welding joint and the tungsten to workpiece dis-
processes like gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and sub- tance (arc gap) is preset. The tungsten electrode is then
83
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
dinally or laterally over the weld pool without moving

the welding electrode. These oscillators consist of elec-
tromagnets, located close to the arc, that are powered by
a variable-polarity, variable-amplitude power supply.
Control features include adjustable oscillation frequency
and amplitude, and separately adjustable dwell times.
Seam trackers are used to maintain the position of the
arc over the weld joint centerline. Seam tracking equip-
ment can be mechanical probes, through-the-arc or vi-
sion based. Each type of tracking equipment has its own
idiosyncrasies. Mechanical probes physically track the
joint. Through-the-arc trackers rely on the welding head
to be moved back and forth across the joint (weave pat-
tern) as the weld progresses linearly. Arc voltage read-
ings are taken at the peak amplitude of the weave pattern,
which occurs on each side of the weld joint. A joint side-
wall is needed so that values of voltage can be compared
to determine if the arc is centered between the sidewalls.
This requirement limits the application of the through-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the-arc seam tracking to joints with preparations, like V-
preps, that are deeper than 3/8 in. [10 mm]. If the system
detects a difference in voltage from sidewall to sidewall,
the torch is moved by a mechanized cross slide back to-
Figure 71Orbital GTAW Weld Head wards the center of the joint so that successive voltage
readings will be the same at each joint sidewall. The rate
of correction is dependent upon the sensitivity and gain
settings that were initially programmed into the weld
logic controller.
rotated around the part. Figure 7184 shows an orbital As can be seen from the previous paragraphs, there
tube-welding head. A gear driven drive train moves a can be an increasing complexity added to the torch ma-
guided slip sleeve. The guided sleeve, which holds the nipulation capabilities of the system.
tungsten electrode, is located inside the welding head.
The welding current and shielding gas are fed through an 9.4.1.3 Workpiece Manipulation. In orbital weld-
umbilical cable that also contains a drive motor control ing, the workpiece is fixed and the electrode is rotated
cable. The travel speed of the electrode is controlled by around the joint by the welding head. Therefore, during
the orbital welding controller. welding, workpiece manipulation is not required.
In some large diameter welding applications, special
9.4.1.4 Filler Metal Addition. When orbital weld-
equipment like arc oscillators and seam trackers can be
ing is conducted, filler metal may or may not be added.
added to assist with torch manipulation. Arc oscillators
Like in mechanized welding, filler metal may be added
are used to change the location of the welding puddle
using spooled wire or consumable inserts into the joint.
with respect to the original weld path. This may be ac-
An example of spooled wire feed is shown in Figure
complished mechanically or electromagnetically.
22.85 The use of consumable inserts also serves to help
The width of gas tungsten arc welds can be increased
alignment of the weld joint. Descriptions of these filler
by mechanical oscillation. Mechanical arc oscillation can
metal types are found in 9.2.6.
be achieved by mounting a GTAW torch on a cross slide
that provides movement of the torch transverse to the 9.4.1.5 Extinguishing the Arc. After the weld is
line of travel. Such equipment provides adjustable cross- completed, the arc can be extinguished by ramping down
feed speed, amplitude of oscillation, and dwell on each the current and/or by the weld overlap technique. The cur-
side of the oscillation cycle. rent ramp down schedule is executed at a preprogrammed
Better fusion of joint sidewalls and a reduction of the time after the electrode has completed its travel around
disruptive effects of arc blow can be obtained by mag-
netic oscillation. Such oscillators deflect the arc longitu-
85. Emerson, John. 1999. Multipass Orbital Welding of Pipe.
The Tube and Pipe Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, January/February
84. Photo courtesy of Swagelok Co. 1999, pp. 2226.
84
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
the weld joint. Likewise, the amount of weld overlap is 10.3.1 Edge Preparation. The weld joint design de-
preprogrammed and the amount of overlap at the welds termines the type of edge preparation that is required for
completion is controlled by the weld controller. gas tungsten arc welding. Depending on the thickness of
the weld joint, several configurations for joint cross
sections can be selected. For thicker section weld joints,
10. Joint Design, Preparation, and a U-groove, J-groove, or V-groove weld joint edge prep-
aration may be desired to ensure complete weld pene-
Welding Positions tration (see Figure 73). For thinner section weld joints,
10.1 Introduction. Welded joints are designed primarily usually under 0.10 in. [2.5 mm] in thickness, a square-
to meet strength and safety requirements for the service groove edge preparation will usually be sufficient for
conditions of the welded component. Consideration must maintaining complete weld penetration during welding.
be given to the manner in which the stress will be applied Joint preparations which are often used for GTAW
in service, whether the joint will be in tension, compres- are the J-groove or U-groove. These are often used for
sion, shear, bending or torsion, and whether the joint is precision mechanical or closely fitted components (either
statically or dynamically loaded. Fatigue must be fac- thin or thick). Figure 73 shows some examples of these
tored into joint design for dynamically loaded applica- types of preparations.
tions. Joints should be designed to avoid stress-risers and Figure 69 shows consumable inserts in U-grooves.
to reduce residual stress. Consumable inserts with GTAW are more often used
A primary consideration in preparing the joint design with an open root U-groove.
is the provision for proper accessibility. Any joint open- Mechanical means of weld joint edge preparation are
ing should be adequate to permit the arc, shielding gas usually the most desirable, but it is not always the most
and filler metal to reach the bottom of the joint. Other cost effective means of removing surface oxides or con-
factors affecting joint design include base metal (such as taminants. Certain mechanical edge preparation tech-
surface tension, fluidity, melting temperature, etc.), metal niques will produce consistent weld joint edges to
thickness, whether filler metal is to be added, weld pene- minimize weld joint gaps and mismatch when assem-
tration requirements, joint restraint, and joint efficiency bling part details. In all mechanical methods, it is impor-
requirements. Joint efficiency86 is defined as the ratio of tant to maintain sharp machining or cutting tools to avoid
the joint strength to the base metal strength and is gener- working (smearing) or overheating of the weld joint
ally expressed as a percentage. surfaces.
10.2 Basic Joint Configurations and Welding Posi- 10.3.2 Surface Cleaning. Whichever edge prepara-
tions. The five (5) basic joints are butt, corner, T-joint, tion is selected, prior to welding, the weld joint edges and
lap, and edge; these are shown in Figure 72.87 Many vari- adjacent areas (on and out of the heat-affected zone)
ations are derived from these basic joints. In all instances should be wiped with a clean lint free cloth moistened
the primary objective is to maintain the desired weld with an approved solvent such as alcohol, acetone, or me-
quality and to minimize welding costs. thyl ethyl ketone (MEK), depending on the material type,
Factors affecting cost are part preparation, setup or to ensure cleanliness during welding. Cleanliness of both
fixturing, and actual welding. Welding position refers to the weld joint area and the filler metal are important con-
the overall orientation of the weld axis and workpieces. siderations when welding with the GTAW process. Edge
The welding positions, with variations, are flat, horizon- preparation tools can be a source of contaminants. Oil,
tal, vertical and overhead. Refer to AWS A 3.0, Standard grease, shop dirt, paint, marking crayon, rust or corrosion
Welding Terms and Definitions, for more detailed infor- deposits, and moisture must all be removed from the joint
mation pertaining to weld joints and welding positions. edges and metal surfaces to a distance beyond the heat-
All joint configurations and positions can be welded affected zone; typically 1/2 in. [13 mm] is sufficient.
using the GTAW process.
10.3 Edge Preparation and Surface Cleaning. Edge 11. Welding Characteristics of
preparation and surface cleaning are an integral part of
weld joint design and quality. Surface cleanliness is im- Selected Alloys
portant regardless of joint design. 11.1 Introduction. Most metals can be welded by the
GTAW process. Some metals (e.g., titanium and other re-
86. Joint Efficiency (%) = (Weld Joint Strength/Base Metal active metals) are particularly suited to the GTAW pro-
Strength) x 100. cess because these can be welded in an inert gas chamber
87. Source: AWS 3.0:2001, Standard Welding Terms and Defi- or with very good shielding to provide sufficient protec-
nitions, Figure 1. tion from contamination by the atmosphere. Metals and
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 85
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
APPLICABLE WELDS
BEVEL-GROOVE SQUARE GROOVE

FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE U-GROOVE
FLARE-V-GROOVE V-GROOVE
J-GROOVE BRAZE
(A) BUTT JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
FILLET V-GROOVE
BEVEL-GROOVE PLUG
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE SLOT
FLARE-V-GROOVE SPOT
J-GROOVE SEAM
SQUARE-GROOVE PROJECTION
U-GROOVE BRAZE
(B) CORNER JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
FILLET SLOT
BEVEL-GROOVE SPOT
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE SEAM
J-GROOVE PROJECTION
SQUARE-GROOVE BRAZE
PLUG
(C) T-JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
FILLET SLOT
BEVEL-GROOVE SPOT
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE SEAM
J-GROOVE PROJECTION
PLUG BRAZE
(D) LAP JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
BEVEL-GROOVE V-GROOVE
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE EDGE
FLARE-V-GROOVE SEAM
J-GROOVE SPOT
SQUARE-GROOVE PROJECTION
U-GROOVE BRAZE
(E) EDGE JOINT

--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 72Basic Joint Types
86
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 73Weld Joint Edge Preparation

(U-Groove, J-Groove, and V-Groove)
87 --``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
alloys that vaporize very readily when liquefied are not AWS. AWS specifications for filler metals suitable for
recommended for GTAW. Such metals include cadmium, GTAW are listed in Table 20. In general, when it is rec-
zinc and those alloys (e.g., silver brazing filler metals ommended that an alloy be in a specified heat treated
and brasses) which contain high percentages of these low condition prior to welding, that a given preheat and post
melting point metals. Not only does the tungsten elec- heat be applied, and/or that the filler material provides a
trode become quickly contaminated and the arc become given chemical composition, then these recommenda-
unstable, there can be a potential health hazard. tions are valid for any welding process, including GTAW.
Details on the welding procedures for specific metals This section presents information on metallurgical
and alloys, including suggested preweld and postweld considerations and potential problems unique to the
heat treatments and recommended filler metals, are be- GTAW process. For the common alloys, Table 8 provides
yond the scope of this publication. Data on specific met- suggested types of welding current, electrode composi-
als and alloys can be found in the AWS Welding tions, and shielding gas compositions for optimum weld
Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol. 3; ASM Handbook, Vol. 6, quality. The principal effects of shielding gas and elec-
Welding, Brazing, and Soldering, 1993, ASM Interna- trode geometry on welding parameters were discussed in
tional; and Welding Metallurgy, G. E. Linnert, 1994, Sections 4, 6, and 7. The general effect is that as one goes
Table 20
AWS Specifications Related to Gas Tungsten Arc Welding(1)
Specification Number Title
A5.7 Specification for Copper and Copper Alloy Bare Welding Rods and Electrodes
A5.9 Specification for Bare Stainless Steel Welding Electrodes and Rods
A5.10/A5.10M Specification for Bare Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods
A5.12/A5.12M Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding and Cutting
A5.13 Specification for Surfacing Welding Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding
A5.14/A5.14M Specification for Nickel and Nickel-Alloy Bare Welding Electrodes and Rods
A5.15 Specification for Welding Electrodes and Rods for Cast Iron
A5.16 Specification for Titanium and Titanium Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods
A5.18/A5.18M Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding
A5.19 Specification for Magnesium-Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods
A5.21(2),(3) Specification for Bare Electrodes and Rods for Surfacing.
A5.22(3) Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding and Stainless Steel Flux Cored
Rods for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding.
A5.24 Specification for Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods
A5.28 Specification for Low Alloy Steel Electrodes and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding
A5.30 Specification for Consumable Inserts
A5.32/A5.32M Specification for Welding Shielding Gases

