Applications of Green Chemistry through Heating Bicarbonate Samples

Joshua Ameye and Jack Koshko

Macomb Mathematics Science Technology Center

AP Chemistry

12

Mrs. Hilliard, Mr. Supal, Mr. Tallman

19 December 2016
 Ameye Koshko 1

Applications of Green Chemistry through Heating Bicarbonate Samples

The purpose of this experiment is to see the effects that green chemistry principles

have on an industrial environment when applied in chemical reactions. This research

explores these principles used as methods to reduce the amount of harmful waste

produced in industrial chemical reactions.

The goal of this experiment was to heat bicarbonate samples until its mass

remained constant to see that byproduct from the chemical reaction was released into the

environment. In order to test this, potassium and sodium bicarbonate samples were

heated, massed out to two grams, added to a crucible and cover, weighed, and then placed

in the testing environment. The sample was heated and cooled for eight minutes. The

crucible, cover, and sample were then weighed and recorded in a data table. This process

was done twice for each trial. The setup allows for the carbon dioxide and water vapor to

escape during the heating process. Ten trials for each sample were conducted and the

averages were then calculated. The average mass lost after the first heating for potassium

bicarbonate was 0.6193 grams and for sodium bicarbonate was 0.73961 grams. The

average mass lost after the second heating for potassium bicarbonate was 0.00346 grams

and for sodium bicarbonate was 0.00065 grams. On average the sodium bicarbonate lost

about 16.27 percent more mass than the potassium bicarbonate.

This research can help the global community because it involves many green

chemistry concepts that are needed in todays advanced world. Green chemistry impacts

many people on a daily basis whether that is in the pharmaceutical industry, the

environment, or in regular household items, it is important to reduce the harmful waste

produced from chemical reactions.

 Ameye Koshko 2

Table of Contents

Introduction..........................................................................................................................1

Review of Literature............................................................................................................4

Problem Statement.............................................................................................................13

Experimental Design..........................................................................................................14

Data and Observations.......................................................................................................17

Data Analysis and Interpretation........................................................................................23

Conclusion.........................................................................................................................33

Appendix A........................................................................................................................39

Acknowledgements............................................................................................................41

Works Cited........................................................................................................................42
 Ameye Koshko 3

Introduction

This research project was conducted as a way to use green chemistry to replicate

the effects of specific principles when used in an industrial setting. Green chemistry is a

subgroup of chemistry that focuses on controlling or altering chemical reactions until

they no longer produce large amounts of toxic waste. This field of chemistry follows

twelve major principles; prevention, atom economy, less hazardous chemical syntheses,

designing safer chemicals, safer solvents and auxiliaries, design for energy efficiency, use

of renewable feedstocks, reduce derivatives, catalysis, design for degradation, real-time

analysis for pollution prevention, and inherently safer chemistry for accident prevention.

These principles when accurately applied to chemical reactions can successfully reduce

the cost and quantity of toxic waste produced.

Since the introduction of the modern field of chemistry by the Oxford Chemists:

Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke, and John Mayow, chemistry has evolved into a complex

and intricate part of society. For decades chemical reactions have been used to produce

materials needed for various purposes and applications. Some industries that use

chemical reactions include the pharmaceutical industry in drug production, health care

such as blood analyses and medical tests, the development of cutting edge materials, or

even creating effective fertilizers ("The Essential Chemical Industry"). Though chemical

reactions are used in an endless number of industries these are just a few of the industries

centered around harnessing them. One of the most significant industries today, the

pharmaceutical industry, is responsible for creating safe and effective drugs for public

consumption. The responsibility of producing medicine takes precedence over waste

 Ameye Koshko 4

prevention. Although safety and effectiveness are important when creating

pharmaceutical drugs, environmental protection should also be a point of emphasis.

The researchers purpose was to highlight the significance of green chemistry on

the amount of waste produced in a chemical reaction. With more awareness of the effects

of green chemistry principles on chemical reactions the amount of toxic waste produced

can significantly decrease. A decrease in the amount of waste would then cause the cost

to properly dispose of such waste to significantly decrease as well. In order to represent

the effect of the principles on the amount of waste produced from a chemical reaction an

experiment designed to use various green chemistry principles was conducted. The

principles that were used include prevention, less hazardous chemical syntheses,

designing safer chemicals, use of renewable feedstocks, design for degradation, real-time

analysis for pollution prevention, and inherently safer chemistry for accident prevention.

To reach their goal of using specific green chemistry principles in a chemical

reaction to determine their effects in an industrial setting, the researchers conducted an

experiment that involved heating two different bicarbonate samples in crucibles. Masses

were recorded with the crucible because keeping the sample in the same container would

cause the chances of contamination or loss of some of the product to significantly

decrease. By measuring the masses of the crucibles with the samples before and after

heating the researchers were able to collect the data needed to calculate the percent

yields. The percent yields were calculated for the amount of mass lost after the first

heating and the descriptive statistics to further analyze the data collected from the trials.

This allows the researchers to determine if the results of the experiment are valid and

accurate. With the results of the experiment and the incorporation of green chemistry
 Ameye Koshko 5

principles the researchers can determine how the principles affect chemical reactions in

industries known to produce excess amounts of toxic waste.

On average in the pharmaceutical industry there is about 200 kg of waste

produced per metric ton of active ingredient produced through manufacturing ("A

Pharmaceutical Hazard"). This waste contains solvents and toxic chemicals in significant

concentrations that often require a specialized method of treatment before disposal. When

green chemistry principles are applied in this industry the amount of waste can be

significantly reduced. Pharmaceutical industries have a main focus on the production of

medicine and have not made an effort to reduce waste production with the use of green

chemistry principles. Instead of focusing on how to dispose of the waste produced from a

chemical reaction, applying green chemistry principles before the reaction takes place can

both reduce the amount of waste produced as well as the cost to properly dispose of the

potentially toxic waste.

