Julia Carboni

EDUC 567
ICC Internship
3/1/2017

Annotated Bibliography

COMMUNICATIVE & INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE

1.Canagarajah, S. (2007). After disinvention: Possibilities for communication, community and

competence. In S. Makoni & A. Pennycook (Eds.) Disinventing and Reconstituting
Language (233-239). Location: Multilingual Matters.

This short essay serves as a conclusion to a collection of theoretical works which

effectively deconstruct the modern-day notion of monolithic national languages. Canagarajah

refers to several studies to make a brief case for his stance towards languages as fluid and

negotiable within interactions, including examples of multilingual communication in pre-colonial

India and other contexts to demonstrate how meaning is negotiated among diverse interlocutors.

The author argues that mutual understanding does not hinge upon the use of similar symbols and

codes, but rather that negotiation is the key to enhanced communication and mutual meaning-

making. Citing Hensel (1996), he upholds that non-native students are more successful in

interpreting the meanings of words from diverse varieties as they bring attitudinal resources that

help them do sothese attitudes are the cultural capital of multilingual people, developed

through history (Canagarajah 2007: 237). This statement illuminates part of Canagarajahs

attitudinal approach to defining communicative competence. Many recent practice-focused

definitions of competence also center around attitudes and motivations, and for this reason I find

Canagarajahs definition compelling.

2.Deardorff, D.K. (2006). Identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student

outcome of internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education 10(3), 241-
266.
 Deardorff credits her account as being the first study to document consensus among top

intercultural scholars and academic administrators on what constitutes intercultural competence

(p. 242). According to the author, the term intercultural competence has come to be understood

as a measurable quality at the individual level. College administrators have adopted this term to

measure outcomes of international programming (i.e. study abroad; exchange programs;

international student integration). Using surveys and quantitative analyses, Deardorff measured

the ways in which different administrators and scholars use the term competence. In contrast to

other readings cited here, many administrators identified specific knowledge categories to

constitute intercultural competence, such as area studies knowledge, language proficiency (as

measured by standardized tests), and perceptions of foreigners. These standards echo the

nationalistic idea of language and culture as monolithic entities. I include this paper here because

of its relevance to current practices in assessing competence within institutions of higher

education. For example, I observed examples of intercultural assessments at my internship site

through essays on area-studies topics and language proficiency tests.

3.Hammer, M.R., Bennett, M.J., & Wiseman, R. (2003). Measuring intercultural sensitivity: The
intercultural development inventory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations
27(1), 421-443.

Hammer and Bennetts (1998) survey known as the Intercultural Development Inventory

(IDI) is compared relative to Bennetts original Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

(DMIS) in this quantitative analysis. Both frameworks contain six orientations pertaining to

intercultural sensitivity: denial, defense, reversal, minimization, acceptance, and adaptation.

According to the authors, these orientations are progressive in nature, allowing individuals to

move from ethnocentricity to ethnorelativity over time. The authors include a relevant

quantitative analysis in which they test the reliability of the Intercultural Development Inventory
in measuring the different orientations presented by the Development Model of Intercultural

Sensitivity, using confirmatory factor analyses and scale reliability results. The survey explored

in this study is still widely used today as a measurement for intercultural outcomes in exchange

programs, and its results are used synonymously with the term intercultural competence. This

measurement indicates a shift in how the term competence is used in cultural education, as it

assumes some aspects of identity development theory, which I discuss in the next section.

4.Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. In J.B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.)

Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings (269-293). Harmondsworth: Penguin.

This theoretical piece discusses the term communicative competence as it relates to

linguistic performance. When Hymes wrote about competence in the 1970s, the term carried

connotations of an ideal standard, rather than language in practice. In fact, the term linguistic

competence from which Hymes derived this term originally denoted an ideal speaker-listener

unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions,

shifts of attention and interest, and errors... (Chomsky 1965: 3). However, Hymes also criticizes

this interpretation for its limitations, and offers new perspective that encourages the

consideration of sociolinguistic factors in language socialization. I include this piece in my

annotated bibliography to trace the origins of competence as a sociolinguistic term and to

illustrate its diverse connotations (i.e. linguistic, cultural, L1-L2, etc.)

5.Paige, R.M. & Vande Berg, M. (2012). Why students are and are not learning abroad: A review
of recent research. In M. Vande Berg, R.M. Paige, & K.H. Lou (Eds.) Students Learning
Abroad: What Our Students Are Learning, What Theyre Not, and What We Can Do
About It. Stylus: Sterling, VA. 29-58.