Notes:
(1) While a seemingly successful GTAW can be accomplished using bare wire or rod of the same alloy as the base metal, this is not recommended.
Chemical composition of filler metals is often adjusted to insure that the weld has the same strength and corrosion resistance as the base metal.
Deoxidizers may also be added to the filler metal to insure a high quality weldment.
(2) Bare rods for GTAW hardfacing have been reclassified in AWS 5.21. See the latest editions of AWS 5.13 and AWS 5.21.
(3) These specifications also include some composite rod classifications for welding with GTAW.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
88
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
from 100% argon to 100% helium, the penetration in- metals (e.g., Type 347). The 300 series filler metals (e.g.,
creases. As the included tip angle decreases to a sharper 308, 309) are often used on other base metals (e.g., 410
point, the penetration decreases. These general effects stainless steel) when postweld heat treatment cannot be
occur regardless of the base metal. However, the mag- performed.
nitude of the effect will vary, primarily depending upon Argon is recommended for manual welding of thick-
the thermal conductivity of the base metal. For example, ness up to approximately 1/2 in. [13 mm] because it pro-
it is easier to obtain deep penetration and a narrow bead vides better control of the molten weld pool. For thick
with titanium, which has a very low thermal conductiv- sections, and for many mechanized and automatic appli-
ity, than it is with copper, which has a very high thermal cations, argon-helium mixtures or pure helium are often
conductivity. used to obtain increased weld penetration. Argon-
hydrogen mixtures are used for some austenitic stainless
11.2 Carbon and Alloy Steels. Although carbon and
steel welding applications to improve bead shape and
alloy steels are readily welded with the GTAW process,
wetability. The use of argon-hydrogen mixtures, gener-
typical applications involve root pass welding with
ally used only on thin gauge 300 series stainless, is not
GTAW followed by fill passes with SMAW or GMAW.
recommended for other applications without an in-depth
GTAW is a low deposition rate process, and thus is not
investigation. Mixtures of 98% argon 2% nitrogen have
used as much for carbon and alloy steels as are SMAW,
been reported to be successfully used in the welding of
SAW, GMAW or flux-cored arc welding (FCAW). Fur-
duplex (50%60% austenite, 40%50% ferrite) stainless
thermore, although GTAW provides good shielding and
steels. Most stainless steels are welded with DCEN.
protection of the weld pool from atmospheric contamina-
tion, it does not utilize a flux so it cannot remove or tie In general, the precipitation hardening stainless steels
up the impurities, which are present in some steels. An and iron-based superalloys have a liquid weld pool that is
example of this is the porosity developed by the presence more difficult to control than the weld pool for 300 series
of impurities in rimmed steels. alloys. These alloys have additions of hardening ele-
ments (such as Al, Ta, Cu, and Ti) which change the
Argon or argon-helium shielding gas mixtures are
surface tension of the liquid pool.
recommended for welding of carbon and low alloy steels.
Argon is generally used for welding thickness up to Another element that is known to have a strong effect
1/2 in. [13 mm], because the molten weld pool under upon surface tension is sulfur. Figures 74(A) and (B) il-
lustrate the effect of this element on two austenitic stain-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
argon is easier to control than with helium. Helium and
argon-helium mixtures provide deeper penetration for the less steels.88 The shallow penetration produced with
same welding parameters. Consequently, these gases are sulfur contents less than 50 ppm can have significant im-
more commonly used for thicker sections. Argon- plications for autogenous welds. With very low sulfur
hydrogen mixtures are not used for steels because of the contents (<~50 ppm or 0.005%), the molten weld pool
potential for hydrogen-induced cracking. DCEN is used flows outwards along the top surface away from the cen-
for GTAW of steels. ter towards the sides. Thus, a shallow and wide weld
bead is created. With high sulfur contents (>50 ppm) the
11.3 Stainless Steels and Iron-Based Superalloys. weld pool flows inward along the top surface toward the
Stainless steels of all types (200 and 300 series or austen- center, and then down at the center. This produces a deep
itic, 400 series of the martensitic and ferritic types, and and narrow weld bead. Some material specifications for
duplex and precipitation hardenable) and the iron-based stainless steel now call for 50 ppm170 ppm sulfur.89
heat-resistant superalloys, such as A286, are extensively Problems with welding of stainless steels include hot
welded with the GTAW process because they are ade- cracking, which is caused by the metal composition and
quately protected from the atmosphere by the inert gas the related tensile stress. The 300 series stainless steels
shielding. Figure 40 shows the progressive oxidation that can have hot cracking if the ferrite (or chromium and
occurs if the inert gas becomes contaminated with oxy- nickel) content are not controlled. The hardening ele-
gen. Similar effects occur if the weld is not adequately ments in the precipitation hardening stainless steels and
protected. superalloys can cause hot cracking. Welding of the free-
Filler metal composition is typically close to or nearly machining stainless steels, which contain sulfur and
identical to the base metal composition since the filler
metal melts into the weld pool but does not pass through 88. Burgardt, P. and Campbell, R., 1992, Chemistry Effects on
the arc, where loss of elements can occur. Type 304 base Stainless Steel Weld Penetration, Ferrous Alloy Weldments,
metal (18-20 Cr, 8-10 Ni) is normally welded using Type Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland.
308 filler (19-21 Cr, 10-12 Ni) because there may be 89. ASTM A270-95a, Standard Specification for Seamless and
some slight loss of elements in the arc. However, match- Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Sanitary Tubing, Supplementary
ing filler metal is often used for some stainless steel base Requirements for Pharmaceutical Tubing.
89
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
(A) 304L STAINLESS STEEL CONTAINING 0.003% (30 ppm) SULFUR, ORIGINAL SCALE 16X
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(B) 304L STAINLESS STEEL CONTAINING 0.016% (160 ppm) SULFUR, ORIGINAL SCALE 16X
Figure 74Effects of Sulfur Content on Bead-on-Plate Weld Bead Shape

in 304L Made with the Same Parameters
phosphorus (which improve machinability), can also 255 duplex stainless steel and E-Brite91 26-1 ultra-high
cause hot cracking. The martensitic stainless steels typi- purity ferritic stainless steel.92
cally require preheat or postweld heat treatment to avoid
11.4 Aluminum Alloys. GTAW is ideally suited for
cold cracking.
welding of aluminum alloys. Welding may be performed
Gas purity, as discussed in Section 7, is an important
variable and can have a significant effect on the weld and
weldment properties. For example, it has been shown
91. E-Brite is a registered trademark of Allegheny Ludium
that the purification of argon shielding gas and backing
Corporation.
gas improves Charpy impact toughness of Ferralium90
92. Krysiak, K. F. and Bhadha, P. M., 1990. Shielding Gas
Purification Improves Weld Quality. Welding Journal, Vol. 69,
90. Ferralium is a registered trademark of Langley Alloys Ltd. No. 11, Nov. 1990, pp. 4749.
90
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
DIRECT CURRENT, STRAIGHT-POLARITY

(DCEN) PULSED CURRENT
WIRE BRUSHED TO CLEAN SURFACE
Figure 75GTAW in 6061-0 Aluminum Showing the Surface Contours

with Pulsed Direct Current Straight Polarity (DCEN)
without filler metal for many alloys, however, some al- gas until it has solidified (magnesium will only burn if it
loys weld better with use of a filler metal. The reason for is in finely divided form).
this is that these alloys, such as 6061, have a composition Magnesium alloys are normally welded with a filler
that has a tendency for cracking (see Figure 75). Adding metal of similar composition. However, occasionally it is
certain filler metals alters the weld metal chemical com- desirable to use a filler metal with a lower melting range
position, which minimizes the tendency for cracking to minimize the possibility of cracking due to thermal
(Type 4043 filler produces less cracking than Type 5356 stress created in part by magnesiums high coefficient of
filler). thermal expansion. An example is the use of AZ91
Aluminum alloys form refractory surface oxides, (875F1105F [468C596C] melting range) filler
which make joining more difficult. For this reason, most with AZ31 (1120F1170F [604C632C] melting
welding of aluminum is performed with AC (alternating range) base metal.
current using high-frequency arc stabilization) because it 11.6 Beryllium. Beryllium is a light metal and is diffi-
provides the surface cleaning action of DCEP along with cult to weld because of a tendency toward hot cracking
the deeper penetration characteristics of DCEN. Variable and embrittlement. GTAW of beryllium is usually per-
Polarity (VP) or pulsed DC welding is also very success- formed in an inert atmosphere chamber using argon-
ful in welding aluminum. DCEP is sometimes used for helium shielding gas. (Beryllium fumes are toxicsee
welding thin aluminum sections. DCEN can be used for Section 15 and ANSI Z49.1 for information on health
high-current automatic welding of sections over 1/4 in. and safety issues on welding of beryllium.) Alloys with
[6 mm] thick, but since DCEN produces no cleaning ac- low concentrations of beryllium, such as beryllium cop-
tion, the aluminum parts must be thoroughly cleaned im- per alloys (<2% Be), are truly copper alloys and can be
mediately prior to welding. Porosity is a major concern welded with normal inert gas shielding. On the other
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
with welding of aluminum, especially with DCEN. hand, the aluminum beryllium alloys contain large quan-
Argon shielding gas is generally used for welding of tities (30%70%) of beryllium and must be handled as if
all thicknesses of aluminum with AC because it provides they were pure beryllium.
better arc starting, greater cleaning action and superior
weld quality than helium. However, when DCEN or 11.7 Copper Alloys. One of the properties of copper al-
DCEP are used, helium gas provides faster travel speeds loys is their very high thermal conductivity. GTAW is
and deeper penetration. Hydrogen is not recommended well suited for welding of these alloys because the in-
for use with aluminum alloys since excessive porosity tense heat generated by the arc can produce melting
can be created. Preheating of aluminum is often required without a great deal of heat being conducted away from
because of its high thermal conductivity. the weld. However, thick sections frequently need to be
preheated to insure adequate fusion, particularly at the
11.5 Magnesium Alloys. Magnesium alloys form refrac- root of the weld. Most copper alloys are welded with
tory surface oxides similar to aluminum alloys, and the DCEN and helium because this provides a higher heat
welding considerations discussed in 11.4 apply to these input than argon and allows the heat to stay in the weld
alloys as well. Welding of most magnesium is done with area. AC and VP are sometimes used to weld beryllium
AC because of the oxide cleaning action it provides. copper and aluminum bronzes because they help break
There is no fire hazard in welding magnesium provided up the surface oxides that are present. Porosity can be a
the molten weld pool is adequately shielded with inert big problem with copper alloys. A number of copper
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AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
alloys contain high percentages of zinc and lead, which input, while providing the best inert gas shielding of any
can create serious welding problems in the form of elec- arc welding process. Welding these metals is typically
trode contamination, welder visibility, porosity, as well performed in purged chambers, such as glove boxes (see
as safety concerns (see Section 15 and ANSI Z49.1). Figure 78), containing high-purity inert gases. However,
GTAW is often performed without special purge cham-
11.8 Nickel Alloys. Nickel alloys are often gas tungsten
bers, by providing the necessary inert gas atmosphere
arc welded, typically with filler metal additions. DCEN
with special torches that have trailing cups and backup
is recommended for all applications and thicknesses, but
shielding. To check the effectiveness of the purge cham-
AC with high-frequency stabilization may be used for
ber or of a shielding method such as a trailing cup, a spot
machine welding. Argon, helium and argon-helium mix-
weld check can be used. Figures 39 and 79 show the cri-
tures are the most common shielding gases. Argon with
teria used by different companies to verify the effective-
small amounts of hydrogen (up to 7.5%) is sometimes
ness of a purge chamber prior to doing any GTAW on
used because it provides improved penetration, better
titanium alloys. Argon is most frequently used for shield-
wetability, and provides a reducing atmosphere to re-
ing, because it has higher purity than helium, but helium
move some impurities. Nickel alloys can exhibit similar
and mixtures of the two gases can be used. Argon flow
variable weld penetration caused by differences in sur-
rates of 15 ft3/hr [7 L/min] or helium flow rates of 40 ft3/
face active elements, such as sulfur, as described in 11.3.
hr [19 L/min] are normally sufficient, even with the large
In general, nickel alloys (e.g., Inconel, Monel,
diameter gas nozzles which are recommended.
Hastelloy93) weld similarly to the 300 series stainless
steels (see Figure 76). However, the weld pool is much 11.11 Cast Irons. Cast irons can be welded with the
more sluggish and does not flow very well. Weld joints GTAW process because dilution of the base metal can be
are often wider on nickel alloys to allow proper wetting. minimized with independent control of heat input and
Nickel alloys also form more slag than stainless steels. filler metal additions. A high level of welder skill is re-
The precipitation-hardening nickel alloys have welding quired to minimize dilution to avoid cracking while pro-
characteristics similar to the precipitation-hardening ducing acceptable penetration and fusion. GTAW of cast
stainless steels. The alloying elements (titanium, copper, irons is usually limited to repair of small parts. Nickel-
aluminum, and niobium) tend to cause hot cracking. based filler metals are recommended because they
minimize cracking due to their higher ductility and their
11.9 Cobalt Alloys. Cobalt alloys are considered very
tolerance for hydrogen. Cracking can also be minimized
weldable (see Figure 77) and the same comments made
by preheat and postweld heat treatment. DCEN is recom-
for stainless steels are applicable. During welding, cobalt
mended, although AC may be used.
alloys can adversely react with copper to form cracks.
Copper contamination can be picked up from hold-down 11.12 Welding Dissimilar Materials. Iron, nickel and
tooling, heat sinks, or backup bars. A remedy for this is cobalt base alloys that are considered weldable can gen-
to either plate the copper fixture with nickel or chrome or erally be joined to other weldable iron, nickel and cobalt
make it from austenitic stainless steel. base alloys via the GTAW process. Other alloy systems,
such as aluminum, beryllium, titanium, magnesium, and
11.10 Refractory and Reactive Metals. GTAW is the
the refractory metals can be readily joined, via GTAW,
most extensively used welding process for joining of
only within the same alloy system.
refractory and reactive metals. Refractory metals (nota-
When welding dissimilar base metals, the differences
bly tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum, niobium (also
in properties between the two different metals must be
called columbium), and chromium) have extremely high
considered, such as thermal expansion, heat-treatment
melting temperatures and, like the reactive metals (such
response, hot cracking, corrosion resistance, and me-
as titanium,94 zirconium, and hafnium alloys), are readily
chanical properties. Nickel or austenitic stainless steel
oxidized at elevated temperatures unless protected by an
filler metals are often used on other alloys, such as iron-
inert gas cover. Absorption of impurities such as oxygen,
base alloys where the weldment cannot be postweld heat-
nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon will decrease toughness
treated, because these fillers provide improved ductility.
and ductility of the weld metal.
For these metals and alloys, GTAW provides a high 11.13 Filler Metals. Filler metals for gas tungsten arc
concentration of heat and the greatest control over heat welding are available in many forms (e.g., straight rods,
spooled wires, and consumable inserts), as previously
93. Hastelloy is a trademark of Haynes International, discussed in 9.2.6. Filler metals are available for gas
Incorporated. tungsten arc welding for many different alloys. Filler
94. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding: Its Built to Handle Tita- metal compositions and requirements for gas tungsten
nium. Welding Journal, Vol. 70, No. 11, Nov. 1991, pp. 31 arc welding are found in AWS specifications, which are
36. summarized in Table 20.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
92
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Figure 76High Quality Welds in Inconel 718,