 Ameye Koshko 6

Review of Literature

In the world today, pollution causes many problems such as global warming,

human illness, and destruction of the environment. Pollution occurs when pollutants

(waste materials) contaminate the natural surroundings. Pollution can also occur in many

different forms, such as air, water, soil, radioactive, noise, heat, and light. Air pollution is

one of the most dangerous types of pollution and is a constant problem to the

environment ("Pollution: Causes and Effects). When hazardous gases such as sulfur

dioxide, carbon dioxide, and others are released into the environment, the air becomes

toxic. Smoke from fires, factories, and cars can all contribute in helping to contaminate

the environment. This can cause global warming and acid rain. These problems harm the

environment by causing increased temperatures, erratic rains, and worldwide droughts.

Due to these harsh conditions, humans and animals can experience an increase in health

problems such as asthma and lung cancer making it harder to survive (Pollution: Causes

and Effects). Chemical reactions can also cause gases and dangerous waste material to

be released into the air and the environment. One way to try to limit the pollution from

chemical reactions is by using green chemistry. For example, paint releases many toxic

chemicals as it dries. Using green chemistry, the companies Procter & Gamble and Cook

Composites and Polymers teamed up and reduced these toxic chemicals by about 50%

from a formula of soya oil and sugar mixture ("Interesting and Innovative Examples of

Green Chemistry"). This is an example of green chemistry because they made a new

formula in order to reduce the chemical byproducts being produced by the paint.
 Ameye Koshko 7

Green chemistry is a branch of chemistry that works to develop chemical products

and processes that reduce or eliminate the amount of hazardous substances produced

from a chemical reaction. The green chemistry approach uses twelve principles in order

to evaluate the production and use of chemical products so the production of hazardous

substances can be eliminated or reduced. These principles include prevention, less

hazardous chemical synthesis, designing safer chemicals, design for energy efficiency,

use of renewable feedstocks, design for degradation, real-time analysis for pollution

prevention, and inherently safer chemistry for accident prevention (The Twelve

Principles of Green Chemistry"). The research experiment was designed to incorporate

these principles in order to show their effects on chemical reactions and their practical

use in an industrial setting.

When conducting chemical reactions, the types of byproducts, as well as the

quantity they are produced in, of many of the reactions are not safe for the environment

as well as the people and animals that live in them. Many byproducts of chemical

reactions require special treatment in order to correctly dispose of them, which can be

costly. In the United States alone, waste is a 57-billion-dollar industry ("World's Worst

Waste."). Instead of enacting these chemical reactions that result in harmful compounds,

it is much better to prevent the chemical reaction in the first place. By preventing the

chemical reaction to occur or even applying green chemistry principles , waste products

will not be synthesized and special disposal methods will not have to be used.

Chemical synthesis often produces hazardous byproducts which pose threats to

health and safety. This threat results from the production of chemicals that are toxic either

when ingested or when they come into contact with the skin. For instance, chlordane, a
 Ameye Koshko 8

pesticide used from 1948 to 1988 ("PESTICIDE WASTE VERSUS HAZARDOUS

WASTE."), was used on agricultural crops until it was found to cause cancers, provided

evidence of human exposure and buildup of body fat, and is a danger to the environment.

Chlordane, also referred to as Octachlor and Velsicol 1068, is a mixture of about 10

related chemicals.

Figure 1. Chlordane

Figure 1 shows the chemical structure of chlordane ("Chlordane."), a human made

pesticide used from 1948 to 1988. Chlordane is made up of 10 different components.

Chlordane is a thick liquid with a color that ranges from colorless to amber, based on the

purity of the compound. It can have no smell or a mild, irritating smell ("Toxic

Substances Portal - Chlordane.").

These components include trans-chlordane, cis-chlordane, beta-chlordene,

heptachlor, and trans-nonachlor ("PESTICIDE WASTE VERSUS HAZARDOUS

WASTE."). The design of the synthesis processes that produce such harmful byproducts

should be designed to produce substances that are not or have very little toxicity. Using

these design methods, such as designing safer chemicals and less hazardous chemical

synthesis, as well as knowledge of the reactants being used in a chemical reaction, will
 Ameye Koshko 9

then produce byproducts less harmful to human health and make the chemical reactions

much safer.

With the increase in the use of synthetic chemical products, the need for safer

designed chemicals is paramount. Many chemicals are designed based on the function

they will be serving and many can have negative impacts on human health when either in

contact with the skin or when ingested. This creates a major problem in not only

determining the effect of these chemical compounds, but also how to produce them

without the negative effects on health and safety. Researchers at Carnegie Mellon have

developed a Green catalyst that eliminates toxic residue. This catalyst is called Tetra-

amido macrocyclic ligand activators or Fe-TAML and it works with oxygen and

hydrogen peroxide to eliminate toxic compounds ("Chemists Develop "Green" Catalysts

To Eliminate Toxic Residue."). The production of chemical products should be designed

in a way that they are fully effective while minimizing or eliminating their toxicity.

A focus of green chemistry as well as in everyday production of materials is to

use renewable feedstocks. A feedstock can be defined as any renewable, biological

material that can be used directly as a fuel, or converted to another form of fuel or energy

product (Biomass Feedstocks). Due to the fact that these raw materials are renewable,

chemical processes used to form specific substances to be further used in other chemical

reactions are not always necessary. This means that less byproducts are produced in

creating compounds needed for chemical reactions that would create further waste.

