Running Head: EDID 6501 HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

EDID 6501 Assignment 3

Genevieve Cox

EDID 6501: How Do Learning Theories Influence Instructional Design

Course Coordinator: Professor Ford

University of the West Indies Open Campus

Date December 6, 2015

EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
2
Introduction

Theories of human learning with their relevant positions on the learning process provide

different perspectives for structuring the foundations of instructional design. The theoretical

concepts of behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, developmental learning and instructional

theory all serve as conceptual frameworks for instructional design. Each theoretical perspective

has specific guidelines for interpreting the learning process, and all have implications when they

are translated into practical applications to facilitate unique instructional situations. Ertmer &

Newby (1993) discusses the need for a bridge between basic learning research and educational

practice, and cites Smith & Ragan (1993), stating, that instructional designers have been charged

with translating principles of learning and instruction into specifications for instructional

materials and activities.

The learning theories of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism seek to describe

the phenomena of learning, and according to Snelbecker (1983), individuals addressing

practical learning problems cannot afford the luxury of restricting themselves to only one

theoretical position they are urged to examine each theory to select principles and conceptions

which seem to be of value for particular educational situations. The positions on learning of

behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism all have implications for instruction, as briefly

outlined below.

Behaviorism considers that learning has occurred when changes in observable

performance are observed. In behaviorism the learner is a passive processor of information,

whereas, in cognitivism and constructivism the learner plays an active role in the mental

activity of learning. Cognitivists and behaviorists believe knowledge is mind-independent and

EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
3
can be mapped onto the learner. But for constructivist, the learner does more than just process

information. Constructivists sees the environment and learner as critical factors in creating

meaning from experience (Ertmer & Newby, 1993).Constructivist viewpoints including notable

theorists, and how the theories present evidence of their implications in the design of instruction

is the topic that will be developed in this paper. Bruner (1986) claims that Immanuel Kant, in his

Critique of Pure Reason argued that the human mind is an originator of experienceand the

physical world is known only through sensations, this infers that Kant observed, that reality was

constructed through mental activities.

Perkins (1991) notes that constructivism has its genesis in the emerging philosophical and

psychological viewpoints of the 20th century. Bruners emphasis on culture and interaction,

Piagets cognitive and development perspectives, Dewey and Goodmans philosophical

contributions, and Gibsons ecological psychology, have influenced constructivist thought.

Constructivism, then, is not a single theory of instruction, but evolved from the works of notable

cognitive theorists who raised questions about the validity of the objectivistic assumption that the

goal of instruction was to map the structure of the world onto the learner (Jonassen, 1991b).

Constructivist do not view knowledge as being something outside of the learner to be

transferred onto the learner, but placed the learner at the centre of the learning environment as an

active involved participant in the learning process. Constructivist theorists adopted a classical

approach to explain the phenomena of learning, and viewed knowledge as a function of how

individuals create meaning from experiences. Learning takes place as the learner individually

constructs knowledge and constructivists assert that knowledge construction does not have to

reflect the world, or correspond to external reality to be used by the learner (Driscoll, 2015).
EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
4
We all experience the world differently, and construct our own universe between our

ears to create meaning from experiences. (Jonassen,1991b). Humans learn by interacting with the

real world, and each individual takes away different meanings from their encounters in varied

environments. Knowledge is in a constant state of change, and construction as it is interpreted

and re-interpreted (Bednar et al., 1991). Knowledge gleaned from relevant context is created and

understood from actual experiences, meaningful interpretation and reflections of encounters in

the environment, as opposed to being acquired. Prominent constructivist theorists include J.

Bruner, J. Dewey, J. Piaget, and L. Vygotsky. Major contributors to constructivist thought

include D. Ausubel, D.J.Cunningham, D. Jonassen, D. Perkins, E. von Glaserfeld, and S. Papert.

Major Constructivist theories and theorists

Jerome Bruner, an American psychologist, is considered one of the founding fathers of

constructivism, and like Piaget, was a cognitive constructivist. Bruner (1961) noted that learners

rearrange and transform knowledge to enable going beyond evidence to additional new insights

(Driscoll, 2015). His discovery learning theory is inquiry based and concerned with

manipulating objects in the environment to solve problems by discovering concepts, facts and

relationships. For example, students interact online by exploring questions, ideas and

controversies to make meaning in this course. Bruner defined discovery learning as all forms of

obtaining knowledge for oneself by the use of ones own mind Bruner (1961).