Original Scale 5X
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 77High Quality Welds in Cobalt Alloy HS188,

Original Scale 5X
93
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003 AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 78Manual GTAW of Titanium in an Inert Gas Chamber (Glove Box)
12. Qualification of Procedures, product is being manufactured will normally identify

which of the WPS variables are qualification (or essen-
Welders, and Welding Operators tial) variables. Qualification variables are items in the
12.1 Introduction. Most fabricating codes and standards WPS that if changed beyond specified limits, require
require qualification of welding and brazing procedures requalification of the welding procedure. After requalifi-
and of welders, brazers, and operators who perform cation, a revised or new WPS should be prepared. Vari-
welding and brazing operations. Standards or contractual ables other than qualification variables (or nonessential
documents may also require that weldments or braze- variables) are items in the WPS that may be changed, but
ments be evaluated for acceptance by a qualified inspec- the changes do not affect the qualification status. All
tor. Nondestructive inspection of joints may be required. changes in the procedure require a revision to the written
Qualified nondestructive testing personnel using speci- WPS prior to using the revised procedure in production.
fied testing procedures should perform such inspections. Normally, a procedure specification must be qualified by
Technical societies, trade associations, and govern- demonstrating that joints made by the procedure can
ment agencies have defined qualification requirements meet prescribed requirements. The actual welding condi-
for welded fabrications in standards generally tailored tions used to produce an acceptable test joint and the re-
for specific applications such as buildings, bridges, sults of the qualification tests are recorded in a Procedure
cranes, piping, boilers, and pressure vessels. Welding Qualification Record (PQR).
procedure qualification performed for one standard may Welders or welding operators are normally required
qualify for another standard provided the qualification to demonstrate their ability to produce welded joints that
test results meet the requirements of the latter. The ob- meet prescribed standards. This is documented in a
jectives of qualification are the same in nearly all cases. Welder Performance Qualification (WPQ) record or a
Some standards permit acceptance of previous perfor- Welding Operator Performance Qualification (WOPQ)
mance qualification by welders and welding operators record.
having properly documented evidence. An authorized representative of the organization per-
A Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) is a docu- forming the qualification tests must certify the results of
ment that provides in detail required welding conditions the welding procedure or performance qualification. This
for a specific application. The standard to which the is known as certification.
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AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1. ACCEPTABLESILVER WELD METAL 2. ACCEPTABLESTRAW COLOR IN WELD

METAL AND HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE
(HAZ)
3. ACCEPTABLELIGHT BLUE AND STRAW 4. NOT ACCEPTABLEDARK BLUE COLOR

COLOR IN HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE (HAZ) IN WELD METAL AND HEAT-AFFECTED
ZONE (HAZ)
5. NOT ACCEPTABLESEVERE 6. NOT ACCEPTABLEGRAY DEPOSITS IN

DISCOLORATION IN WELD METAL WELD METAL
Figure 79Criteria for Acceptable GTAW in Titanium via Tack Welds Only
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AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
12.2 Welding Program. A company expecting to pro- 12.4.1 Qualification Procedures. Confusion some-
duce quality weldments to the requirements of codes, times exists between a WPS and a similar document,
standards and specifications, herein referred to as speci- given various names, to define the welding to be done by
fications, should have a formal program defining the ad- a welder or welding operator to become qualified.
ministrative control of welding. This program should Some documents, e.g., MIL-STD-2219, use the term
include: procedures covering welding requirements, pro- Welding Procedure Qualification when in fact they
cedures controlling weld filler material and materials to mean a WPS with a PQR showing the weld was
be welded, documentation supporting welder/welding qualified.
operator and procedure qualifications, and proof that the
welding being performed was in conformance with the 12.4.2 Standard Welding Procedure Specifications.
acceptance criteria of the specification. A company AWS B2.1 provides requirements for qualification of
manufacturing or fabricating welded components that welding procedures and personnel. It also references
are not covered by codes should follow the guidelines of AWS B2.1Xxxx, Standard WPSs. The pertinent AWS
the codes that are the most applicable to their welding Standard WPSs for GTAW are listed in Section 2.
applications. 12.5 Procedure Qualification Records (PQR). A Pro-
12.3 Establishing Welding Requirements. Welding re- cedure Qualification Record (PQR) is a record of the
quirements are as described by the specification. These welding variables used to weld a test coupon. It also
documents specify inspection requirements and accep- contains the test results of the tests required, which are
tance criteria for welding as well as joint designs, work- usually mechanical tests. Recorded variables normally
manship, preheat, interpass temperature, postweld heat fall within a small range of the actual variables that will
treatment and specify, or defer to, another document for be used in production welding.
welding procedure and welder performance qualification The PQR documents all essential and supplementary
requirements. Some of the national welding documents essential (when required) variables for each welding
are under the jurisdiction of: process used during the welding of the test coupon. Re-
(1) American Welding Society (AWS) cording of nonessential or other variables used during the
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(2) American Society of Mechanical Engineers welding of the test coupon is optional.
(ASME) 12.5.1 Qualification (Essential) Variable (Proce-
(3) American National Standards Institute (ANSI) dure). A change in a welding condition which will affect
(4) American Petroleum Institute (API) the mechanical properties (other than notch toughness)
(5) American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) of the weldment (e.g., change in the welding process,
(6) Federal Government MIL-STDs, U.S. Coast filler metal, electrode, preheat, postweld heat treatment
Guard and NAVSHIPS/NAVSEA (PWHT), or a change in base metal composition). Some
(7) Compressed Gas Association (CGA) documents cover composition via a P-number which
12.4 Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS). A permits minor compositional changes. Examples of
WPS is a written qualified procedure prepared to provide GTAW essential variables may include: type of tungsten,
direction to the welder/welding operator for making pro- backing gas, purge gas, and the use of a consumable
duction welds. The usual information contained in a insert.
WPS for GTAW includes: 12.5.2 Supplementary Essential Variable (Proce-
(1) Limitations (e.g., thickness or diameter) dure). A change in a welding condition which could af-
(2) Joint Designs Allowed fect the notch-toughness properties of a weldment (e.g.,
(3) Base Metals change in the direction [uphill to downhill] for vertical
(4) Filler Metals (e.g., types and sizes and wire feed welding, heat input, preheat or PWHT, etc.).
rates)
(5) Welding Position 12.5.3 Nonessential Variable (Procedure). A
(6) Preheat, if applicable change in a welding condition which will not affect the
(7) Interpass Temperature, if applicable mechanical properties of a weldment (e.g., method of
back gouging, cleaning, etc.).
(8) Postweld Heat Treatment, if required
(9) Shielding Gas (e.g., type, purity, and flow rates) 12.6 Welder and Welding Operator Qualification
(10) Purging Requirements Tests. Welder and welding operator qualification tests
(11) Electrical Characteristics (e.g., type, amperage, primarily are given to determine their ability to produce
and voltage) sound welds that meet the requirements of the particular
(12) Tungsten Electrode Type and Size document involved. There are numerous types of qualifi-
(13) Technique (e.g., stringer bead or weave bead) cation tests depending on the requirements of the appli-
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AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
cation. However, the test should be designed to represent 13.2 Weldment Quality. GTAW weld quality relates di-
the type of work the welder/welding operator will be re- rectly to the integrity of the weldment. It underlies all of
quired to do. the fabrication and inspection steps necessary to ensure
There are many misunderstandings of the terms qual- that a welded product will be capable of serving the in-
ification, qualified welder, and certified welder be- tended function for the desired life. Both economics and
cause there are so many different organizations that have safety influence weld quality considerations. Economics
issued requirements for welding. The following explana- require that a product must be competitive, and safety re-
tions should help clarify these misunderstandings. quires that the product function without hazard to per-
sonnel or property.
12.6.1 Qualification and Qualified Welder/Weld- The majority of welded fabrication standards define
ing Operator. A qualification is a test given to deter- quality requirements to ensure safe operation in service.
mine the individuals ability to make a weld according to (Standards are discussed in Chapter 13 of the AWS
the requirements of a particular document. Once the test Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 1, Welding
is passed, the individual now becomes a qualified Technology).
welder however; the individual is only qualified ac- The requirements of such standards are to be consid-
cording to the particular document and not to all others. ered minimums, and the acceptance criteria for welds
Generally a welder must weld within prescribed time should not be encroached upon without sound engineer-
limitations, usually six months, for his qualification to ing judgment. For critical applications, more stringent re-
remain in effect. Most documents specify fewer restric- quirements than those specified in the fabrication
tions for requalification. standard may be necessary to ensure the highest degree
Since there are so many different requirements for of safety.
welding, a welder who is qualified to the requirements for Initial areas of quality concern are that the materials,
one document is not necessarily qualified to weld under heat treatments, preparations and processing have been
another, even though the tests are similar. For example, properly verified and documented. Weld quality is usu-
some documents may require vision or written exams in ally verified by nondestructive examination (NDE). The
addition to an actual weld. Because of these differences, first NDE to be used is visual examination by the welder,
companies and individual welders should be familiar with prior to the weldment leaving for the next operation. The
the specific requirements for each application. acceptance standards for the welds are generally related
to the method of nondestructive examination. All devia-
12.6.2 Qualification and Certification. The proper
tions are evaluated, and the acceptance or rejection of a
term is qualified welder, not certified welder. The
weld is usually based on well-defined conditions. Re-
term certified should not be used; the correct terminol-
welding or repair of unacceptable or defective conditions
ogy is welder qualification or welding operator qualifi-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
is allowed if properly qualified and approved so that the
cation. One part of the qualification is the
quality of the weld may be brought up to acceptance
documentation (certification) that is prepared by the or-
standards.
ganization conducting the test. The qualification record
states that the testing agency (Military, Government Common methods of nondestructive examination
agency, company, owner, or contractor) has witnessed (NDE) applied to weldments are as follows:
the preparation of the test coupon(s), and has tested them (1) Visual Inspection
according to the applicable requirements and that the (2) Radiographic (X-ray)
welder has successfully completed all of the require- (3) Magnetic Particle
ments. Certification is the documentation that the person (4) Dye Penetrant
is qualified. (5) Fluorescent Penetrant
(6) Ultrasonic Inspection
(7) Eddy Current
13. Quality Control A detailed discussion of Overall Weld Quality can be
found in the AWS Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol-
13.1 Introduction. Quality is a relative term and can be
ume 1: Chapter 11, pp. 350383.
defined as the conformance to a specification. If a
weldment conforms to the specification then it is consid- 13.3 Specifications. Specifications include the require-
ered a quality product. To have higher quality than is ments on the product drawings. The purpose of any in-
needed for the application is not only unnecessary, it is spection is to ensure a predetermined quality level in the
also often costly. Thus, quality levels may be permitted finished product. Since the requirements may vary
to vary among different weldments and individual welds, widely with service conditions, design factors and eco-
depending on their service requirements. nomics, each manufacturing company must establish a
97
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
quality level that applies to its specific product. The com- turers manuals is particularly suited to solving of prob-
panys specification must define the test method and ac- lems at this level.
ceptance criteria to assure uniformity in testing and
evaluation of the product. 14.2 Electrical. Many times equipment-related welding
problems are caused by the poor condition of the cables
or by loose and/or corroded connections. If problems are
encountered, it is often helpful to first inspect the cables
14. Troubleshooting and connections. If the symptoms are erratic behavior of
a specific variable such as weld current, one might phys-
14.1 General. To consistently achieve high quality gas
ically move the position of the welding cables both near
tungsten arc welds the important welding parameters, re- the power supply and at the welding torch or fixture.
corded in a WPS (Welding Procedure Specification), This could find a cause-and-effect relationship between
must be followed. Furthermore, the welding equipment the cable position and the instability of the arc current.
must be operating correctly and the weld tooling/fixturing Care should be used, since if the cables are faulty, there
must be functioning correctly. Finally, the skill level of is very strong possibility of electric shock. Electrical
the welder or welding operator must be adequate for the conductors and connectors need to be inspected on all
specific weld and these welding personnel must do their sensors and measuring devices. Since sensors are many
job correctly. The following illustration shows the impor- times located inside of the welding power source, near
tance of skill level. high voltage, safety precautions in accordance with the
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The quality department of a jet engine manufacturer manufacturers recommendations must be observed.
tracked the number of defects, mostly minor dimensional
ones, on a complex welded assembly. The number of de- 14.2.1 Welding Power Stability. Voltage variations
fects consistently ran in the 0 to 3 range for each assem- in the utility power coming to the welding equipment can
bly and 3 to 4 assemblies were made per week. This rate adversely affect the weld quality if the voltage is not
of defects was quite constant for over a year. Suddenly compensated or controlled. These variations may be
the number of defects jumped to greater than 25 per as- caused by the power company or by other users on the
sembly. This was traced to the fact that the welder who same substation line. An example of a cause for sudden
had been welding the assembly retired and a new welder fluctuations is the turning on or off of a large motor.
had been assigned. While skill level is an important fac- Voltage variations can consist of two types: (1) high or
tor it is very difficult to quantify. Thus, the contribution excess voltage and (2) low or insufficient voltage. When
of welder skill and training on weld quality will only be a problem with power fluctuations is suspected, a voltage
recorder that will measure transients should be plugged
addressed peripherally. Most of this section will deal
into the line. Many companies that calibrate gages or rent
with the effects of tooling, environment and equipment
industrial instruments have line voltage recorders that
on weldments, and will consider all other factors to be
can be rented or temporarily installed. Such recorders
constant.
provide a record of voltage transients coupled with the
Troubleshooting, as used in this publication, is the de- time of day. Thus, if a weld problem occurred slightly
termination of the root cause of why a weld is now defec- after 3:00 PM and the record shows there was a voltage
tive, when it was made successfully in the past. The surge at 3:04 PM, the two events can be correlated.
troubleshooting factors, which will be considered in this Therefore, it can be determined if voltage fluctuations
section, follow the major equipment items listed in Table are the cause of the welding problems.
19. Additional possible causes and remedies are outlined
If the problem is voltage spikes, sometimes called
in Table 21. In general, the welder has an idea of what is
voltage surges, the solution is relatively simple. A volt-
causing the weld to be defective, and this section will age stabilizer can be added to the incoming line voltage.
deal with not only finding the root causes of defective Basically, this is a passive device that can maintain a
welds, but will offer some suggestions at remedying the constant voltage output to the welding equipment with a
problem. varying input voltage. Some of the newer welding power
Manufacturers of welding equipment will often pro- supplies have built-in line voltage compensation, which
vide excellent troubleshooting in their equipment instal- can continuously compensate for line voltage fluctua-
lation and/or operating manual. These guides provide tions. If compensation is not built in to the welding
more equipment specific information than can be pro- power source and if a voltage stabilizer does not remedy
vided in the necessarily more general data in this docu- the problem, the services of an electrical contractor or
ment. Many times the treatment of welding and engineer may be required. When a power fluctuation
equipment problems needs to be addressed at the circuit problem is suspected and the recorder shows no correla-
board and interconnection level. Use of the manufac- tion, e.g., the welding problem occurred about 2:15 and
98
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Table 21
Troubleshooting
Table 21 (Continued)
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Problem Possible Cause Possible Remedies
1. Inadequate gas flow. 1. Increase gas flow.
2. Operating on DCEP (reverse polarity). 2. Use larger electrode or change to DCEN (straight
polarity).
3. Improper size electrode or too sharp a tip for 3. Use larger electrode or correct tip shape.
current required.
Excessive 4. Excessive heating in holder. 4. Check for proper concentricity and contact with
Electrode collet and tighten if necessary.
Consumption
5. Contaminated electrode. 5. Remove contaminated portion. Erratic results will
continue as long as contamination exists.
6. Electrode oxidation during cooling. 6. Keep inert gas flowing after extinguishing arc for
15 seconds.
7. Using gas containing oxygen, or carbon dioxide. 7. Change to proper gas or see text regarding gas
purity problems.
1. Base metal is dirty or greasy. 1. Use appropriate chemical cleaners, wire brush or
abrasives.
2. Joint is too narrow. 2. Open joint groove; bring electrode closer to work;
decrease voltage.
3. Electrode is contaminated. 3. Remove contaminated portion of electrode.
4. Arc is too long. 4. Shorten arc.