Chemical reactions designed to degrade is another important principle of green

chemistry. Once they have been used and are no longer needed, chemical products should

be designed to break down into degradable substances so that they do not harm the
 Ameye Koshko 10

environment. In order to help keep the environment cleaner, scientists are developing

ways to fix this problem by molecularly redesigning these chemical products so that they

break down into environmental friendly substances. Bicarbonate compounds, though they

do not completely break down, degrade into water vapor, carbon dioxide gas, and a

carbonate compound. This causes a significant drop in the amount of carbonate

compound left over as the gases get released out of the system.

The last relevant principle of green chemistry to this experiment involves real-

time analysis for pollution prevention. This means that when a chemical reaction occurs,

it is important to monitor it to determine when the reaction is complete and to make sure

there are no unwanted byproducts. In order to minimize hazardous products and

unwanted byproducts, analytical methods should be used to allow for real time

monitoring. Analysis tests can detect many problems such as the changes in process

temperature or pH prior to a reaction going out of control, determining the poisoning of

catalysts, and other series of events before a major incident occurs ("Green Chemistry

Principle #11). During the heating of the bicarbonate compounds the samples break

down into water vapor, carbon dioxide gas, and a carbonate byproduct. Having a

carefully monitored environment can lead to the reaction to be completed to its maximum

potential. This means that there will not be as much waste resulting from the reaction.

When creating chemical reactions, the substances as well as the phases of those

substances need to be chosen carefully in order to prevent or minimize the potential for

chemical accidents, including releases, explosions and fires. With inherently safer

chemistry the amount and probability of accidents will decrease. This prevention will also
 Ameye Koshko 11

lead to more precise chemical reactions and a decrease in the amount of waste produced

from the reaction.

Using all twelve of the principles that define green chemistry, the amount of

byproducts produced in chemical reactions can be significantly minimized if not

eliminated. Through the use of carbonate and bicarbonate compounds as well as the

twelve principles of green chemistry, the percent yields can be found to determine the

effectiveness of applying these principles in an experiment that results in a carbonate

compound and carbon dioxide gas.

Carbonate (CO3) and bicarbonate (HCO3) compounds are known as weak bases.

When they are paired with most elements to form compounds they are incapable of

ionizing completely in solution or water (H2O). Bases are compounds of hydroxide ions

(OH-) that neutralize an acid. A weak base is a compound that only ionizes partially

leaving some of the molecules intact. This means that some of the molecules of the

compound will ionize or split apart into ions in solution while some of the molecules do

not. However, some notable exceptions include potassium carbonate/bicarbonate and

sodium carbonate/bicarbonate, which are both capable of ionizing and highly soluble in

water. The fact that these compounds are soluble make them great compounds to use in

chemical reactions.

Carbonic acid (H2CO3) forms when aqueous carbon dioxide (CO2) reacts with

water. Through the loss of protons carbonic acid becomes bicarbonate (HCO3) and then

carbonate (CO3). This loss of protons occurs through equilibrium equations which result

in the removal of a hydrogen (H+) atom.

 Ameye Koshko 12

Figure 2. Carbonic Acid Reaction

Figure 2 shows how a hydrogen atom or proton being removed from carbonic

acid undergoes a chemical reaction and forms a bicarbonate anion and free hydrogen

("CHEMISTRY OF CARBONATES & BICARBONATES"). It then shows a hydrogen

atom or proton being removed from the bicarbonate anion and forming a carbonate anion.

Sodium carbonate (NaHCO3) results from the chemical reaction between sodium

hydroxide (NaOH) and carbon dioxide gas.

Figure 3. Sodium Carbonate and Sodium Bicarbonate Reactions

Figure 3 shows the chemical formulas for the reactions that result in sodium

carbonate and sodium bicarbonate. The only difference between sodium carbonate and

sodium bicarbonate is that sodium bicarbonate requires water vapor to be present in order

to form ("Bicarbonate and Carbonate").

 Ameye Koshko 13

When sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is heated, it reacts to become sodium oxide

(Na2O) and carbon dioxide gas ("Table of Acid and Base Strength"). This reaction is

similar to what happens to potassium carbonate (K2CO3) and the bicarbonate compounds

of potassium and sodium. At the end of this reaction the amount of product measures out

to be less than the amount of the reactants. Carbonates and bicarbonates are very stable in

compounds. This causes the compounds to decompose and release carbon dioxide gas

and water vapor at high temperatures rather than melt. The release of carbon dioxide gas

and water vapor as well as the decomposition of the compound itself directly causes the

decrease in the amount of the product produced after the reactants are heated.

The field of chemistry expands so much farther than just chemical reactions. It

can be used to indicate substance concentrations in blood, it can identify, as well as, treat

illnesses, decrease the amount of waste produced by industries, and even create cutting

edge medications for pharmacies. By heating bicarbonate samples and understanding

how green chemistry principles when applied can decrease the amount of waste from the

reaction industries can mend chemical processes that lead to significant waste production

and large disposal fees for potentially toxic waste.

Previous research shows that experiments can be conducted to demonstrate the

reutilization of a product, synthesis using a nonhazardous solvent, elimination of

deleterious by-products, and use of a recyclable catalyst. In the research conducted by

Reed and Hutchison, they mixed two chemical compounds, heated it, observed the

reaction, and let it cool. They calculated the percent yields of the sample after it had

recrystallized. They used multiple principles of green chemistry and were able to reduce

the waste that was normally formed from this experiment. This research added the
 Ameye Koshko 14

chemical compounds of sodium tungstate dihydrate, Aliquat 336, 30% hydrogen

peroxide, and KHSO4 to a 50-mL round-bottom flask fitted with a water condenser and a

stir bar ("Green Chemistry in the Organic Teaching Laboratory). This is different

compared to the research we are conducting because in our experiment, sodium carbonate

and potassium carbonate were not mixed.