Bruners ideas on the readiness for learning asserted that students could be taught at any

stage of development to build knowledge and elaborate on existing knowledge to attain a level of

understanding, mastery of the subject, and full intellectual development. Bruner posited that

humans structure their understanding of the world through responding to actions, patterned
EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
5
motor acts, language, reason, conventionalized imagery and perception(Bruner,1964). Humans

are able to represent recurrent order in the environment by organizational representation. Bruner

called this systematic representative structuring: enactive representation, iconic representation,

and symbolic representation.

Enactive representation is a way of representing past events through appropriate motor

responses, and is action oriented. This can be illustrated by my present action of typing this

paper. I learned to touch type as a teenager, if I let my fingers control my actions, I automatically

rely on motor skills. Iconic representation enables summarizing of events by selective

organization of percepts and images, and is image oriented. In my minds eye I can see the

arrangement of the keyboard, if I look; I can no longer type automatically. Symbolic

representation enables acquiring a symbol system which represents things by design features

that include remoteness and arbitrariness, and is oriented through codes or symbols such as

language which is flexible, and in which words can be used to build knowledge (Bruner, 1964).

For example, in writing this paper, I am refining my understanding of the theoretical concepts

learned, and words convey connections that actively construct my knowledge and understanding

of the theories. Bruners theory suggests that learners construct their own knowledge by

classification and organization of learning into codes of representation that enables discovery in

the environment.

Bruner (1966) in his theory of instruction emphasized social factors that interacted in

influencing learning, and his theory of constructivism had four main principles. He suggested

that, an adequate theory of instruction must bring together the nature of knowledge, the nature

of the knower, and the nature of the knowledge-getting process. In achieving comprehension in

this course student must display a predisposition to learn by reading all of the course material.
EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
6
The course was structured to enable students to grasp the information presented, visually through

words in the readings, diagrams, symbols, and YouTube videos, presented in sequenced form

allowing for comprehension of concepts and principles.

Bruner suggested that strategies implemented to promote discovery in problem solving

are influenced by the culture in which the problem solving takes place. In this respect,

instructors should foster cognitive strategies that will have the greatest likelihood of solving

particular problems faced by the culture (Bruner, 1961) To aid students in making connections

to apply and relate theories in instructional design, they engage in group activities to foster

cognitive strategies. Bruner was of the view that instruction should be challenging and provide

problems to fit the cognitive structure of the learner and that material presented should be

appropriate to the dominant mode of the learners thinking (Bruner, 1960). Knowledge of the

theories learned each week enabled relating symbolically to concepts in the subject matter, and in

generating connections to the fundamentals of the instructional design process in EDID 6503.

John Dewey considered one of the philosophical founders of constructivist thought was

of the view that students should not be involved in rote and repetitive memorization. He

advocated a directed method of learning to engage students in real world practical workshops in

which they can demonstrate their knowledge through creativity and collaboration. He thought

that students should be afforded opportunities to think for themselves, and that education should

be grounded in real experiences of study and sustained inquiry. Lifecircles Inc.com

Jean Piaget worked in, and contributed to the fields of biology, philosophy, and

psychology and his theories evolved from cognitivist underpinnings, he is viewed as a cognitive

constructivist. Piagets work was concerned with how children come to know the world (Gruber
EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
7
&Voneche, 1995). In his genetic epistemology theory, he suggested that knowledge is not out

there, external to the child, waiting to be discovered, nor was the knowledge process performed

within the child, ready to emerge as the child developed, but was rather invented and reinvented

as the child developed and interacted within the surrounding world (Driscoll, 2015). Piaget

viewed childrens activity of acquiring knowledge in the environment as taking place through

goal directed schemes that evolved as the child attained different stages of logical development

(Leahey & Harris,1997), and he viewed the processes of assimilation, accommodation, and

equilibration to be of critical importance in childrens development processes.