5. Magnetic fields are affecting the arc. 5. Degauss base metal and tooling; rearrange
Erratic Arc workpiece connection. Use magnetic arc
stabilizer.
6. Incorrect electrode size. 6. Use electrode with minimum diameter that will
handle maximum current.
7. Inert gas flow problems. 7. Check flow control system and sufficiency of
inert gas supply.
8. Tungsten tip: irregular shape, bad tip finish, tip 8. Use properly prepared tungsten tip.
ground in non-axial direction.
1. Entrapped gas impurities (hydrogen, nitrogen, air, 1. Purge all air from lines before striking arc;
water vapor, etc.) remove condensed moisture from lines and work;
use welding grade inert gas
2. Defective gas hose or loose hose connection 2. Check hose and connections for leaks. Do not use
rubber hoses. Viton or polyethylene hoses are
acceptable. Replace all contaminated hoses.
3. Oil film on base metal. 3. Clean with approved chemical cleaner. DO NOT
Porosity WELD WHILE BASE METAL IS STILL DAMP.
4. Contaminated filler metal. 4. Clean filler metal or use uncontaminated (fresh)

supply.
5. Base metal has high gas content or impurities, 5. Use different base metal; use multiple low
particularly prevalent with castings. penetration passes.
6. Dye penetrant inspection media not completely 6. Grind out base metal until all traces of penetrant
removed. are removed.
(Continued)
99
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
1. Contact starting with tungsten electrode. 1. Use high-frequency or other starter. Use copper
striker plate.
Tungsten 2. Electrode melting and alloying with base metal. 2. Use less current (particularly during arc starting)
Contaminates or use larger electrode.
Weld Metal
3. Touching electrode to molten pool 3. Use longer arc length.
4. Weld current too high or too erratic. 4. Reduce arc current or increase electrode size.
1. Uneven travel speed 1. Use solid-state or closed loop feedback speed
controls.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Weld Bead Size 2. Welding power instability. 2. Replace electrical components that are in poor
Inconsistent condition. Use correct sizes.
3. Erratic wire feed. 3. Use proper filler wire feed; tighten wire feed and
straightening rolls
1. Insufficient shielding gas flow. 1. Increase gas flow and possibly cup size.
2. Contamination of inert gas hose or regulator. 2. Replace, retighten, or repair hose and torch parts.
Incorrect torch assembly.
3. Cup size too small. 3. Use sufficient cup size for welding current, travel
speed and gas flow.
Oxidation of 4. Improper environment, such as wind above 4. Shield welding area by erecting a shelter or wind
Weldment 5 mph. block.
5. Dirty or wet workpiece or filler metal. 5. Clean and dry workpiece just prior to welding and
use clean, dry filler metal.
6. Travel speed too fast. 6. Decrease travel speed.
7. Excessive oxide on workpiece. 7. Grind or machine all excessive oxides from

surfaces to be welded.
1. Poor weld joint design or uneven preparation. 1. Change joint design; prepare joint correctly;
reduce weld thickness.
2. Incorrect electrode tip shape. 2. Regrind electrode for flatter angle.
3. Insufficient welding current. 3. Increase welding current.

Insufficient
Penetration 4. Incorrect gas mix. 4. Use more helium to increase penetration.
5. Travel speed too fast. 5. Decrease travel speed.
6. Arc length too long. 6. Decrease arc length.
7. Weldment has excessive oxide coating. 7. Grind or machine all surfaces to be welded.
1. Insufficient welding current. 1. Increase welding current.
2. Travel speed too fast. 2. Reduce travel speed.
3. Filler wire diameter too large. 3. Decrease filler wire diameter.

Lack of Fusion 4. Arc blow. 4. Change the position of the workpiece connection
or weld toward the workpiece connection. Remove
magnetic fixturing from immediate arc area.
5. Heavy oxide coating on weld joint. 5. Grind, machine, or chemically remove oxides
from welding area.
(Continued)
100
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Lack of Fusion 6. Incorrect gas mix. 6. Use proper hydrogen mix for most stainless steels
(contd) and nickel alloys.
1. Excessive welding current. 1. Reduce welding current or reduce travel speed.
2. Poor design. 2. Use joint designs that add restraint or require less
welding.
Excessive
Distortion 3. Improper pass sequencing or number of passes. 3. Use improved procedures to accommodate joint
design.
4. Improper tooling. 4. Apply sufficient constraint along weld joint with

adequate heat sinks.
1. Geometric restraint. 1. Use correct joint designs that avoid excessive

restraint.
2. Thermal stresses. 2. Weld more passes for less heat input.

--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3. Insufficient root thickness. 3. Travel speed should be lower or weld current