Through the application of the twelve principles of green chemistry, scientific

experiments can be designed to be more environmentally friendly and produce smaller

amounts of byproducts harmful to health and safety. The research conducted in this

experiment was to figure out the percent yield of byproduct produced in an experiment

through the use of green chemistry principles. Knowing the percent yield allows the

researchers to know the difference in mass before and after the carbonate compounds are

heated. This knowledge as well as the application of the twelve principles of green

chemistry can lead to developments for industries and manufacturers for chemical

reactions that produce harmful waste. With further research in green chemistry in the

future chemical byproducts harmful to health and safety may no longer be a problem.
 Ameye Koshko 15

Problem Statement

Problem:

To determine the effectiveness of green chemistry principles on industrial

chemical reactions through heating bicarbonate samples.

Hypothesis:

The mass of potassium bicarbonate and sodium bicarbonate will decrease

significantly when they are subjected to green chemistry principles at high temperatures.

Data Measured:

In this experiment the independent variables were the sodium bicarbonate,

NaHCO3, and potassium bicarbonate, KHCO3, samples (grams). The constants of the

experiment are the amount of bicarbonate sample used, the amount of time (minutes) the

bicarbonate sample was heated and cooled for, and the number of times the bicarbonate

sample was heated and cooled. Twenty randomized trials were conducted throughout the

period of a week. From there, the percent yields of each trial was calculated. Descriptive

statistics were then used to further determine the final conclusions. The averages of the

mass lost after the first and second heatings was calculated for both samples as well as

dot plots to compare the values of all the data.

 Ameye Koshko 16

Experimental Design

Materials:
20 g solid potassium bicarbonate(KHCO3)
20 g solid sodium bicarbonate(NaHCO3)
Analytical scale, 0.001 g precision
Crucible tongs
Striker
Timer
(2) Weigh boats
(2) Crucibles and covers
(2) Ring clamps
(2) Ring stands
(2) Clay triangles
(2) Bunsen burners
(2) Scoopulas

Procedure:
***Note: All masses of the samples measured and recorded during the experiment should
be found to the nearest hundredth of a gram.

1. Setup the testing environment for the experiment (Appendix A).

2. Use an analytical scale to record the mass of the crucible and crucible cover.

3. Weigh out two grams of the bicarbonate samples on the analytical scale and add it to
the crucible. Record the mass of the sample, crucible, and crucible cover.

4. Place the crucible in the clay triangle on the ring stand at an angle and cover the
crucible loosely. Turn on the gas and ignite the Bunsen burner with the striker. Heat
the crucible until it is red hot (approximately eight minutes). While heating, move the
Bunsen burner back and forth under the sample in order to heat the sample evenly.

5. After eight minutes of heating is complete, turn off the Bunsen burner and the gas
source. Remove the burner from underneath the crucible.

6. Remove the crucible cover with tongs and place it aside. Then take the tongs and
gently remove the crucible. Allow the crucible and crucible cover to cool completely.
This should take about eight minutes.

7. Using the analytical scale measure and record the mass of the crucible, crucible cover,
and carbonate product.

8. Repeat steps 4-7 until the mass measured after the heating and cooling process
remains constant.
 Ameye Koshko 17

9. Record the final, constant mass of the crucible, crucible cover, and carbonate product.

10. Dispose of the crucible contents according to instructor and safety guidelines.
Carefully clean the crucible and cover.

11. Calculate the percent yield for the carbonate product.

12. Repeat the procedure (steps 2-11) again using the other bicarbonate sample.

Diagram:

Figure 4. Setup

Figure 4 shows the materials needed to perform the experiment. It displays a

crucible, crucible cover, crucible tongs, a striker, clay triangle, scoopula, weigh boat,

Bunsen burner, ring stand, ring clamp, sodium bicarbonate, and potassium bicarbonate.

The experiment required two of all items except the striker, crucible tongs, potassium

bicarbonate, and sodium bicarbonate in order to perform to trials at the same time. Not

pictured above is the analytical scale used to measure the mass of the crucible, crucible

cover, and the bicarbonate sample being used in each trial. Also not pictured above is the
 Ameye Koshko 18

timer used to keep track of how long each sample was heated and how long it was then

cooled for.
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Data and Observations

Sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate samples were heated in crucibles

for the trials. During each trial, the samples were heated for eight minutes and then

cooled for eight minutes. The crucible covers were placed back onto the crucibles and the

samples were then weighed on an analytical scale. After the sample was weighed it was

reheated for another eight more minutes and then cooled for eight minutes. Again after

the samples cooled the crucible cover was placed back onto the crucible which was then

weighed. The heating and cooling time remained constant throughout the entire

experiment.

Table 1
Mass Lost During Potassium Bicarbonate Trials
Trial Crucible and Sample Mass Total Mass Total Mass After Total Mass After
Cover Mass (g) Before Heating First Heating Second Heating
(g) (g) (g) (g)

1 43.8254 2.0110 45.8296 45.2429 45.2385

2 43.8601 2.0080 45.8677 45.2484 45.2450

3 43.8578 2.0083 45.8615 45.2419 45.2403

4 43.8537 2.0053 45.8584 45.2404 45.2394

5 43.8567 2.0012 45.8584 45.2394 45.2328

6 41.4418 2.0103 43.4514 42.8240 42.8214

7 43.8596 2.0005 45.8608 45.2366 45.2361

8 41.4434 2.0036 43.4472 42.8236 42.8191

9 41.4419 2.0060 43.4476 42.8210 42.8204

10 43.8641 2.0077 45.8684 45.2474 45.2380

 Ameye Koshko 20

Table 1 shows the data collected for all the trials conducted for potassium

bicarbonate samples. It gives the trial number along with the crucible and cover mass,

sample mass, total mass before heating, total mass after first heating, and total mass after

second heating. In all trials the total mass after the second heating had very little

difference compared to the total mass after the first heating, which allowed the

researchers to end each trial after the second heating due to the consistency of the date.

