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RUNNING HEAD: EDID 6501 COGNITIVE THEORISTS DIALOGUE

EDID 6501: - Assignment 2

Name: Genevieve Cox

EDID 6501: Cognitive Theorists Dialogue

Professor: Deanne Ford

Date: November 2, 2015


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Overview of Learning Theories

Theories of learning explains how we learn in our environment. This paper examines

cognitive information processing, situated cognition, meaningful learning and schema theory to

analyze how knowledge is acquired. Cognitive information processing describes how incoming

information is initiated, monitored and processed by the learner in association with existing

memory in the brain. In situated cognition, the emphasis is on use and application of learned

knowledge and skills in practice in an apprenticeship relationship, or in a community of practice.

Meaningful learning and schema theory are similar in their approach to learning. Meaningful

learning describes how learners connect prior knowledge and new ideas through adjustment of

cognition of already learned information with the perception of newly acquired knowledge.

Schema theory describes how schemata, defined as the building blocks of cognition affects

learning in the environment.

Cognitive Information Processing

Cognitive information processing views memorization of knowledge acquired as being

very important in how sensory input is processed. Because memory is a key component of

acquiring knowledge in cognitive information processing, (Long, Wood, Littleton, Passenger, &

Sheehy, 2013), association of initiating incoming knowledge with existing knowledge is filtered

and self monitored by the learner, when the incoming information is processed. In sensory

memory information is held briefly, short term memory has limited capacity, and long term

memory has unlimited capacity (Eysenck & Keane, 2010).

In cognitive information processing, sensory memory is the first stage of information

processing, sensory input in the form of auditory or visual stimulus generated in the
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environment are input to sensory memory, from there, information is transferred to short term

memory, or working memory. According to (Atkinson & Shriffrin,1968,1971) in Driscoll (2015),

in working memory further encoding processes prepares sensory input for placement into long

term memory where meaningful connections are made with related knowledge present in long

term memory. Cognitive information processing explains how humans acquire knowledge, forget

information, how information is encoded for retrieval, and for application of the correct

memory, to new ideas. Stimuli in the environment serves as information input that is stored in

memory in the brain, similarly to the way information is processed in the central processing unit

(brain) of a computer system (Jordan, Carlile & Stack, 2008).

Situated Cognition

In situated cognition, knowledge is seen as lived practices, and learners are active

participants in communities of practice. (Clancy, 1997) in (Driscoll,2015) notes that every

human thought is adapted to the environment, and so whatever people perceive, think, and do

develops in a social context. (Wenger, 1998) in (Driscoll, 2015) notes that learning as

participation shapes not only what we do, but also who we are and how we interpret what we

do. According to Semin (2013), human beings are tightly bound to the social context.

(Oyserman, 2011) states that social cognition refers to the impact of the social context on the

thoughts and actions of the individual.

The technical relationship established between teacher and apprentice in facilitating

learning may impart how to but, not necessarily know how, if students are not engaged in

learning through discussion, participation and practice of the material. Brown et al., (1989) in

(Driscoll,2015) argued that many traditional teaching practices results in inert knowledge, or the
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inability of students to use what they know in relevant situations. In the authentic

apprenticeship of practice, skills are acquired, knowledge is attained and anchored that enables

students to interact with peers and the facilitator. Students collaborate, investigate, and solve

problems in their apprenticeship, community of practice, and mentoring relationship with the

teacher.

In situated cognition, learners are provided with real world situations to which they

apply relevant knowledge to link theory and practice in associating and understanding

knowledge creation in various situations. The foundational premise of situated cognition is that

knowledge is contextually created, and remains contextually dependent, so it is never useful out

of context (Compton, 2013).

Meaningful Learning and Schema Theory

According to Ausubel (1963b) in Driscoll (2015), existing cognitive structure, that is, an

individuals organization, stability, and clarity of knowledge is the principal factor influencing

the learning and retention of meaningful new material. Meaningful learning systematically

demands the learners attention and understanding of conceptual ideas where the learner

connects prior knowledge and new ideas.