Paige and Vande Berg focus on studies that have offered insight on study abroad

interventions in this literature review, relying heavily on the Intercultural Development Inventory

(IDI) created by Bennett, Wiseman, and Hammer (2003) to analyze the results of each study.
According to their review, professionals in the field reference similar techniques to support their

students growth in intercultural competence, including: cultural mentorship, opportunities for

reflection, coursework in cultural awareness, and comprehensive application of students cultural

knowledge. This review demonstrates how college administrators apply frameworks such as the

IDI to facilitate intercultural educational programs within the field of study abroad. Specifically,

it reflects my internship closely as it cites a study conducted on one of the Penn Abroad approved

study abroad sites which Penn students regularly visit.

IDENTITY FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT

6.Bartlett, L. (2007). Bilingual literacies, social identification, and educational trajectories.

Linguistics and Education, 18(3-4), 215-231.

Bartletts article-length ethnography is centered on a single individual attending a

bilingual high school in a Bronx neighborhood of New York City. The student, a young Latina

girl designated as a student with interrupted formal education (SIFE) by her teachers,

renegotiates her identity by using classwork and homework tasks to position herself as a

successful student. This article demonstrates how both perceived language proficiency and

classroom participation can contribute to a students self-positioning and identity formation, and

is particularly useful because of its implications for students from foreign countries attempting to

adjust to a new educational system. Thus, the findings from this ethnographic work can be used

to understand similar identity work undertaken by multicultural students from varying

educational levels.

7.Higgins, C. (2010). Gender identities in language education. In S.L. McKay & N.H.
Hornberger (Eds.) Sociolinguistics and Language Education. Multilingual Matters.

In this selected work, Higgins reviews a substantial amount of literature to analyze the

ways in which gender can influence identity formation for second-language learners. A
particularly interesting feature of her discussion examines the inter-relatedness between second

language acquisition and identity formation. Citing studies of German and Japanese immigrants

in the United States, Higgins posits that non-native speakers of English can use new subject

positions and other linguistic markers to distance themselves from repressive notions of gender

and to create empowering second-language identities. I found this particular idea interesting due

to its intersection with issues raised in my internship at Penn Abroad and my fieldwork teaching

Bangladeshi-American students at Moder Patshala. For instance, I was particularly interested in

noticing how students perceived American linguistic and cultural practices to be either sexist or

empowering in different contexts, and how they chose to either pick up or distance themselves

from certain U.S. gender norms.

8.Kim, E. (2012). An alternative theoretical model: Examining psychosocial identity

development of international students in the United States. College Student Journal
46(1), pp. 99-113.

Eunyoung Kim applies a student-affairs focused model of identity development to

examine the experience and growth of international students pursuing education in the United

States. She refers to the model she uses as exploratory, citing a lack of studies on international

student identity. According to Kim, the identity development of international students in the

United States can span a total of six phases, including pre-exposure, exposure, enclosure,

emergence, integration, and internationalization. She includes a qualitative analysis of

ethnographic interviews conducted at a Midwestern US university amongst a diverse population

of international students. Her findings suggest that identity development requires time and

extended exposure to the target culture. Interestingly, her model of identity development

reflects many of the characteristics of the Intercultural Development Inventory, suggesting that

intercultural competence and identity development are inextricably intertwined in their current
conceptions. The difference between these terms seems to be the practical applications of the

two: competence is used to communicate appropriately with people of diverse cultures, while

identity development requires coming to terms with ones self in different contexts.

9.McGinnis, T., Goodstein-Stolzenberg, A., & Saliani, E.C. (2007). indnpride: Online spaces
of transnational youth as sites of creative and sophisticated literacy and identity work.
Linguistics and Education, 18(3-4), 283-304.

The authors of this article analyze the multiple ways that three high-school aged students

use online spaces to express their transnational identities. Using original methods of self-

expression, including rap battles, poetry, and social media blogging, these individuals explore the

diverse facets of their own identities and societal perceptions of these identities. This

ethnographic work sheds light on the ways that online media can be used creatively to challenge

prevailing discriminatory narratives about ethnically diverse groups and individuals. Even

though this work is a bit dated, referencing older websites such as Myspace, it can still be

applied to understand how todays youth use apps such as Snapchat, Twitter, and Instagram to

interact with the social worlds they are a part of and to do important identity work. Social media

was used frequently as a medium of connection between exchange students in my internship

practicum, and so this piece is particularly useful in providing a framework on identity and self-

positioning as related to technology and the internet.