Table 2
Potassium Bicarbonate Trial Observations
Trial Observations

1 After the sample was heated and removed from the clay triangle the researchers
10/31 noticed that the sample, which normally is a powder, was beginning to make
chunks of the sample. heated and cooled for 8 again

2 The crucible while being heated slightly shifted out of its tilted position in the
10/31 clay triangle. This is not believed to have an effect on the results of the trial.
Also, the sample began to form chunks throughout the experiment.

3 The crucible stayed in position and like the other trials began to form chunks of
11/1 the sample. Nothing happened to the crucible or the bicarbonate sample to
affect the results of the trial.

4 The flame of the bunsen burner flickered during a period of about 30 seconds.
11/1 This did not have any effect on the heating of the sample. To accommodate for
the flickering, the bunsen burner was shifted to various positions below the
crucible.

5 The flame of the bunsen burner flickered for approximately 30 seconds during
11/3 the first heating of the bicarbonate sample. The bunsen burner was shifted
around beneath the crucible to account for this. This issue did not affect the
results of the trial.

6 A new crucible and crucible cover was used to make the time of the trials more
11/3 efficient. This will have no effect on the results of the trial.

7 The bicarbonate sample was sticking to the sides. This was most likely due to
11/3 placing the crucible on the already hot clay triangle to start trial 8 as trial 7 was
cooling off.

Trial Observations
 Ameye Koshko 21

8 The trial went smoothly. Nothing happened to invalidate the results of the trial.
11/3 Again the heat caused the sample to clump together from the original powder
sample used.

9 Trial went smoothly and nothing happened that would cause the data collected
11/4 to be invalid.

10 The crucible was slightly slanted to the side which was very different than the
11/4 other trials conducted.

Table 2 shows the observations made throughout the experiment for the potassium

bicarbonate samples. It also shows the trial number and date the trial was recorded.

Table 3
Mass Lost During Sodium Bicarbonate Trials
Trial Crucible and Sample Mass Total Mass Total Mass After Total Mass After
Cover Mass (g) Before Heating First Heating Second Heating
(g) (g) (g) (g)

1 41.5914 2.0492 43.6397 42.9088 42.9085

2 41.6168 2.0119 43.6287 42.8846 42.8840

3 41.6171 2.0009 43.6177 42.8777 42.8770

4 41.6155 2.0017 43.6161 42.8778 42.8767

5 41.6174 2.0183 43.6350 42.8906 42.8898

6 41.6153 2.0046 43.6194 42.8814 42.8809

7 41.6168 2.0071 43.6237 42.8849 42.8843

8 41.6190 2.0029 43.6199 42.8802 42.8792

9 41.6171 2.0005 43.6196 42.8821 42.8818

10 41.6187 2.0142 43.6324 42.8891 42.8885

Table 3 shows the data collected for all the trials conducted for sodium

bicarbonate samples. It gives the trial number along with the crucible and cover mass,

sample mass, total mass before heating, total mass after first heating, and total mass after
 Ameye Koshko 22

second heating. In all trials the total mass after the second heating had very little

difference compared to the total mass after the first heating, which allowed the

researchers to end each trial after the second heating due to the consistency of the date.

Table 4
Sodium Bicarbonate Trial Observations
Trial Observations

1 During the first heating a small circular chunk formed in the center of the
10/31 crucible.

2 Two small chunks formed after the first heating, then they broke down back
10/31 into powder after the second heating.

3 During the first heating one chunk was formed in the center of the sample and
11/1 after the second heating it became smaller.

4 During the first heating after about a minute the crucible that was on an angle
11/1 of about 45 degrees tilted and moved upright so it was at 90 degrees. No
chunks were formed during this trial.

5 A small chunk formed after the first heating. The chunk remained same size
11/2 after the second heating.

6 The sodium carbonate remained in its original form and did not create any
11/2 chunks throughout the trial.

7 A very small chunk was formed after the first heating, but after the second
11/2 heating it reduced into its original form and there were no chunks.

8 During the first heating after about a minute the crucible that was on an angle
11/3 of 45 degrees tilted and moved upright to about 90 degrees. No chunks were
formed during this trial.

9 A large chunk formed after the first heating and reduced significantly after the
11/3 second heating but a small chunk still remained.

Trial Observations

10 A small circular chunk formed in the center of the crucible and some of the
11/4 sample stuck to the sides after the first heating. The chunk reduced and the
sample wasnt sticking anymore after heating the second time.
 Ameye Koshko 23

Table 4 shows the observations made throughout the experiment for the sodium

bicarbonate sample. It also shows the trial number and date the trial was recorded.

Figure 5. Potassium Bicarbonate Trial

Figure 5 shows one of the potassium bicarbonate trials after it was heated. During

all of the trials it was noticed that the powdery substance would clump together into large

chunks which would break apart. This observation is very similar to the sodium

bicarbonate trials conducted during the experiment. Both samples were white powder

substances and when heated would form clumps of the carbonate substance remaining

from the chemical reaction.

 Ameye Koshko 24

Data Analysis and Interpretations

The researchers are investigating how green chemistry principles can be applied

to a work environment to help reduce the amount of harmful chemicals produced in

different industries. To collect the data, the researchers heated samples of potassium and

sodium bicarbonate and then weighed them using a scale. This allowed for data to be

recorded over a period of time and also be accurate. It also allowed the mass of the

samples to be compared from before and after the samples were heated. The data

collected will be analyzed by determining the percent yields of the byproducts produced

at the end of the chemical reactions and descriptive statistics. This test is appropriate

because the researchers want to find out if heating the sample will cause the mass to be

reduced.

The results of the experiment are valid because there was a consistent mass lost

during all trials even with different crucibles being used. This can be shown in the dot

plot graphs that were conducted. Due to the fact that the mass lost after the first heating is

much higher than mass lost after the second heating the trials can be counted as

successes. This is because each sample was heated until the mass remained consistent.