In Piagets view, children transitioned through four stages: the sensorimotor,

preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages, and acquired three types of

knowledge. (1) physical knowledge or knowledge about objects in the world is gained through

perceptual properties relating to how operations on, and in, the environment are experienced. For

example, children connect and relate schemes internally to produce rudimentary knowledge of

their explorations in the environment. (2) Logical-mathematical knowledge is abstract and

invented through thought processes for recognizing comparisons and differences, as when

children fit shapes into appropriate slots. (3) Social knowledge is culture specific and is learned

from interactions with other people within the childs cultural group. Piaget believed that

cognitive abilities were acquired through assimilation by making association with new

information to information already known, and accommodation, where current knowledge is

inadequate to solve a problem, the knowledge structure is changed to make sense of new

incoming information, enabling enhanced problem solving abilities and skills (Driscoll, 2015).

Lev Vygotskys work, like many other thinkers and theorists of his time focused on

understanding how intellect was formed. His studies included law, literature, philosophy and
EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
8
psychology. His work formed a foundation for constructivist theories, and he is viewed as a

social constructivist. Like Bruner, he believed that individual development could not be

understood without referring to the cultural and social context in which the development is

embedded. (Tudge& Rogoff, 1989). However, unlike Bruner or, Piaget who focused on stages of

development, Vygotsky suggested that development is a complex process that cannot be defined

in any of its stagesthat its very nature changes as it unfolds (Vygotsky, 1978). He believed

language and thought were woven in a complex relationship in which thought and speech were

intricately interdependent in the childs development. Vygotskys views about development in

children were similar to Piagets, but, his work focused more on the social aspects of learning,

and differs from the concept of discovery learning put forward by Piaget, or Bruners discovery

learning theory. Vygotsky suggested that play is important for learning and development in

children (Vygotsky, 1962).

Vygotsky (1978) put forward evidence in his mediational view of development to explain

the transformation from child to adult, and the acquisition of knowledge and higher mental

processes. He examined how ability or skills were gained and stated that development does not

proceed towards socializationit is the conversion of social relations into mental functions

(Vygotsky, 1981). (Cole & Scribner, 1978) noted that by mediation, Vygotsky meant that in

higher forms of human behavior, the individual actively modifies the stimulus situation as part of

the process of responding to it. He believed that higher order mental functions were socially

developed externally to create meaning before the meanings were internalized. (Vygotsky, 1981).

He referred to functions in the developmental process that were in the embryonic state, and

would later develop in the child, and referred to this latent gap as the zone of proximal
EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
9
development (Vygotsky, 1978). Adult learners may also be in the zone of proximal development,

and are aided by more knowledgeable individuals to attain their learning potential.

A child or adult in the zone of proximal development is not able to engage in problem

solving at a level above their actual development. However, under the guidance of capable peers

or knowledgeable adults in the subject matter, when tasks are assigned that goes beyond current

capabilities, they can be performed if scaffolding is provided to bridge the knowledge gap. The

potential for development is aided by interaction with capable others. (Vygotsky, 1978).

Vygotsky (1962) noted that the only good kind of instruction is that which marches ahead of

development and leads it. He also stated that the only good learning is that which is in

advance of development (Vygotsky, 1978). It can be seen that Vygotsky differentiated between

learning and development, but saw them as being linked to each other. This presents instructional

implications for the learner. The learner is seen as actively processing, elaborating upon and

interpreting information (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991). Guidance allows learners to bridge the gap

between current skills and expected desired skills as was demonstrated by the linking of theories

to comprehend tasks in EDID 6501 and EDID 6503 respectivelty. Scaffolding through gaining

knowledge of learning theories enabled students to become more proficient in relating theoretical

knowledge to instructional design concepts and processes. New knowledge aided in completing

assigned tasks as insights were gleaned from the units of instruction presented online, and

working with respective knowledgeable peers under the direction of the instructor.