10.Sue, D.W. & Sue, D. (2016). Counseling the Culturally Diverse: Theory and Practice. New
York: Wiley.

This comprehensive course book covers topics related to counseling people of diverse

backgrounds, and addresses specific issues such as racial identity development, intercultural

competence, and implicit bias based on sociocultural norms. The authors spend a significant

portion of this book developing a combined framework of racial and cultural identity

development, citing influential models used to understand the diverse cultural identity of
members of African-American, Asian-American, and Latino/Hispanic American groups, as well

as other cultural groups residing in the United States. Most of these models follow a similar

formula to the other identity development models mentioned in this bibliography: conformity

(adhering to mainstream cultural influences); dissonance (questioning and challenging

previously-held attitudes or beliefs); resistance and immersion (complete rejection of mainstream

values); introspection (reflecting and defining oneself relative to other cultural group members);

and integrative awareness (accepting oneself while maintaining awareness and respect of other

cultures). An important distinction of this model from others is its creators hesitance to endorse

one phase as more developed than others. The authors point out that counselors working with

diverse clients are likely to encounter individuals whose behaviors point to multiple points on the

spectrum of this model and to embrace the differences between individuals.

OTHER INFLUENCES

11. Brooks-Harris, J.E. & Stock-Ward, S.R. (1999). Workshops: Designing and Facilitating
Experiential Learning.

This book offers an introduction to using experiential learning design theory in the coordination

and facilitation of adult educational workshops. With useful activity ideas and tips for

troubleshooting during facilitation this book was influential in my development of workshops

and other programs during my internship. I include it in my bibliography because of its

innovative approach of using experiential learning design concepts and its vast information on

experiential activities used to shape participants understanding.

12. Emerson, R.M., Fretz, R.I., & Shaw, L.L. (2011). Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes. Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press.

This was one of the first books I read for my masters program, and I am listing it here

because of the profound effect it had on my ability to observe and notice small details in my
various workplaces. Emerson, Fretz, and Shaw lay out the necessary mindset and skills to create

an original ethnography using an anthropological framework. Using anecdotal accounts of their

students and their own field placements, the authors offer a unique viewpoint on how to

illuminate members meanings and write about these observations in a way that acknowledges

ones own viewpoints and biases and shifts importance to the observed rather than the observer.

13. Lindsey, R. B., Robins, K. N., & Terrell, R. D. (2009). Cultural Proficiency: A Manual for
School Leaders. Corwin: Thousand Oaks, CA.

This book stands out in particular because of one chapter, titled A Cultural and

Historical Context for Our Unfolding Democracy. This chapter sets out to define culture and

cultural proficiencies in terms of race and status within the history of the United States.

According to the authors, certain cultures are privileged, while others are oppressed. Within

those cultures and individuals that are oppressed, the authors argue that there is a hierarchical

system of minoritization, separated by what they term immigrant minorities versus caste-like

minorites. I found these categorizations interesting but also troubling due to their overly

simplistic nature, which I address in this portfolio.

14. Ruiz, R. (1984). Orientations in language planning. NABE: The Journal for the National

Association for Bilingual Education 8(2), 15-34.

This theoretical article was particularly influential in my views on language ideologies in

education and in discourses surrounding language education, as it created an easy-to-apply

framework to many situations. Ruiz argues that there are three predominant orientations towards

language planning: language-as-problem, language-as-right, and language-as-resource. The first

orientation views language minority students as possessing deficits towards their language

education and emphasizes the need to assimilate to monolingualism in the dominant language.

The second orientation, language-as-right, responds to the first orientation by positioning

language as an inherent right which cannot be denied to any individual. The third, advocated by

Ruiz, asserts that the first two orientations are overly simplistic and separated, and offers an

alternative viewpoint which suggests that bilingualism is possible and both languages can be

used as resources in language education. These orientations are useful frameworks because of

their ability to extend to cultural education and the orientations taken by professionals in the

intercultural education field.

15.Rymes, B. (2010) Communicating Beyond Language. New York: Routledge.

This book by Betsy Rymes explores the concept of communicative repertoire through

anecdotes and ethnographic accounts of multicultural schools, workplaces, and media. Rymes

observations illuminate the diversity that many individuals encounter in their daily lives and their

ability to navigate complex interactions through the development of their own repertoire. This

concept has been particularly useful in my work to understand the relationship between

communities of practice and individual cultural competencies. Using a repertoire approach,

Rymes argues that researchers can observe individuals establishment of comembership with

others through both linguistic and extra-linguistic resources at their disposal.