Also, every trial was run with the same process; first the sample was weighed, then it was

heated, then weighed again, heated a second time, and weighed for the final mass. This

shows that there is no bias for any trials because they were all run consistently.
 Ameye Koshko 25

Table 5
Potassium Bicarbonate Mass Changes
Trial Total Mass Total Mass Total Mass Mass Change Mass Change
Before After First After from Before from Before First
Heating Heating Second Heating to After Heating to
(g) (g) Heating First Heating Second Heating
(g) (g) (g)

1 45.8296 45.2429 45.2385 0.5867 0.0044

2 45.8677 45.2484 45.2450 0.6193 0.0034

3 45.8615 45.2419 45.2403 0.6196 0.0016

4 45.8584 45.2404 45.2394 0.6190 0.0010

5 45.8584 45.2394 45.2328 0.6256 0.0066

6 43.4514 42.8240 42.8214 0.6274 0.0026

7 45.8608 45.2366 45.2361 0.6242 0.0005

8 43.4472 42.8236 42.8191 0.6236 0.0045

9 43.4476 42.8210 42.8204 0.6266 0.0006

10 45.8684 45.2474 45.2380 0.6210 0.0094

Avg. N/A N/A N/A 0.6193 0.0035

Table 5 shows the mass changes recorded throughout data collection for the

potassium bicarbonate samples. The table includes the total mass before being heated, the

mass after the first and second heatings, as well as the differences between all three of

the masses. During the potassium bicarbonate trials conducted the average amount of

mass lost after the first heating was 0.6193 grams and the average amount of mass lost

after the second heating was 0.00346 grams. The averages for the first three columns

were not calculated because different crucibles were used causing the data to be different.
 Ameye Koshko 26

Figure 6. Potassium Bicarbonate First Heating Mass Change

Figure 6 shows the dot plot of the potassium bicarbonate trial. It displays the

amount of mass the sample lost between the first time weighing it and after the first time

heating it. All the trials are fairly constant ranging between 0.580 and 0.630 grams.

Figure 7. Potassium Bicarbonate Second Heating Mass Change

Figure 7 shows the dot plot of the potassium bicarbonate trial. It displays the

amount of mass the sample lost from after the first time heating it and after the second

time heating it. All the trials are fairly constant ranging from 0.000 to 0.010 grams.
 Ameye Koshko 27

Table 6
Sodium Bicarbonate Mass Changes
Trial Total Mass Total Mass Total Mass Mass Change Mass Change
Before After First After from Before from Before First
Heating Heating Second Heating to After Heating to
(g) (g) Heating First Heating Second Heating
(g) (g) (g)

1 43.6397 42.9088 42.9085 0.7309 0.0003

2 43.6287 42.8846 42.8840 0.7447 0.0006

3 43.6177 42.8777 42.8770 0.7400 0.0007

4 43.6161 42.8778 42.8767 0.7383 0.0011

5 43.6350 42.8906 42.8898 0.7444 0.0008

6 43.6194 42.8814 42.8809 0.7385 0.0005

7 43.6237 42.8849 42.8843 0.7388 0.0006

8 43.6199 42.8802 42.8792 0.7397 0.0010

9 43.6196 42.8821 42.8818 0.7375 0.0003

10 43.6324 42.8891 42.8885 0.7433 0.0006

Avg N/A N/A N/A 0.7396 0.0006

Table 6 shows the mass changes recorded throughout data collection for the

sodium bicarbonate samples. The table includes the total mass before being heated, the

mass after the first and second heatings, as well as the differences between all three of

the masses. During the sodium bicarbonate trials conducted the average amount of mass

lost after the first heating was 0.73961 grams and the average amount of mass lost after

the second heating was 0.00065 grams. The averages for the first three columns were not

calculated because different crucibles were used causing the data to be different.
 Ameye Koshko 28

Figure 8. Sodium Bicarbonate First Mass Change

Figure 8 shows the dot plot of the sodium bicarbonate trial. It displays the amount

of mass the sample lost between the first time weighing it and after the first time heating

it. All the trials are fairly constant ranging between 0.730 to 0.750 grams.

Figure 9. Sodium Bicarbonate Second Mass Change

Figure 9 shows the dot plot of the sodium bicarbonate trial. It displays the amount

of mass the sample lost from after the first time heating it and after the second time

heating it. All the trials are fairly constant ranging from 0.0003 to 0.0011 grams.
 Ameye Koshko 29

2.0110 g KHC O3 1 mole K 2 C O3

K 2 C O3= 138.212 g K 2 C O3 /mole
100.118 g KHC O3 /mole 2 moles KHC O3

Theoretical grams of K 2 C O3 = 1.38808 g

Figure 10. Theoretical Yield Calculations Potassium Bicarbonate Sample

Figure 10 shows the calculation in order to find the theoretical yield of the

chemical reaction taking place. The theoretical yield refers to the amount of carbonate

byproduct that should be produced in the chemical reaction. The figure shows the

theoretical yield for the first potassium bicarbonate sample trial. The theoretical yield was

calculated to be 1.41445 grams. This was found by dividing the number of grams lost

after the first heating over the number of grams in one mole of the sample. Then that

number was multiplied by the number of moles of potassium carbonate over the moles of

potassium bicarbonate to get the theoretical yield of how many grams lost after the first

heating.

( 1.4175 ) g
100% = 102.119%
( 1.38808 ) g

Figure 11. Percent Yield Calculations Potassium Bicarbonate Sample

Figure 11 shows the calculation in order to find the percent yield of the chemical

reaction that took place. The percent yield is the percentage of what the chemical reaction

yields over what the chemical reaction is supposed to yield. The percent yield for the first

potassium bicarbonate sample trial was found to be 102.119%. The actual yield was
 Ameye Koshko 30

found by subtracting the crucible and cover mass from the total mass after the first

heating.