higher.
Cracking 4. Grain boundary liquation. 4. Use correct welding speed and current to reduce
(Hot cracking) weldment melting. Use proper filler metal that is
free of low melting constituents.
5. Metallurgical imbalances or phase changes. 5. Use correct filler metal for the base metal being
welded.
6. Filler metal problems. 6. Filler metal should be added at the correct rate for
the travel speed and weld current selected.
1. Power source not plugged in or turned on. 1. Plug in power supply and check to see if it can be
turned on.
2. Power source fuse blown or not seated properly. 2. Replace or insert fuse properly. Be sure fuse is
correct size and to locate cause of blown fuse.
3. Mechanical circuit breaker has tripped 3. Reset circuit breaker. Be sure to find and correct
cause
Arc Fails to Initiate
4. Thermal overload protector turned off power 4. Wait until thermal overload protector cools down.
source. Be sure to operate power source within the rated
duty cycle.
5. Electrode in poor condition. 5. Grind electrode to correct shape.
6. Weldment has heavy oxide coating. 6. Grind or machine surfaces to be welded.
7. Loose or missing workpiece connection. 7. Make proper workpiece connection.
the recorder shows no sign of a transient between 2:00 Manufacturers of arc starting units have specific installa-
and 2:30, the welding power supply may be suspect. In tion requirements to address necessary safety consider-
such instances, the manufacturers operating manual is ations that must be met for high voltage applications
often the best source of information. and to prevent interference with other types of equip-
ment. Radiated signals and conducted signals can affect
14.2.2 High-Frequency Current. High-frequency other welding equipment and other sensitive electronic
current is used for starting the arc and is sometimes equipment if not properly installed, shielded, or iso-
superimposed continuously during AC or VP welding. lated. The high-frequency current associated with arc
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AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
starting normally does not create a problem with the As noted previously, a magnetic field is produced
weldment. when an electric current is present. With nonferromag-
Problems normally occur with either older equipment netic materials, when that current is turned off, the mag-
or when an arc starter unit is added to an existing power netic field decays immediately to zero. With
supply. Incorrectly installed units can have deleterious ferromagnetic materials, the effect of the magnetic field
influences upon nearby electronic and communication is normally magnified and when the current is turned off
systems. Some companies have built special welding there will still be a magnetic field present. The amount of
rooms to retain the high-frequency current within speci- magnetic field still present is based upon the retentivity
of the ferromagnetic material. If the retentivity96 of the
fied limits.
material is low, it is said to be soft magnetically. Con-
GTAW with high frequency could create a safety haz- versely, if the retentivity of the material is high, it is said
ard in that the current will follow the path of least resis- to be hard magnetically. Many of the low alloy steels,
tance, which could be the welders body. To prevent frequently used to make jaw chucks, turn tables and
such an occurrence, the work cable should be as close to other tooling, are hard magnetically. Under repeated use
the arc as possible. This will shorten the distance of cur- in welding operations, the residual magnetic fields may
rent travel and help ensure that the welder does not be- create problems. Thus, fixturing as well as the assembly
come the shortest path to ground. to be welded must often be demagnetized.
All of the ways of demagnetizing a part are based
14.2.3 Magnetic Fields and Arc Blow. It is a fact of
upon the same principle. The part is subjected to a mag-
physics that an electric current will create a magnetic
netic field continually reversing its direction and at the
field. It is also a fact of physics that a magnetic field will
same time gradually decreasing in strength to zero. For
interact with an electric current. Since an arc plasma con-
this principle to work, the magnetizing force must be of a
ducts electric current, it can be deflected by a magnetic
high enough intensity, or coercive force, at the start to
field. This arc deflection, wandering or bowing by a
overcome the residual magnetism and to reverse the re-
magnetic field, when it occurs to a discernible extent, is sidual field (retentivity) initially in the part. Also the in-
called arc blow. Magnetic deflection of the arc should cremental decrease between successive reductions in
not be confused with disruption of the inert gas flow, current must be small enough so that the reverse magne-
caused by wind currents, which will be discussed later. tizing force will be able to reverse the field remaining in
Arc blow may occur to such an extent that the arc cannot the part from the last previous cycle reversal. In some
be controlled and thus an unacceptable weld is produced. highly magnetic materials, demagnetization can occur as
The common ferromagnetic materials95, e.g., plain car- soon as they are exposed to even weak magnetic fields.
bon and low alloy steels, may be involved in the welding For small to medium size parts, a common method of
process as base metals, filler metals and/or tooling. demagnetization is to pass them through a coil connected
When there are no ferromagnetic materials involved in to an AC power source. Often line frequency (about
the welding operation, changing the magnetic field cre- 60 Hz) is adequate. Alternatively, the parts can be placed
ated by the electric current is often adequate to provide inside a coil and the current level gradually reduced to
arc stability. This may simply involve the movement of zero. In the first method, physically moving a part
the work cable to a different location, or insuring that the through a coil, the strength of the reversing field is re-
power leads are not in close proximity to the arc, particu- duced, effectively to zero, by axially withdrawing the
larly if they are coiled. While changing the location of part from the coil and for some distance beyond the end
electric current relative to the arc may also work with of the coil. For the other method, gradual decay of the
ferromagnetic materials; ferromagnetic alloys may need current in the coil accomplishes the same thing. Use of
to be demagnetized, which is often referred to as de- baskets or trays to pass small parts through the coil is not
gaussing. The amount of arc deflection is directly related recommended unless the parts can be placed on a tray in
to the strength of the offending magnetic field and its ori- a single layer, spaced apart and with their long axes par-
entation relative to the arc. As the strength increases and allel to the axis of the coil. Demagnetization (or degauss-
the field becomes more perpendicular to the arc, the ing) coils are often available at facilities that do magnetic
amount of deflection increases. Because of these facts, particle inspection and are sold by companies that supply
and the fact that cables which carry high current create a magnetic particle inspection equipment.
magnetic field, the relative position of the cables can Demagnetization of larger parts is often more difficult
change the amount of arc deflection. since one needs a lower frequency (e.g., 25 Hz) AC or a
95. Materials containing the elements iron, nickel, or cobalt can 96. Retentively is the power of retaining or the capacity of
be magnetized or affected by a magnetic field. retaining magnetism after the action of magnetizing has ceased.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
102
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
reversible DC which is commonly operated in the 1 Hz (6) Defects such as splits or cracks in the electrode.
2 Hz range. Lower frequency is required to completely (7) Inadequate shielding gas flow rates or excessive
penetrate large cross sections. Another technique that has wind drafts which result in oxidation of the electrode tip.
been used to compensate for arc blow is to construct a (8) Use of improper shielding gases or mixtures that
coil that will create a compensatory magnetic field. result in oxidation of the electrode tip.
These coils have ranged in complexity from simply coil- Corrective steps are normally obvious once the causes
ing the power leads to a specifically designed stand- are recognized and the welder/welding operator is ade-
alone system. quately trained.
14.2.4 Tungsten Electrodes. Since the electrodes are 14.3 Inert Shielding Gas Troubleshooting
part of the electrical circuit, they will be discussed under
electrical troubleshooting. The advantages/disadvantages 14.3.1 Flow of Shielding Gas. The proper flow of
of the various types of electrode alloys are discussed in shielding gas is a very important factor for high quality
detail in most suppliers literature. In general, with stan- GTAW weldments. Insufficient or excessive amounts of
dard straight polarity DC welding (DCEN), one should shielding gas can have negative effects on welding qual-
have the smallest diameter electrode that will handle the ity. Excessive gas can cause turbulence to occur and air
maximum current without balling. Balling and having an contamination to be introduced; causing oxidation and
electrode too large in diameter (for the current being car- discoloration of the weld deposit. Insufficient gas flow
ried) can cause arc wander. Arc wander often produces can also result in poorly protected welds, that is, oxida-
very poor quality joints since the temperature on the tion from the air can occur, and once again oxidized and
weldment will vary substantially as will the location of discolored weld deposits can be produced. While discol-
ored deposits may appear only to be cosmetically dis-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the molten pool. With AC or DCEP welding, balling of