Major Contributors to Constructivist Thought

David Ausubel was an American psychologist whose meaningful verbal learning theory

viewed meaning as being created from some form of representation through the processes of
EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
10
reception and discovery. He believed that the external world acquired meaning only when it was

consciously converted by the perception of the learner. Ausubels subsumption theory viewed

new learning as having a relationship to what was already known. Ausubels advance organizer

can be used to help students integrate prior knowledge with new information to promote

meaningful learning. For example, a teacher can introduce a subject matter by providing students

with pictures, exploration of vocabulary and concept maps to help them to later link concepts

with new ideas and content learned to their existing concepts, prior learning or schema.

Cunningham (1988) used Ecos rhizome metaphor to explain the generative nature of

learning. He presumed that neither knowledge nor the ways in which we use to describe it are

stable, and suggests that the rhizome concept alerts us to the constructed nature of our

environmental understanding, and the possibilities of different meaning, different truths, and

different worlds. Eco (1984) notes that if the rhizome has limitless possibilities and is

indescribable at the global level, then cognition at the local level is considered as transitory

systems of knowledge. Slices of the rhizomes reveal a persons knowledge at that time in the

context, with no assumption of invariability over time or across contexts. (Bereiter, 1991). For

example, in this course, students were presented with tasks to research, and elaborated on

specific theories interacting in a group. Learning was largely student centric and each student

constructed meaning to form relationships from theoretical concepts and insights to explain how

we come to know. von Glaserfeld, a radical constructivist, saw the importance of the social

interaction process in creating meaning in the subjective construction of knowing. In addition,

Perkins noted that unlike an information processor taking in and storing information, learners

make tentative interpretations of experience and elaborate on their interpretations (Perkins,

EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
11
1992). At various points in time, students understanding of the subject matter was limited and

later branched into many directions as they attained intellectual development.

Jonassen (1999) in Carr-Chellman notes that knowledge is individually and socially

constructed by learners based on interpretations of experiences in the world. Jonassen (1994)

proposed eight characteristics that are applicable to constructivist learning environments to

promote learning. The characteristics include providing multiple representations of reality to

represent the complexity of the real world emphasizing knowledge construction, instead of

reproduction. Authentic tasks in a meaningful context, such as case based learning and not

abstract instruction that is out of context, or a predetermined sequencing of instruction. Students

grow with reflection on the learning experience. Collaborative knowledge construction through

social negotiation is done in an environment where context and content knowledge construction

takes place among learners who do not compete with each other and students should recognize

individual effort and contribution to group work. Seymour Papert, a visionary, and one of the

foremost experts on how technology provides innovative ways for people to learn, conducted

research in how computers can enhance creativity in learning in authentic situations. He

predicted that the availability of microcomputation offered the potential for radically different

learning environments to be created and adopted throughout schools" (Papert, 1980).

Implications for Instruction

The task of the instructional designer lies in developing methods for constructing a bridge

in translating principles to identify the theoretical position of the practitioner, and understanding

the learners needs. The practitioners position in terms of contextual constraints, conditions,

and situations in applying the instruction will inform what strategies, tactics, and techniques will
EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
12
be integrated to suit specific learner needs, (Keller, 1979).Warries (1990) suggests that

instruction based on strong research is much more reliable than one based on instructional

phenomena.The preceding paragraphs outlined the theoretical foundations of constructivist

thought on how we come to know. Knowledge in and of itself is not abstract, but is linked to the

experiences participants bring to the context of what is being studied, investigated, or observed.

In the coursework done in this semester, students constructed their own understanding of

the subject matter, and validated through social interaction and negotiation the perspectives

gleaned from readings from many sources (Ertmer& Newby, 1993). For example, students were

coached in a cognitive apprenticeship with instructors and completed instructional design tasks

relating to their work situations, and applicable in the real world environment. Students

collaborated with group members to research multiple perspectives of theoretical building blocks

to develop and share alternative viewpoints on learning theories in the community of practice.

Students were evaluated and monitored in an online apprenticeship experience of social

negotiation, and were required to reflect on how their learning experience was guided in the

knowledge construction process. Students elaborated upon and interpreted the information

given to create their own meaning. (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991). They were encouraged to chose

positions to which to commit themselves, while realizing the basis of other views with which

they may disagree (Cunningham, 1991), as they functioned in their zones of proximal

development in the situated online community of learners.