Table 7
Potassium Bicarbonate Percent Yields
Trial Crucible and Sample Mass Total Mass After First Percent Yield
Cover Mass (g) Heating (%)
(g) (g)

1 43.8254 2.0110 45.2429 102.1190

2 43.8601 2.0080 45.2484 100.1650

3 43.8578 2.0083 45.2419 99.8471

4 43.8537 2.0053 45.2404 100.1840

5 43.8567 2.0012 45.2394 100.1000

6 41.4418 2.0103 42.8240 99.6108

7 43.8596 2.0005 45.2366 99.7222

8 41.4434 2.0036 42.8236 99.7993

9 41.4419 2.0060 42.8210 99.6004

10 43.8641 2.0077 45.2474 99.8192

Table 7 shows the percent yields calculated for all of the potassium bicarbonate

sample trials conducted. A percentage higher than 100% means that the sample did not

break down as much as theorized while a percentage lower than 100% means that the

sample broke down more than theorized. This is because percent yield is the actual yield

divided by the theoretical yield.

 Ameye Koshko 31

2.0492 g NaHC O3 1mole Na 2 C O3

Na 2 C O3= 138.212 g Na 2 C O3 /mole
84.0062 g NaHC O3 /mole 2 moles NaHC O3

Theoretical grams of Na2 C O3 = 1.29271 g

Figure 12. Theoretical Yield Calculations Sodium Bicarbonate Sample

Figure 12 shows the calculation in order to find the theoretical yield of the

chemical reaction taking place. The theoretical yield refers to the amount of carbonate

byproduct that should be produced in the chemical reaction. The figure shows the

theoretical yield for the first sodium bicarbonate sample trial. The theoretical yield was

calculated to be 1.29271 grams. This was found by dividing the number of grams lost

after the first heating over the number of grams in one mole of the sample. Then that

number was multiplied by the number of moles of sodium carbonate over the moles of

sodium bicarbonate to get the theoretical yield of how many grams lost after the first

heating.

( 1.3174 ) g
100% = 101.91%
( 1.29271 ) g

Figure 13. Percent Yield Calculations Sodium Bicarbonate Sample

Figure 13 shows the calculation in order to find the percent yield of the chemical

reaction that took place. The percent yield is the percentage of what the chemical reaction

yields over what the chemical reaction is supposed to yield. The percent yield for the first
 Ameye Koshko 32

sodium bicarbonate sample trial was found to be 101.91%. The actual yield was found by

subtracting the crucible and cover mass from the total mass after the first heating.

Table 8
Sodium Bicarbonate Percent Yields
Trial Crucible and Sample Mass Total Mass After First Percent Yield
Cover Mass (g) Heating (%)
(g) (g)

1 41.5914 2.0492 42.9088 101.9100

2 41.6168 2.0119 42.8846 99.8916

3 41.6171 2.0009 42.8777 99.8703

4 41.6155 2.0017 42.8778 99.9651

5 41.6174 2.0183 42.8906 99.9999

6 41.6153 2.0046 42.8814 100.1210

7 41.6168 2.0071 42.8849 100.1540

8 41.6190 2.0029 42.8802 99.8181

9 41.6171 2.0005 42.8821 100.2390

10 41.6187 2.0142 42.8891 99.9822

Table 8 shows the percent yields calculated for all of the sodium bicarbonate

sample trials conducted. A percentage higher than 100% means that the sample did not

break down as much as theorized while a percentage lower than 100% means that the

sample broke down more than theorized. This is because percent yield is the actual yield

divided by the theoretical yield. The average percent yield for the potassium bicarbonate

samples was calculated to be 100.097% and the average percent yield for the sodium

bicarbonate samples was calculated to be 100.195%. Due to the percentages being over

100% it can be inferred that on average the mass loss after the first heating was not as

much as anticipated.
 Ameye Koshko 33

When we calculated the average amount of mass lost after both the first and

second heating, it was found that the greatest decrease was after the first heating. For

potassium bicarbonate the average mass lost after the first heating was 0.6193 grams and

the average amount of mass lost after the second heating was 0.00346 grams. Similar

results were recorded for the sodium bicarbonate samples which on average lost 0.73961

grams and the average amount of mass lost after the second heating was 0.00065 grams.

This means that the eight-minute heating time was sufficient in completing most of the

decomposition reaction. Also, sodium bicarbonate had a larger mass loss than potassium

bicarbonate. In other words, sodium bicarbonates chemical structure facilitates the

decomposition process when heated better than potassium bicarbonate.

The percent yields calculated ranged from about 99.6% to approximately 102%.

Due to percent yield being actual yield over theoretical yield, any percent above 100%

would have meant that the sample did not decompose as much as was theorized. Also a

percentage below 100% meant that the sample decomposed more than was predicted. The

percent yield average of the potassium bicarbonate samples was found to be 100.097%

while the percent yield average of the sodium bicarbonate samples found to be

100.195%. These averages mean that the samples of both sodium and potassium

bicarbonate did not decompose as much as anticipated. However, they are only slightly

above the amount theorized.

 Ameye Koshko 34

Conclusion

The researchers experiment was to heat potassium bicarbonate and sodium

bicarbonate in order to determine the effects of green chemistry principles on different

industries that use various chemical reactions to manufacture products. This was done by

heating samples of both compounds and calculating their percent yields on the amount of

mass lost after the first heating. The main goal of this research was to show the impacts

of green chemical principles on chemical reactions. This knowledge could then be

applied in an industrial setting such as producing drugs in a pharmacy or even conducting

lab tests in a hospital and reduce the large quantities of waste produced by highly

influential industries.

