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Theories of learning explains how we learn in our environment. This paper examines
cognitive information processing, situated cognition, meaningful learning and schema theory to
analyze how knowledge is acquired. Cognitive information processing describes how incoming
information is initiated, monitored and processed by the learner in association with existing
memory in the brain. In situated cognition, the emphasis is on use and application of learned
Meaningful learning and schema theory are similar in their approach to learning. Meaningful
learning describes how learners connect prior knowledge and new ideas through adjustment of
cognition of already learned information with the perception of newly acquired knowledge.
Schema theory describes how schemata, defined as the building blocks of cognition affects
very important in how sensory input is processed. Because memory is a key component of
acquiring knowledge in cognitive information processing, (Long, Wood, Littleton, Passenger, &
Sheehy, 2013), association of initiating incoming knowledge with existing knowledge is filtered
and self monitored by the learner, when the incoming information is processed. In sensory
memory information is held briefly, short term memory has limited capacity, and long term
processing, sensory input in the form of auditory or visual stimulus generated in the
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environment are input to sensory memory, from there, information is transferred to short term
in working memory further encoding processes prepares sensory input for placement into long
term memory where meaningful connections are made with related knowledge present in long
term memory. Cognitive information processing explains how humans acquire knowledge, forget
information, how information is encoded for retrieval, and for application of the correct
memory, to new ideas. Stimuli in the environment serves as information input that is stored in
memory in the brain, similarly to the way information is processed in the central processing unit
Situated Cognition
In situated cognition, knowledge is seen as lived practices, and learners are active
human thought is adapted to the environment, and so whatever people perceive, think, and do
develops in a social context. (Wenger, 1998) in (Driscoll, 2015) notes that learning as
participation shapes not only what we do, but also who we are and how we interpret what we
do. According to Semin (2013), human beings are tightly bound to the social context.
(Oyserman, 2011) states that social cognition refers to the impact of the social context on the
learning may impart how to but, not necessarily know how, if students are not engaged in
learning through discussion, participation and practice of the material. Brown et al., (1989) in
(Driscoll,2015) argued that many traditional teaching practices results in inert knowledge, or the
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inability of students to use what they know in relevant situations. In the authentic
apprenticeship of practice, skills are acquired, knowledge is attained and anchored that enables
students to interact with peers and the facilitator. Students collaborate, investigate, and solve
problems in their apprenticeship, community of practice, and mentoring relationship with the
teacher.
In situated cognition, learners are provided with real world situations to which they
apply relevant knowledge to link theory and practice in associating and understanding
knowledge creation in various situations. The foundational premise of situated cognition is that
knowledge is contextually created, and remains contextually dependent, so it is never useful out
According to Ausubel (1963b) in Driscoll (2015), existing cognitive structure, that is, an
individuals organization, stability, and clarity of knowledge is the principal factor influencing
the learning and retention of meaningful new material. Meaningful learning systematically
demands the learners attention and understanding of conceptual ideas where the learner
processes where ideas are stored below, above, or at the same level of existing ideas. The learner
actively learns and seeks to understand ideas encountered through reception, and discovery
learning to make meaning of the environment. The most important condition for meaningful
learning to take place is: new knowledge they are asked to learn should relate to what is already
to be recognized, and for principles governing those relationships to emerge (Erickson, 2007;
Marton & Slj, 1976; Novak, 2010) cited in Gethba-Eby, Beery, Xu, OBrien.
Rumelhart, (1980) describes schema as a data structure for representing the generic
concepts stored in memory schemata are packets of knowledge, and schema theory is how
these packets are represented and how that representation facilitates the use of knowledge in
particular ways. Schemas are actively evaluating incoming information and influences how
actions and events are interpreted. Mental models in which schemata are embedded enables
mental interpretation and problem solving of conceptual ideas generated from interacting with
new situations, and hooking the new information to models of schemas already learned.
Norman (1983) in Driscoll (2015), observed that mental models are incomplete,
unstable, unscientific, parsimonious, and do not have firm boundaries. Peoples ability to control
their models are limited. So, in effect, a persons schema may be inaccurate and they may have
imprecise, partial or idiosyncratic understanding that evolves with various schemas presented.
The process of learning occurs when the learner relates to various attributes of schema
presented and is able to fit what is presented to existing schemas in the brain. For Kant, a
schema stood between, or mediated the external world and internal mental structures; a schema
was seen as a lens that both shaped, and was shaped by experience (McVee, Dunsmore, Gavalek,
2005).
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Implications of Theories for Instruction
organized to provide practical opportunities for enhancing the learners self control of
information processing and their ability to encode and memorize the knowledge through
extensive and variable practice which can improve the learners self control of how they process
information. (Driscoll, 2015). The teacher in effect becomes the learners sensory director in the
instruction process.
Situated Cognition
In the situated learning environment of online adult learners, the teacher is the facilitator,
and evaluator of the community of practice, and engage students in reflective interaction by
providing any assistance necessary for them to succeed. Wenger (1998) notes, education should
terms of rhythms by which communities and individuals continually renew themselves (Driscoll
knowledge by use of advance organizers, control of cognitive load, and schema signals,
comparative organizers, and elaboration. New contexts and examples can aid in making
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connections to link new and old information. Instruction should include thought demanding
Driscoll, M.P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson New International Edition.
Eysenk, M.W. & Keane, M.T. (2010). Cognitive psychology: A students handbook. New York
Psychology Press.
Getha-Eby, T., Beery, T., Xu, Y., & O'Brien, B.,A. (2014). Meaningful learning: Theoretical
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20140820-04
Jordan, A. Carlile, O. & Stack, A. (2008). Approaches to learning: A guide for teachers.
McVee, M. B., Dunsmore, K., &Gavelek, J. R. (2005). Schema theory revisited. Review of
http://search.proquest.com/docview/214117944?accountid=42537
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Oyserman, D. (2011). Culture as situated cognition: Cultural mindsets, cultured fluency, and
doi:10.1080/10463283.2011.627187.
125-146.doi: 10.1521/soco.2013.31.2.125