the electrode is normally required due to the increased pleasing, the presence of oxide can reduce mechanical
heating of the electrode. However, too large a diameter properties (strength and fatigue) and reduce toughness.
ball or too large an electrode diameter for the current Excessive or insufficient gas flow can usually be cor-
being carried can produce arc wander. rected by adjusting the flow rate of the shielding gas.
Another problem, which is unique to GTAW, is the Thus, gas flow should be considered an essential vari-
inclusion of particles of tungsten or tungsten alloy, from able and correctly filed on the appropriate welding pro-
the electrode, in the actual weldment. These are often cedure. As discussed below, if weld discoloration
called tungsten inclusions, high-density inclusions or persists after adjusting of the gas flow rate, it is likely
tungsten contamination. During radiographic inspection that there is another cause. Potential other causes are dis-
(X-ray) these show up as white spots on the film. Due to cussed in 14.3.2 through 14.3.7.
the increased heating of the electrode during AC, some 14.3.2 Inert Gas Pressure Stability. The stability of
types of VP and DCEP welding, they are normally cre- the inert gas pressure at the GTAW torch is highly criti-
ated only when these current types and polarities are cal to weld quality. Unstable gas pressure will manifest
used. Thus, such inclusions are very common in alumi- itself in the same manner as improper flow (noted in
num and magnesium weldments. Depending upon the 14.3.1). The main difference will be that the discolora-
number of inclusions and the inspection standard being tion of the weldment will often be spotty. That is, the in-
applied, these tungsten inclusions may or may not need tensity and amount of oxidation will vary if there is a
to be removed. While the most common cause of tung- pressure stability problem, while with a flow problem the
sten inclusions is exceeding the current limit for a given amount of oxidation (discoloration) will tend to be a little
electrode size and type, some other typical causes are the more uniform. The most common causes of pressure in-
following: stability are the gas control regulators and/or flowmeters,
(1) Contact of the electrode tip with the molten weld which will be discussed later. Thus, the volume of
puddle. shielding gas will vary at the torch gas nozzle or cup. At-
(2) Contact of filler metal with the hot tip of the elec- mospheric gases can be pulled into the shielding gas
trode, which will cause a lower melting alloy. stream with both excessive and inadequate flow rates.
(3) Contamination of the electrode tip by spatter from Therefore, shielding gas flow must be controlled within a
the weld puddle. minimum and maximum range as specified in the weld-
(4) Extension of the electrodes beyond their normal ing procedure. Many welders who have had trouble
distances from the collet resulting in overheating of the welding titanium alloys have tried to correct shielding
electrode. problems by increasing the inert gas flow from the
(5) Inadequate tightening of the holding collet or GTAW torch gas nozzle or cup. The increased gas flow
electrode chuck so that the electrode overheats due to in- only causes a greater problem by aspirating air into the
adequate cooling from the holding mechanism. shielding gas via turbulence. Decreasing the gas flow to
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AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
a level that does not cause turbulence, yet is adequate to chamber. Such a test should be run at various locations
provide for proper shielding, and the addition of a trail- inside the chamber to ensure that a sufficient amount of
ing shield to cover the recently solidified hot metal are air has been removed. Some shielding gases, notably ar-
normally more successful than increasing the gas flow. gon, are heavier or denser than air. Thus if argon shield-
ing is to be used, the atmosphere should be checked near
14.3.3 Gas Purity. The purity of inert shielding gases the top of the chamber. Conversely, if helium shielding is
is paramount to acceptable weld joint quality for many to be used, the atmosphere should be checked near the
precision applications, such as for welding in the semi- bottom of the chamber because helium is lighter than air
conductor and bio-technology industries and for welding and rises.
reactive metals such as titanium and zirconium. Lack of
purity or contamination can also adversely affect routine, 14.3.4 Gas Nozzle (Cup) Sizes, Types, and Cleanli-
nonprecision weldments. A quick and effective way to ness. The gas nozzle of the welding torch must be prop-
check a cylinder of inert shielding gas for purity is to erly sized and selected for the specific application in
strike an arc on a piece of properly cleaned titanium. The which it is used. A small gas nozzle size may enhance
resultant weld must be measured against a known purity welder visibility, but may not provide adequate gas
of inert gas tested under the same conditions. A pure shielding of the molten weld pool.
shielding gas will cause the weld spot or weld bead to be Torch angle is also important, as excessive tilt97 can
bright, shiny and clear. Any discoloration will indicate result in ambient air being drawn into the gas stream,
nitrogen, oxygen, water, and/or hydrocarbons in the cyl- thus contaminating the shielding gas and the molten weld
inder of gas being tested. Stainless steel may also be used pool, and affecting the heat-affected zone. Often this
for this test, but it is not as sensitive. problem is difficult to detect and may require a second
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Even if the gas cylinder contains pure gas, the welders observation before it can be detected.
hoses, fittings, lines or other parts of the gas delivery sys-
A gas lens will generally provide much better gas
tem may be defective or loose, causing the gas to become
coverage than a standard nozzle or cup. The precision
contaminated. Check all systems from the cylinder exit
screening device or highly porous sintered bronze in the
to the torch gas nozzle or cup for all factors that would
end of the gas lens produces an even and constant gas
allow air or moisture into the system. For example, there
flow which produces a nonturbulent or gentle flow of gas
may be condensed water in the lines or system. There are
over the weld pool. Figure 24 illustrates, via a tracer in
many ways that moisture can get into the delivery system
the argon gas, the difference in gas flow with and with-
and the source(s) need to be identified and eliminated.
out a gas lens. Note that the left torch, which does not
The shielding gas for the welding torch is usually de- have a gas lens, produces a more turbulent flow of the
livered from the source to the torch through a rubber or shielding gas.
plastic hose. Gas-cooled torches have the inert gas flow- Cracks in the shielding gas nozzle or cup, a loose fit-
ing in the same hose as the power cable. Water-cooled ting cup or gas lens, damaged gaskets, defective insula-
torches will normally have a separate line for the inert tors, improper threads, or plugging of cup or gas lens due
gas and input water, while the return water will be car- to weld spatter are other potential sources of air/water
ried in the same hose as the welding power cable. With contamination. For special or unusual requirements, such
individual hoses and cables the defects are easier to lo- as using a nonrecommended size gas nozzle, a test may
cate and repair than if a hose has a multiple function. For need to be conducted with the modified system to ensure
example, there may be an internal water leak between the that the weldment is properly shielded.
cooling water and inert gas if one hose is utilized to carry
both. These consolidated hose bundles are easier to ma- 14.3.5 Trailing Shields. Trailing shields are used for
nipulate during the welding operation but are more diffi- welding materials, such as titanium and zirconium,
cult to troubleshoot. which are very sensitive to atmospheric contamination
Also, hose fittings may be loose or damaged, causing even after they have solidified. That is, they can pick up
contamination of the shielding gases by aspiration of air. oxygen from the atmosphere at temperatures above
The fittings on the torch and those inside of a power 1000F [538C], while their solidification temperatures
source should be checked. The latter fittings are often are greater than 2000F [1093C]. Trailing shields may
overlooked because they are concealed from view. also be used to cover any material when high travel
Welding in an inert gas chamber involves testing the speeds are employed, since the weld may still be molten
purity of the gas inside the chamber. One of the more after the shielding gas cover from the nozzle has passed.
commonly used techniques is to run a bead on a piece of
properly cleaned titanium. Figure 79 provides visual cri- 97. Tilt is the angle through the centerline of the torch and the
teria on the acceptability of the gas purity inside the direction of weld travel.
104
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Atmospheric impurities can enter from underneath the ing area must be completely shielded from the rain,
trailing shield through the inert gas supply hose and from wind, snow, etc. In the event of winter conditions (i.e.,
the connection between the trailing shield and the torch low temperature), the weld enclosure may need portable
nozzle or cup. Heat-resistant flexible side curtains or hot air or radiant heaters. These heaters will supply com-
skirts can be placed around the edge of the trailing shield fort to the welder and should keep the base metals above
to minimize air incursion from outside the fixture. Flexi- 0F [18C]. They will also prevent the formation of a
ble glass cloth* and some silicon based elastomeric ma- very high thermal gradient and the resultant high thermal
terials, such as silicone rubber, have also been stresses and thermal shock in the weldment. Special pre-
successfully used as skirts. cautions and attention must also be given to gas lines,
The gas supply line fittings connected to the trailing regulators, and water lines to protect them from the
shield can be silver brazed or welded in place to prevent elements. This type of welding should only be carried
the venturi effect of outside air entering into the trailing out when an emergency is present or no other option is
gas. The connection between the trailing shield and the available.
torch nozzle or cup must also be leak tight. One method
14.3.7 Regulators and Flowmeters. Defective
that has been successful with copper trailing shields is to
shielding gas regulators98 and/or flowmeters may also
silver braze the shield directly to the ceramic cup. This
adversely affect weld quality by delivering more or less
hydrocarbon gas torch brazing operation, which nor-
inert gas than desired. A quick test can be conducted by
mally uses a silver based braze alloy, must be done with
replacing a suspected device with a new regulator or
extreme caution to prevent cup cracking, and practice
flowmeter. Regulators should also be checked to ensure
joints are recommended. Some users have sealed this
that they are set at the proper pressure for the calibrated
joint with high temperature resistant materials such as
flowmeter being used. Two-stage regulators will provide
fiberglass.*
a more uniform flow as the pressure in the gas cylinder is
*Caution must be exercised with fiberglass or glass cloth reduced.
since these may utilize low temperature polymeric bind-
14.4 Water Cooling Systems
ers which will outgas when heated and thus could cause
contamination of the weld, present a health hazard, or 14.4.1 Water and Water Vapor. Water and water
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
both. vapor can cause defects in many different alloy weld-
ments in different ways. For example, with aluminum al-
14.3.6 Air Movements. Welding personnel need to
loys the normal result is very high porosity while with
understand the importance of controlling the movement
stainless steels the normal result is excessive oxidation.
of air in the welding area. Excessive air movement can
The source of water and water vapor can come from the
disrupt the shielding gas from protecting the molten pool
cooling system itself, precipitation, or high humidity.
and HAZ. This can cause excessive oxidation, embrittle-
Condensation on joint members or in the torch is another
ment and porosity in the welded joints. Most good
common problem. This is normally caused when the
GTAW welders and welding operators can recognize
cooling water is below ambient temperature or when the
shielding gas disruptions and correct the circumstances
joint members were stored below ambient temperatures
causing them.
(e.g., outside in the wintertime) prior to welding. Often a
Excessive air movement in buildings can be caused mild preheat (200F [93C] to 300F [149C]) will pre-
by fans, opening and closing large doors, and air condi- vent problems that result from condensation on the joint
tioning or heating system outlets located near the weld- members. Running the purge gas for 23 min prior to arc
ing station. When welding outdoors, GTAW weldments initiation will often eliminate condensation problems in
usually must be shielded from air movement by welding the torch. An alternative to running the purge gas is to
behind a protective device, such as a portable curtain or weld on some scrap material until the weld shows no
in some cases within a tent-type or other protective shel- sign of contamination.
ter. Such a shelter is normally required when wind veloc-
ity reaches approximately 5 mph [8 km/hr]. 14.4.2 Leaks in Fittings and Hoses. The loss of cool-
There may be codes or regulations for a specific ap- ing water to the GTAW torch will affect the welding per-
plication that may add other requirements/restrictions. formance in manual, mechanized, or automated
For example, AWS D1.1, states: Welding shall not be equipment. If water is released onto electrical com-
done when the ambient temperature is lower than 0F [ ponents, short circuits and malfunctions can occur. It is
18C], when surfaces are wet or exposed to rain, snow or
high wind velocities. 98. Bell, D. 1998. Regulators: Perform Under Pressure,
When welding outdoors in inclement weather cannot Gases and Welding Distributor, Vol. 42, No. 6, November/
be avoided, special precautions must be taken. The weld- December 1998.
105
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
imperative to determine the location of water leaks (7) Need for backup bars and heat sinks
quickly and correct them by the necessary means. (8) Need for hold-down fixtures
(9) Shielding gas coverage, root side of joint, trailing
14.4.3 Cold Weather Operations. A mixture of anti-
shields
freeze and water in a recirculating system is used in lieu
(10) Cost and schedule
of water in most cold weather cooling systems. Often a
(11) Access to joint, including ease of loading and
leak in a system that contains antifreeze is more serious
unloading parts
than a simple water leak because even after the leak is
(12) Can the tooling/fixturing be inadvertently welded
repaired the residue or corrosion products can gum up
easily?
the works. Consequently, it is important to check all
(13) Can weld spatter quickly make the tooling
hoses and fittings for leakage prior to welding. Defective
inoperative?
hoses or fittings should be replaced and loose fittings
(14) Hardness and durability
should be tightened.
When GTAW torches are left in cold weather between 14.5.2 Tooling Quality. The quality of weld tooling
welds or between shifts, water condensation may occur and fixturing can have a significant impact on the quality
in the torch shielding nozzle or cup. The results on the of the weldment. Dimensional tolerances and surface fin-
weldment will often be the same as if there were a leak in ish are generally the two main considerations for tooling
the torch body. Preventive action is normally to weld quality. Often, the quality that is required for the tooling
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
upon some scrap material until the torch system has been is part specific. Thus, a complex assembly with many
reheated to evaporate the water condensation. Running details will often require closer tolerances and a more
the purge gas to eliminate the condensate may also be elaborate fixture than a simple, noncritical part. For sim-
used, but is not as effective in cold weather as the former ple welded assemblies, a freehand sketch of the tooling
suggestion. If the problem continues after the torch has or fixture on a piece of scratch paper may be adequate.
been reheated, there probably is a leak in the system. With a complex assembly, a detailed engineering draw-
ing may be required. Tool tryout is often desirable to
14.4.4 Restrictions in the Hoses. Water cooling
ensure that the tooling functions correctly prior to weld-
hoses may be blocked or pinched, causing the GTAW
ing of production parts.
torch to overheat. When this occurs, the first thing to
check is that the lines are not pinched or that any heavy 14.6 Filler Material
items have not been inadvertently placed upon the hoses
14.6.1 Filler Metal Control. It is recommended that
or hose assemblies. Other possibilities for inadequate
filler metals be kept in a controlled storage area. In some
coolant flow include ice or foreign particles in the lines,
industries, such as nuclear and aerospace, it is common
torch body, or fittings. This cause can be readily checked
practice to test each filler lot of material for proper alloy
by disconnecting the cooling water return line, turning
type and weldability prior to releasing it for storage in
on the coolant, and observing the flow from the return
the controlled area. Filler metal containers are always la-
line into an open drain or reservoir. If required, the water
beled. Additionally, filler metals are generally marked
cooling system should be cleaned until proper flow is
with a tag, color code, impression stamp or printed label
obtained.
on each piece of cut wire. Spooled wire is labeled on
14.5 Tools and Fixtures each spool. Even with these precautions, filler metals can
become improperly labeled or their identification lost. If
14.5.1 Construction and Materials. The type of the wrong filler metal identification is suspected, or if the
materials used for tooling and fixtures can be critical to identification is lost, the materials should be sent to a
the quality of GTAW weldments for some metal alloys. qualified testing laboratory to determine its chemical
Furthermore, the construction of tooling may be simple composition. If the quantity of filler metal does not jus-
or complex depending upon the application. The follow- tify the cost of testing, it should be discarded.
ing items are critical factors that should be considered in Welders and welding operators must be absolutely
designing tooling and selecting tooling materials: sure that they are using the correct filler metal for each
(1) Magnetism welding operation. During welding of a component, only
(2) Electrical conductivity the filler metal specified for the weldment should be
(3) Workpiece lead location present in the weld booth or weld station. When welding
(4) Thermal conductivity with that filler metal is complete, the unused filler metal
(5) Reaction of the tooling materials with base metal; should be immediately returned to the controlled storage
e.g., copper tooling needs to be chrome or nickel plated area. What can happen if such stringent procedures are
if used for welding cobalt alloys not followed is illustrated by the following example. A
(6) Melting point relationship welder was having an extremely difficult time joining
106
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
16 gage (0.06 in. [1.6 mm]) 316 stainless. The weld pool be used to clean aluminum filler metals, but silicon car-
was out of control. A small amount of the filler seemed bide paper is not recommended because silicon carbide
to mix with the molten metal, but most of the filler could contaminate aluminum filler metals even though in
popped or jumped out of the pool. The resultant both cases, removal of the abrasive from the filler metal
weld was very brittle, discolored and contained numer- was carried out.
ous small cracks and surface porosity. The cause for this As noted before, the base metals must also be clean.
aberrant behavior was that the filler metal rods had lost In the event the weldment requires multiple passes,
their identification and there were mixed filler metals cleaning between passes is often required. This can usu-
(stainless steel and titanium) in the container, as revealed ally be accomplished by vigorously brushing with a
by spectrographic analysis of the some of the filler clean wire brush and then wiping. Austenitic stainless
metals. steel brushes are preferred over low alloy or plain carbon
steel varieties. Brushes should not be interchangeably
14.6.2 Size and Shape. The size and shape of filler
used on different metals, e.g., a brush used to a clean
metals can affect the quality of the weld. Shape is nor-
steel weldment should not be used on aluminum.
mally not a problem with manual welding as long as the
cross sectional areas are nearly identical. However, with 14.7 Design of Welded Assemblies. The design of a
mechanized or automatic welding the shape can affect welded assembly can affect the cost of production, as-
the feeding mechanism or melting efficiency. sembly quality, ease of weld access, ease of inspection,
With both manual and nonmanual welding, size can manufacturing flow time, and reliability of the welded
have an adverse effect. In general, if one has trouble assembly in actual use. Unfortunately, in many instances,
keeping enough filler metal in the molten pool, the size is by the time an assembly reaches the welding facility, its
too small. Conversely, if adding filler metal causes the design has already been completed. However, the impor-
molten pool to freeze or if adequately melting the filler tance of feedback should not be overlooked. If a design
metal is a problem, the filler wire size is too large. change can make a welded joint more reliable or easier, it
Consumable inserts, such as rings used in pipe weld- should be reported back to the engineering or design
ing, have a large variety of sizes and shapes. Care should authority.
be exercised to ensure that the same size and shape listed Generally, the best weld design is the design with the
in the WPS is being utilized. Additionally, some insert least amount of welding! Also, making all the welds in
shapes allow the entrapment of impurities between the the flat position is easier and often leads to higher quality
joint member and the insert, thus causing weld defects welds than if the welds are made in other positions. Fur-
such as inclusions or porosity. thermore, the length of the weld joint, the width of the
weld joint, the number of passes, the volume of each
14.6.3 Cleanliness. The cleanliness of filler metals weld, and the number of weld joints should be kept to a
(and base materials) is paramount to good weld quality. minimum. As with all generalities there will be excep-
Welding filler metals must be stored in a clean, contami- tions. For example, it might be desirable to make a
nation-free environment. Aluminum and magnesium al- longer weld in a lightly stressed region than to make a
loys are notorious for picking up moisture from the shorter weld in a highly stressed region.
atmosphere if not kept in a controlled humidity or warm
How design changes and the reduction of the number
(often the warming action of a 150 watt light bulb is ade-
of welds in a tank can improve weld quality and mini-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
quate) environment. Most other GTAW filler metals, be-
mize distortion is illustrated by the following example.
cause they are normally just bare wires, are not too
The original design of an odd shaped tank required the
susceptible to moisture pick up from the atmosphere.
fabrication of numerous longitudinal welded segments
However, low alloy steel and copper filler alloys can cor-
shaped like a peeled orange segment. Extensive distor-
rode due to humidity, with detrimental effects on weld
tion was present and the manufacturing flow time was
quality.
felt to be excessive. The design was changed from these
Prior to use, filler metals should be wipe-tested with a multiple segments to two deep drawn tank ends con-
clean cloth moistened with an approved solvent such as nected by a circumferential weld on each side of an at-
isopropyl alcohol. After wiping, the cloth should show tachment ring. The total weld length was reduced to 20%
almost no sign of contamination. In the event contamina- of the original total length. Also, the new assembly de-
tion is present, corrective measures should be taken. sign allowed mechanized welding (which increased the
Chemical cleaning, acid pickling, abrasive cloth clean- joint quality), eliminated distortion, reduced fit-up time,
ing, elevated temperature baking, and shaving have all increased production quantities, and lowered total cost.
been successfully used. Care must be taken to ensure that
the cleaning process does not contaminate the filler 14.7.1 Weld Joint Location. The weld joint locations
metal. For example, aluminum oxide abrasive paper may should allow easy access by the welder and, whenever
107
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
possible, permit the use of a mechanized or automated can cause a hazardous situation for everyone in the area.
GTAW process. Other factors when considering weld lo- The process of arc welding creates several hazards that
cation include stress level, welding sequence, and overall must be guarded against. Useful safety information can
manufacturing cost. For example, if a complex housing be found in the Owners Manual that comes with each
required tubing to be attached, it might be desirable from item of welding equipment. More detailed information
a welding perspective to machine tube stubs onto the can be found in the latest edition of ANSI Z49.1, Safety
housing so that high quality orbital tube welds could be in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes, (published by
made. This design would simplify and likely optimize American Welding Society). For mandatory Federal
the welding operation. On the other hand, the cost of ma- safety regulations established by the U.S. Labor Depart-
chining the tube stubs integrally with the housing might ments Occupational Safety and Health Administration
well more than offset the additional cost of manually (OSHA), refer to the latest edition of OSHA Standards
welding the tubing into orifices via a fillet weld. Thus, Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29 CFR 1910 (Gen-
each assembly must be assessed individually. In all cases eral Industry) available from the Superintendent of
the possibility of utilizing mechanized welding for long Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing-
production runs should be considered. ton, DC 20402. Other standards may also apply such as
When multiple welds are needed, sequencing of the 29 CFR 1915 for use in shipyard fabrication.
welds is another factor that must be considered for joint 15.2 Electrical Shock. Since GTAW is an electrical arc
location. Whenever possible, the sequencing should pro- welding process, welders must be aware of the possibil-
vide ease of access and yet reduce overall distortion. ity of electrical shock. Electricity will always take the
14.7.2 Weld Joint Positions. The flat or horizontal path of least resistance. Therefore, it is important that
position is the preferred position for all weldments. good connections exist in the entire secondary circuit,
These are defined as positions 1G and 2G for groove that the workpiece is properly connected to the work lead
welds and 1F and 2F for fillet welds in AWS A3.0. For of the welding machine, that all cables and their insula-
manual welding, these positions require less welder skill tion be in good condition, and that all connections are
than other welding positions. For mechanized welding, tight. The welding area should be dry. If there are poor
control of power and filler feed are also simpler for flat connections, bare spots on cables, or wet conditions, the
or horizontal weldments. Generally, when less skill is possibility of electrical shock exists. A welder should
required to perform a weld or when the control of the never weld while standing in water. If wet working con-
weld is simpler, consistently higher quality weldments ditions exist, specific safety measures must be taken.
are usually the end result. The electrical equipment should be installed and
maintained in accordance with the National Electrical
14.8 Weld Joint Fit-Up. Joint fit-up problems are gener- Code and any state and local codes that apply. Welders or
ally easy to troubleshoot because they are easy to spot. If GTAW operators should never attempt to repair the elec-
the joint has mismatch, if the root opening is incorrect or trical equipment controlling or providing power for the
highly variable, or if the weld preparation for the joint GTAW power source. Control boxes should not be
has been incorrectly or sloppily done, the weld should opened. Only trained and qualified electricians should at-
not be started until the fit-up problems have been tempt electrical repairs.
corrected. Making a weld on a joint with poor fit-up is
asking for weld quality problems. 15.3 Arc Radiation and Burns. Gas tungsten arc weld-
ing results in relatively high levels of visible and ultravi-
olet light (UV), and infrared radiant energy. Exposure of
uncovered areas of the body to the arc radiation can pro-
15. Safety duce burns similar to sunburn. As exposure time in-
15.1 Hazards. As in any welding process, safety precau- creases, the severity of the burn increases. Even short
tions for the GTAW process are very important. There periods of exposure (less than a minute) can produce
are many potential hazards common to all arc welding burns on exposed skin. Screens (or some other suitable
processes. This section concentrates on potential hazards shielding) should be placed around the welding area to
associated primarily with the GTAW process, but no at- protect visitors and other workers from the arcs direct
tempt has been made to include all hazards resulting and reflected radiation.
from the misapplication of the process. 15.3.1 Eye Protection. The welding arc must never
All information relating to the safe operation of the be viewed with unprotected eyes. Even short exposures
welding equipment and the welding process must be to the arc, which sometimes occur accidentally, can
fully understood before attempting to begin work. A cause an eye condition known as flash burn. Usually
careless welder who does not observe some simple rules this is not a permanent injury, but may be painful for a
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AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
short time after exposure. The feeling can be described Most industrial locations require the use of safety
as having sand in ones eyes. Sometimes it is possible for glasses. But even if they are not required in some places
a period of 48 hours to pass before a painful sensation of a facility, they are absolutely essential for anyone
in the eye sets in. Some cases of flash burn may require working in or passing through an area where welding is
treatment by a doctor. performed.
15.3.2 Clothing. The GTAW process produces fewer
CAUTION
sparks and is considered cleaner than many welding
Continued flash burns could cause permanent eye processes. Thus, lighter clothing is often worn. However,
damage. clothing should be made of a tightly woven flame-
retardant material. Coverage of all exposed skin not pro-
The welder should always be required to wear a weld- tected by a welding hood is required to prevent radiation
ing helmet equipped with the proper shade lens for the burning. Figure 65 shows a welder equipped for light
work being done. Welding lenses are not simply colored duty welding. Welding out of position or on material
glass, but are special lenses which screen out almost prone to producing sparks may require leather chaps,
100% of the infrared and ultraviolet rays. Lenses are sleeves, and aprons worn over light clothes for additional
manufactured in various shades designated by a shade protection. Clothing and shoes must be kept free of oil
number, and the higher the shade number, the darker the and grease or other flammable materials. Protective, heat
lens. The choice of a shade may vary depending upon a resistant, nonflammable gloves (typically leather) should
persons sensitivity of eyesight and the welding vari- be worn to protect the hands and wrists.
ables. Generally speaking, the welding current used de- 15.4 Welding Environment. Similar to many other arc
termines the lens shade needed. The higher the current, welding processes, GTAW produces UV and infrared ra-
the more need there is for a darker shade lens. Table 22 diation, heat, smoke, and fumes which enter the area
lists lens shades for various welding currents. A number where welding is performed. Natural and exhaust venti-
10 lens is suitable for most GTAW applications. Care lation of the weld area is normally adequate for most
should be taken when using arc-activated lenses to assure GTAW operations. However, exhaust hoods or other de-
proper shade setting and speed of operation before weld- vices are sometimes used for local fume removal, when
ing. A low battery can result in the malfunction of such needed.
units and can result in inappropriate exposure to the arc. In certain applications, additional precautions must be
Additional safety rules and lens recommendations can be taken. Metals that have plating, coatings, paint or other
found in the AWS approved ANSI Z49.1, Safety in materials near to the arc area may give off smoke and
Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes. fumes during welding. Health hazards, especially to the
Flash burns of the eyes may occur to people who are lungs, may exist from these fumes. The physiological ef-
not welding. Persons passing by an area where welding fects of the fumes produced will vary with the metal or
is being done could possibly get flash burn from re- coating involved. Exposure must be evaluated on an indi-
flected radiation. Therefore, it is recommended that all vidual fume exposure basis. The ventilation and protec-
people in the welding area wear approved, tinted safety tion requirements listed in ANSI Z49.1 should be
glasses that filter out UV rays. followed.
15.4.1 Ozone. The ultraviolet light emitted by the
GTAW arc acts on the oxygen in the surrounding atmo-
Table 22 sphere to produce ozone, a gas with a very pungent dis-
tinctive odor. The amount produced will depend upon the
Guide for Shade Numbers
intensity and the wavelength of the ultraviolet energy, the
Arc Current, (A) Minimum Shade Suggested Shade(1) humidity, the amount of screening afforded by any weld-
ing fumes, and other factors. The ozone concentration
Less than 50 8 10 will generally be increased with an increase in welding
50 to 150 8 12 current, with the use of argon as the shielding gas, and
150 to 500 10 14
500 to 1000 11 14 when welding highly reflective metals such as alumi-
num. If the ozone cannot be reduced to a safe level by
Notes: ventilation or process variations, it will be necessary to
(1) As a rule of thumb, start with a shade that is too dark to see the weld
zone. Then go to a lighter shade which gives sufficient view of the supply fresh air to the welder either with an air supplied
weld zone without going below the minimum. respirator or by other means.
Reference: See latest edition of ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, Ozone exposures during typical welding operations
and Allied Processes. are generally below accepted thresholds. However,
109
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AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
certain conditions, such as welding in confined spaces or cylinders weight and velocity could cause serious injury
on highly reflective surfaces using argon-rich gases, may or even a fatal accident. It is imperative that cylinders are
result in exposures exceeding published limits. securely fastened at all times (while on location or while
being transported in suitable cylinder carts). Chains are
15.4.2 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons. Decomposition
usually used to secure a cylinder to a wall or cylinder
products of chlorinated hydrocarbons can include toxic
cart.
gases such as phosgene, hydrogen chloride, and chlorine.
These products are injurious to the lungs, upper respira- 15.8 Fires and Explosions. Hot slag, sparks, and arc
tory system, eyes and skin. Experimental evidence has radiation act as a source of ignition and burns. Fires and
shown that chlorinated hydrocarbon vapors in the vicin- explosions are hazards that can exist in a welding area.
ity of an arc (even though not in direct contact with the The welding area must be kept free of flammable, vola-
arc) decompose rapidly. The decomposition is caused by tile, or explosive materials. The welder or operator
the ultraviolet radiation rather than by the high tempera- should wear flame-retardant, appropriate clothing for the
ture of the arc. Although the concentration of chlorinated operation. Welding should never be performed on sealed
hydrocarbon vapors may be too low to be detectable by containers or containers that have held combustibles.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the sense of smell, welding in areas containing chlori- Welding should not be attempted in enclosed areas, such
nated hydrocarbon vapors can produce excessive concen- as the inside of tanks, without extra-special precautions
trations of these toxic gases. Greater decomposition is including lookouts and training in emergency procedures
produced by argon than by helium because of the greater in accordance with ANSI Z49.1. Workers should be
radiation intensity when using argon. familiar with fire prevention and fire and burn protection
15.5 Oxygen Deficiency. Shielding gases can displace measures.
oxygen in enclosed and confined spaces. This can result
15.9 Common Sense. It is very important to be fully
in simple asphyxiation without warning. Argon and he-
trained in the use of the welding equipment before at-
lium are commonly used shielding gases in GTAW.
tempting to use it. If unsure about any aspect of the oper-
Argon (since it is heavier than air) settles near the bottom
ation, the welder or operator should speak first with the
of confined spaces, while helium and nitrogen (since
welding supervisor. Safety is an important factor not
they are lighter than air) rise to the top of confined
only for oneself, but also for everyone in the vicinity. It
spaces. These colorless, odorless and tasteless gases can-
can be said that common sense is the most important tool
not be detected by the human senses at concentrations
a welder can bring to the welding area. Common sense
normally present in welding operations. An atmosphere
tells us we must respect the basic safety steps which must
with a diminished oxygen level can cause dizziness, un-
be taken to avoid both personal injury and injury to a fel-
consciousness, or even death. Tanks and confined spaces
low worker.
should always be checked for oxygen content prior to en-
try. The ventilation requirements set forth in the latest 15.10 Grinding Dust.100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105 The grinding
edition of ANSI Z49.1 should be followed when welding (sharpening) of tungsten electrodes generates tungsten
or working in confined areas. metal dust. This dust may also contain small amounts of
15.6 Noise. Normal GTAW operations do not exceed oxides like zirconia, ceria, lanthana and/or thoria. Dust
noise level requirements as specified by OSHA. How- generated by grinding can be considered a health hazard
ever, associated activities (e.g., grinding, sand blasting)
may produce excessive noise levels. Exposed workers 100. Thoriated Tungsten Electrodes Studied for Effects on
should wear properly fitted ear protection in such cases Welders Health, Welding Journal, Vol. 73, No. 5, May 1994,
because exposure to excessive noise levels for extended pp. 8889.
periods of time may result in hearing impairment. 101. Vinzents, P., Poulsen, O. M., et al., 1994. Cancer Risk
and Thoriated Welding Electrodes, Occupational Hygiene,
15.7 Safe Handling of Cylinders.99 Regardless of the Vol. 1, No. 1, 1994 pp. 2733.
content, pressurized cylinders must at all times be han- 102. McElearny, N. and Irvine, D., 1993. A Study of Thorium
dled with great care. Shielding gases such as argon and Exposure During Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding in an Air-
helium are nonflammable and nonexplosive. However, a line Engineering Population, Journal of Occupational Medi-
broken cylinder valve could release the content under ex- cine, Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1993, pp. 707711.
103. Practical TIG (GTA) Welding, Muncaster, P. W., 1991,
tremely high pressure, which could cause the cylinder to
p. 25, Abington Publishing, ISBN 1855730200.
be hurled about at dangerously high speeds. A damaged
104. MSDS sheets, tungsten mfg.
105. Campbell, R. D. and LaCoursiere, E. J., 1995. A Guide to
99. For more information, see CGA Pamphlet P-1, Safe Han- the Use of Tungsten Electrodes for GTA Welding. Welding
dling of Compressed Gases in Containers. Journal, Vol. 74, No. 1, Jan. 1995, pp. 3945.
110
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
and most health authorities recommend that all metal side shields, and not wearing loose fitting clothing that
grinding machines provide transparent eye shields, dust could get caught in the machine are also good practices.
extractors and filters. Dust produced by tungsten grind- If electrode-grinding dust might be inhaled, special pre-
ing should never be inhaled by the person doing the cautions relative to ventilation should be considered. A
grinding or by adjacent personnel. Metal dust can cause vacuum or exhaust system should be used when grinding
pulmonary illness over long periods of inhalation, so it is electrode tips. Electrode-grinding dust must not be in-
important to protect oneself. Good shop practice and haled. The user should consult the appropriate safety
common sense should be used for grinding anything. procedures, the manufacturers suggested procedures,
Wearing a full-face shield and safety glasses fitted with and all internal company safety requirements.
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111
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AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Nonmandatory Annexes
Annex A
Guidelines for Preparation of Technical Inquiries for
AWS Technical Committees
(This Annex is not a part of AWS C5.5/C5.5M-2003, Recommended Practices for
A1. Introduction with the edition of the standard that contains the provi-
sions or that the Inquirer is addressing.
The AWS Board of Directors has adopted a policy
whereby all official interpretations of AWS standards A2.2 Purpose of the Inquiry. The purpose of the in-
will be handled in a formal manner. Under that policy, all quiry must be stated in this portion of the inquiry. The
interpretations are made by the committee that is respon- purpose can be either to obtain an interpretation of a
sible for the standard. Official communication concern- standard requirement, or to request the revision of a par-
ing an interpretation is through the AWS staff member ticular provision in the standard.
who works with that committee. The policy requires that A2.3 Content of the Inquiry. The inquiry should be
all requests for an interpretation be submitted in writing. concise, yet complete, to enable the committee to quickly
Such requests will be handled as expeditiously as possi- and fully understand the point of the inquiry. Sketches
ble but due to the complexity of the work and the proce- should be used when appropriate and all paragraphs, fig-
dures that must be followed, some interpretations may ures, and tables (or the Annex), which bear on the in-
require considerable time. quiry must be cited. If the point of the inquiry is to obtain
a revision of the standard, the inquiry must provide tech-
nical justification for that revision.
A2. Procedure
A2.4 Proposed Reply. The inquirer should, as a pro-
All inquiries must be directed to: posed reply, state an interpretation of the provision that
is the point of the inquiry, or the wording for a proposed
Managing Director, Technical Services revision, if that is what inquirer seeks.
American Welding Society
550 N.W. LeJeune Road
Miami, FL 33126 A3. Interpretation of Provisions of
All inquiries must contain the name, address, and af- the Standard
filiation of the inquirer, and they must provide enough
information for the committee to fully understand the Interpretations of provisions of the standard are made
point of concern in the inquiry. Where that point is not by the relevant AWS Technical Committee. The secre-
clearly defined, the inquiry will be returned for clarifica- tary of the committee refers all inquiries to the chairman
tion. For efficient handling, all inquiries should be type- of the particular subcommittee that has jurisdiction over
written and should also be in the format used here. the portion of the standard addressed by the inquiry. The
subcommittee reviews the inquiry and the proposed reply
A2.1 Scope. Each inquiry must address one single pro- to determine what the response to the inquiry should be.
vision of the standard, unless the point of the inquiry Following the subcommittees development of the re-
involves two or more interrelated provisions. That provi- sponse, the inquiry and the response are presented to the
sion must be identified in the scope of the inquiry, along entire committee for review and approval. Upon ap-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
113
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
proval by the committee, the interpretation will be an of- tained only through a written request. The Headquarters
ficial interpretation of the Society, and the secretary will staff cannot provide consulting services. The staff can,
transmit the response to the inquirer and to the Welding however, refer a caller to any of those consultants whose
Journal for publication. names are on file at AWS Headquarters.
A4. Publication of Interpretations