Meaningful learning takes place through subsumption, superordinate, and combinatorial

processes where ideas are stored below, above, or at the same level of existing ideas. The learner

actively learns and seeks to understand ideas encountered through reception, and discovery

learning to make meaning of the environment. The most important condition for meaningful

learning to take place is: new knowledge they are asked to learn should relate to what is already

known. Meaningful learning allows organization of knowledge into a coherent whole


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coherence allows significant relationships between new information and preexisting information

to be recognized, and for principles governing those relationships to emerge (Erickson, 2007;

Marton & Slj, 1976; Novak, 2010) cited in Gethba-Eby, Beery, Xu, OBrien.

Rumelhart, (1980) describes schema as a data structure for representing the generic

concepts stored in memory schemata are packets of knowledge, and schema theory is how

these packets are represented and how that representation facilitates the use of knowledge in

particular ways. Schemas are actively evaluating incoming information and influences how

actions and events are interpreted. Mental models in which schemata are embedded enables

mental interpretation and problem solving of conceptual ideas generated from interacting with

new situations, and hooking the new information to models of schemas already learned.

Norman (1983) in Driscoll (2015), observed that mental models are incomplete,

unstable, unscientific, parsimonious, and do not have firm boundaries. Peoples ability to control

their models are limited. So, in effect, a persons schema may be inaccurate and they may have

imprecise, partial or idiosyncratic understanding that evolves with various schemas presented.

The process of learning occurs when the learner relates to various attributes of schema

presented and is able to fit what is presented to existing schemas in the brain. For Kant, a

schema stood between, or mediated the external world and internal mental structures; a schema

was seen as a lens that both shaped, and was shaped by experience (McVee, Dunsmore, Gavalek,

2005).
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Implications of Theories for Instruction

Cognitive information processing

Sensory information generated in the learning environment should be directed and

organized to provide practical opportunities for enhancing the learners self control of

information processing and their ability to encode and memorize the knowledge through

extensive and variable practice which can improve the learners self control of how they process

information. (Driscoll, 2015). The teacher in effect becomes the learners sensory director in the

instruction process.

Situated Cognition

In the situated learning environment of online adult learners, the teacher is the facilitator,

and evaluator of the community of practice, and engage students in reflective interaction by

providing any assistance necessary for them to succeed. Wenger (1998) notes, education should

be addressed in terms of identities and modes of belongingwe need to think of education in

terms of rhythms by which communities and individuals continually renew themselves (Driscoll

2015). Cognitive apprenticeships, anchored instruction, learning communities and assessments

in situ provides students with interaction, feedback, and a sense of belonging.

Meaningful learning and schema theory

Meaningfulness in creating instructional material is important in activating prior

knowledge by use of advance organizers, control of cognitive load, and schema signals,

comparative organizers, and elaboration. New contexts and examples can aid in making
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connections to link new and old information. Instruction should include thought demanding

activities to relate to existing schemas (Driscoll, 2015).


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References

Compton, P. (2013). Situated cognition and knowledge acquisition research. International

Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 71(2), 184-190. Doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2012.10.002.

Driscoll, M.P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson New International Edition.

Eysenk, M.W. & Keane, M.T. (2010). Cognitive psychology: A students handbook. New York

Psychology Press.

Getha-Eby, T., Beery, T., Xu, Y., & O'Brien, B.,A. (2014). Meaningful learning: Theoretical

support for concept-based teaching. Journal of Nursing Education, 53(9), 494-500.

doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20140820-04

Jordan, A. Carlile, O. & Stack, A. (2008). Approaches to learning: A guide for teachers.

Berkshire: Open University Press.

Long, M. Wood, C. Littleton, K. Passenger, T. & Sheehy, K. (2013). The psychology

Education. New York: Routeledge.

McVee, M. B., Dunsmore, K., &Gavelek, J. R. (2005). Schema theory revisited. Review of

Educational Research, 75(4), 531-566. Retrieved from

http://search.proquest.com/docview/214117944?accountid=42537
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Oyserman, D. (2011). Culture as situated cognition: Cultural mindsets, cultured fluency, and

meaning making. European Review of Social Psychology, 22(1), 1645-214

doi:10.1080/10463283.2011.627187.

Semin, G.R.S.E.R (2013). Socially situated cognition in perspective. Social Cognition,31(2)

125-146.doi: 10.1521/soco.2013.31.2.125

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