The constructivist student actively learns in all environments where they experience

learning situations to which theoretical knowledge gained can be applied and related. In this

respect, learning should be anchored in meaningful contexts where the student controls and
EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
13
manipulates the information by actively using it in different conceptual perspectives. This

enables students to use problem solving, and critical skills allowing them to reach beyond their

zone of proximal development. This encourages developing and recognizing patterns to aid in

honing their skills in presenting and representing problems in varied ways while creating

knowledge. Constructivist learning opportunities engages learners in novel problems and

situations that build upon the initial instruction but is different from it.Assessments focus on

transferring knowledge and skills in order for students to reframe their concepts and expand their

horizons to move from being novices to budding experts (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). These

were my experiences as a constructivist learner this past semester.

Constructivist instruction promotes critical thinking, reasoning in students and involves

them in inquiry, cultural, social, and problem solving activities. Students gain knowledge and use

their understanding in relevant learning situations of self awareness in which goal based and

problem based learning are featured. Collaborative learning and problem scaffolding provide

opportunities for connecting and constructing knowledge. Moreover the use of microworlds and

hypermedia designs in addition to open software and course management tools provide methods

of instruction that fosters ways and means of knowing that would not be possible without

technology (Driscoll, 2015).

Learning theories have a profound influence on how instruction should be designed and

structured in creating models for instruction. Depending on the objectives and outcomes

expected, the instructional designer incorporates principles and practices of relevant theory

outcomes to achieve desired results. The constructivist designer would integrate human

experiences, cultural practices, and social experience to engage learners in meaningful learning.
EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
14
References

Bednar, A.K., Cunningham., Duffy, T.M., & Perry, J. D. (1991). In Ertmer, P.A. &

Newby, T.J. In Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features

from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement

Quarterly, 6(4)

Bruner, J. S. (1960). In Driscoll, M.P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson

New International Edition.

Bruner, J. S. (1961). In Driscoll, M. P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson

New International Edition.

Bruner, J. S. (1964). In Driscoll, M. P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson

New International Edition.

Bruner, J. S. (1966). In Driscoll, M. P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson

New International Edition.

Bruner, J. S. (1986).In Jenkins, J.M. Constructivism. n.d. http://lecforum.org/publications/

constructivism.htm

Cole, M. & Scribner, S. (1978). In Driscoll, M.P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction

Pearson New International Edition.

Eco, U. (1984). In Driscoll, M. P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson

EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
15
New International Edition.

Ertmer, P.A., & Newby T.J. (1993). . In Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing

critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement

Quarterly, 6(4)

Gruber, H. E. & Voneche, J. J. (1995). Driscoll, M. P. (2015). Psychology of learning for

instruction. Pearson new International Edition.

Jenkins, J.M. Constructivism. n.d. http://lecforum.org/publications/constructivism.htm

Jonassen, D.H. (1991b). In Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993). In Behaviorism, cognitivism,

constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective

Jonassen, D.H. (2008). In Driscoll, M. P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson

new International Edition.

Keller, J.M. (1979). In Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993).In Behaviorism, cognitivism,

constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective

Leahey, T.H., & Harris, R. J. (1997). In Driscoll, M. P. (2015). Psychology of learning for

instruction. Pearson new International Edition.

Papert, S. (1980). In Driscoll, M. P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson

new International Edition.

Perkins, D.N. (1991). In Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993).In Behaviorism, cognitivism,
EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
16
constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective

Smith, P.L. & Ragan, T.J. (1993). In Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993).In Behaviorism,

cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design

perspective

Snelbecker, G.E. (1983). In Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993).In Behaviorism, cognitivism,

constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective

Tudge, J., & Rogoff, B. (1989) In Driscoll, M. P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction.

Pearson new International Edition.

Vygotsky, L. (1962). In Driscoll, M. P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson

new International Edition.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). In Driscoll, M. P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson

new International Edition.

Vygotsky, L. (1981). In Driscoll, M. P. (2015). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson

new International Edition.

Warries, E. (1990). ). In Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993).In Behaviorism, cognitivism,

constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective

http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/construct.html

http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/constructivism/constructivism.html
EDID 6501: HOW DO LEARNING THEORIES INFLUENCE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
17