A6. The AWS Technical Committee
All official interpretations will appear in the Welding
Journal. The activities of AWS Technical Committees regard-
ing interpretations are limited strictly to the Interpretation
of provisions of standards prepared by the committee or
to consideration of revisions to existing provisions on the
A5. Telephone Inquiries basis of new data or technology. Neither the committee
Telephone inquiries to AWS Headquarters concern- nor the staff is in a position to offer interpretive or con-
ing AWS Standards should be limited to questions of a sulting services on: (1) specific engineering problems; or
general nature or to matters directly related to the use of (2) requirements of standards applied to fabrications out-
the standard. The Board of Directors policy requires that side the scope of the document or points not specifically
all AWS staff members respond to a telephone request covered by the standard. In such cases, the inquirer
for an official interpretation of any AWS standard with should seek assistance from a competent engineer experi-
the information that such an interpretation can be ob- enced in the particular field of interest.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
114
AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
Annex B
Suggested Reading List and Other References
(This Annex is not a part of AWS C5.5/C5.5M-2003, Recommended Practices for
(1) Bittence, J. C., Welding the Advanced Alloys (8) Patterson, R. A., et al., Discontinuities Formed in
Advanced Materials and Processes, 3539, Metal Inconel GTA Welds. Welding Journal, 65(1): 19-s25-
Progress; December 1987. s; January 1987.
(2) Heiple, C. R., et al., Surface Active Elements Ef- (9) Sullivan, R. P., Fusion Welding of Stainless
fects on the Shape of GTA, Laser, and Electron Beam Steels. ASM Metals Engineering Quarterly, 16-41;
Welds. Welding Journal 62(3): 72s-77s; March 1983. November 1967.
(3) Katoh, M. and Ken, H. W., Investigation of (10) Kato, S. and Tanabe, S., High Speed Welding of
Heat-Affected Zone Cracking of GTA Welds of Al-Mg- 0.5mm Thickness Alloy Sheets using Pulsed TIG Weld-
Si Alloys using the Varestraint Test. Welding Journal ing. Welding International (7): 602608; 1988.
66(12): 360s; December 1987. (11) Prager, M. and Shira, C. S., Welding of
Precipitation-Hardening Nickel-Base Alloys. Welding
(4) Kelly, T. J., Rene 220CThe New, Weldable
Research Council Bulletin, 128; 1968.
Investment Cast Superalloy. Welding Journal, 69(11):
(12) Yeniscavich, W., Chapter 18Joining. Super-
422-s430-s; November 1990.
alloys, II; 1987.
(5) Kujanpaa, V. P., et al., Role of Shielding Gases (13) Burgardt, J. and Campbell, R. D., Chemistry
in Flaw Formation in GTAW of Stainless Steel Strips. Effects on Stainless Steel Weld Penetration Key Engi-
Welding Journal 63(5): 151s-155s; May 1984. neering Materials, Vols. 69 & 70 (1992) pp. 379416.
(6) Linnert, G. E., Welding Characteristics of Stain- (14) Shirali, A. A. and Mills, K. C., The Effect of
less Steels. Metals Engineering Quarterly 1-15; Novem- Welding Parameters on Penetration in GTA Welds,
ber 1967. Welding Journal, 72(7), July 1993.
(7) NASA Tech Brief MFS-27121, Microstructure (15) Anik, S. and Dorn, L., Metallophysical Processes in
and Weld Cracking in Inconel 718. Marshall Space the Welding of Copper and Copper AlloysWelding Meth-
Flight Center, Alabama; March 1979. ods, Welding and Cutting, Vol. 9, 1988 p. E139E143.
115
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--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AWS C5.5/C5.5M:2003
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
List of AWS Documents on Arc Welding and Arc Cutting
AWS Designation Title

C5.1 Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Welding
C5.2 Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Cutting
C5.3 Recommended Practices for Air Carbon Arc Gouging and Cutting
C5.4 Recommended Practices for Stud Welding
C5.6 Recommended Practices for Gas Metal Arc Welding
C5.7 Recommended Practices for Electrogas Welding
C5.10 Recommended Practices for Shielding Gases for Welding and Plasma Arc Cutting
For ordering information, contact Global Engineering Documents, an Information Services Handling (IHS) Group com-
pany, 15 Inverness Way East, Englewood, Colorado 80112-5776; telephones (800) 854-7179, (303) 397-7956; fax (303)
397-2740; Internet: www.global.ihs.com.
117
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AWS C5.5/C5.

Copyright American Welding Society

Recommended Practices for

Supersedes AWS C5.5-80

Under the Direction of

550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, Florida 33126

Copyright American Welding Society

Copyright American Welding Society

AWS C5C Subcommittee on Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Copyright American Welding Society

Copyright American Welding Society

12.6 Welder and Welding Operator Qualification Tests..................................................................................95

29 High-Frequency Arc Starting.......................................................................................................................33

1. Monel and Inconel are registered trademarks of Special Metals Corporation.

Recommended Practices for

use compared with other joining processes.

Figure 1Early Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Torches and Accessories,

3. Reprinted with permission from Modern Welding Technol-

Figure 4Motor-Generator SMAW

ever, because it did not provide the cleaning action like

Figure 8Gas-Cooled GTAW Torch and Stylized Representation

(6) can use inexpensive power sources

Applications GTAW GMAW SMAW

Carbon steel plate >3/16 in. [5 mm] G E E

ELECTRODE POLARITY Negative Positive Negative and Positive

OXIDE CLEANING ACTION No Yes Yes, Once Every Half Cycle

HEAT BALANCE IN THE 50% at Work, 50% at Electrode

PENETRATION Deep, Narrow Shallow, Wide Medium

Figure 11Relationship Between Arc Pressure and Pulse Frequency

Figure 12Programmed (Modulated) Current without Polarity Reversal

Figure 13Characteristics of Variable Polarity (Programmed) Weld Current

Figure 14Arc Shape and Fusion Zone Profiles as a Function of

Figure 15Typical Volt-Amp Characteristic Curves for GTAW Power Sources

Figure 16Typical Inverter Power Source Components

able in the GTAW process is set to an appropriate level to

Figure 17Typical Wire Feeder

Figure 18Typical GTAW Sequence for Non-Pulsed DC Welding

Figure 20Typical Water-Cooled GTAW Torch (Cross-Sectional View)

Torch Characteristics Small Medium Large

Maximum Current (100% duty cycle), A 200 200300 500

Figure 21Examples of GTAW Torches

Figure 22Orbital Weld Head with Wire Feeder

HIGH IMPACT O-RING O-RINGS (2)

COLLET BODY COLLET ELECTRODE

GASKET SHORT CAP

GAS LENS HIGH

Figure 23Components of a Typical GTAW Torch, Including Gas Nozzle/Cup,

Larger gas nozzles provide better shielding gas coverage,

gated trailing sections or flared ends which provide

100 4 4 2 2 1 1/0 2/0 2/0 3/0 4/0

450 2/0 4/0

5.7 Arc and Torch Oscillators. Oscillation can be used

Figure 27Magnetically Deflected

oscillation is used which reduces the cost by as much as

core transformer, as illustrated in Figure 29.36 The high-

EWP(5) Green R07900 99.5 0.5

Direct Current, A Alternating Current, A

in. mm in. mm EWX-X(2) EWX-X EWP EWX-X EWP EWX-X

0.010 0.30 1/4 6 Up to 15 N/A Up to 15 Up to 15 Up to 15 Up to 15

The EWTh-1 and EWTh-2 tungsten electrodes were

Thoria is a very low-level radioactive oxide. How-

The level of contamination/radiation has not been

containing a nominal 2% cerium oxide (CeO2referred

ing. For DCEN welding, tapering of the electrode tip is