Although both compounds lost a significant amount of mass after the first heating,

sodium bicarbonate lost more mass (0.73961 grams on average) than potassium

bicarbonate (0.6193 grams on average). The mass lost after the second heating was much

smaller than after the first heating. Sodium bicarbonate lost 0.00065 grams on average

while potassium bicarbonate lost 0.00346 grams on average. This follows what was

expected because during the chemical reaction both bicarbonate samples release carbon

dioxide gas and water vapor. Also by the second heating the sample left in the crucible

was mainly a carbonate byproduct. In other words, the chemical reactions were basically

completed by the time the second heating of the samples took place. On average the

percent yield calculated for potassium bicarbonate was 100.097%. This means that on

average the amount of mass lost after the first heating was higher than predicted. On
 Ameye Koshko 35

average the percent yield calculated for sodium bicarbonate was 100.195%. This means

that on average the amount of mass lost after the first heating for sodium bicarbonate was

also higher than predicted. For both samples the percent yield of the first trial was much

higher than theorized. This means that there was more of the sample left after the first

heating than what was originally anticipated. However, the percent yields were only

slightly above 100% so the chemical reactions in each trial were practically completed by

the end of the first heating.

The results of the research experiment showed a general trend in all of the data. It

was found that the bicarbonate samples lost the most amount of mass after the first

heating and the samples did not lose as much mass as was theorized when calculating the

percent yields of each of the trials. On average the potassium bicarbonate samples lost a

mass of 0.6193 grams after the first heating while the sodium bicarbonate lost a mass of

0.73961 grams. On average the amount of mass lost after the second heating for the

potassium bicarbonate samples was 0.00346 grams while sodium bicarbonate samples

lost 0.00065 grams. The bicarbonate samples are unstable compounds which causes them

to break down when heated. When the bicarbonate samples get heated they form water

vapor, carbon dioxide gas, and a carbonate compound. Carbonate compounds are stable

and in order to break the compound down needs to be heated at temperatures well over

800 degrees Celsius. Based on the behavior of bicarbonates and carbonates it is

concluded that most of the bicarbonate samples had completed breaking down and by the

second heating only the carbonate compound was left inside the crucible. This means that

two heatings of the sample was enough to complete the chemical reactions taking place

during the trials.

 Ameye Koshko 36

When the percent yields for the amount of mass lost after the first heating were

calculated the average for potassium bicarbonate was found to be 100.097% while the

percent yield average of the sodium bicarbonate samples found to be 100.195%. Percent

yield is the comparison of the amount of mass the trials resulted after the first heating

over the amount of mass theorized after the first heating. This means that any percentage

above 100% would mean that the sample did not decompose as much as was theorized. If

the percentage was below 100% it meant that the sample decomposed more than was

theorized. For both potassium and sodium bicarbonate the percent yields indicate that the

sample did not decompose as much as they were predicted to.

These results occurred because the compounds used throughout the experiment

broke down as predicted. Also, when bicarbonate samples are heated they decompose

into water vapor, carbon dioxide gas, and a carbonate byproduct. The water vapor and

carbon dioxide get released from the system, which makes up the mass lost during the

heating process. Carbonate compounds are very stable. This makes it very hard for the

compound to decompose. The only way possible is to heat the sample at temperatures

that are above 800 degrees Celsius. After the second heating of the trials was completed,

the amount of mass lost was significantly smaller than after the first heating. This can be

attributed to the sample being decomposed into different compounds and by the second

heating the sample had changed into a carbonate, making it much harder to lose mass.

This research experiment resulted in accurate results accepted by the scientific

community. The chemical reactions taking place during each of the trials are

decomposition reactions. In each of the reactions a bicarbonate compound is heated and

breaks down into a carbonate compound, water vapor, and carbon dioxide gas. The water
 Ameye Koshko 37

vapor and carbon dioxide gas are then released from the system, which is why there is a

mass loss.

Also, the different principles applied to this experiment have been established as

methods to reduce the amount of harmful waste produced in chemical reactions. During

pre-trials, trials of both carbonate and bicarbonate samples were conducted to determine

the difference in the amount of waste produced. Carbonates are very stable compounds

and therefore need to be heated to extremely high temperatures that exceed 800 degrees

Celsius in order to decompose while bicarbonates break down much more easily.

Although carbonates were not used during actual data collection, based on pre trials as

well as knowledge of their chemical structures we can determine that bicarbonates are

better to use in chemical reactions.

Throughout the design of our experiment there are some weaknesses that could

have led to inaccurate or incorrect data collection for trials. One such weakness was that

there was no uniform way to heat all of the samples during the experiment. Also, it was

noted that during some of the trials the flame was flickering due to some unknown

outside factor. This means that the intensity of the flame of the bunsen burner was not the

same for each trial. The inconsistency could have caused the bicarbonate samples to

degrade at different rates and result in a difference in the amount of mass lost after each

heating, which would directly affect the calculated percent yield values. One flaw made

during the experiment occurred while weighing out all the samples. Since the scale being

used was to the nearest thousandth of a decimal, all the samples were slightly different in

weight. This could have helped cause different amounts of mass to be lost for each trial.

Another flaw in our experimental design was that the samples needed to be heated long
 Ameye Koshko 38

enough in order to complete the chemical reaction taking place during the trials. Slight

variations in time could have caused the mass loss to not be as exact as it could have

been. This would also cause the degradation of the bicarbonate compounds to vary.

However, all of the samples were heated as close to eight minutes every time. Due to the

fact that heating time was held fairly constant throughout all of the trials the percent

yields calculated from the data collected would have been valid.

Another noticeable difference was that sodium bicarbonate and potassium

bicarbonate trials were conducted by two different researchers. This was done because

with heating and cooling time caused each trial to last approximately around 45 minutes

to an hour and the trials had to be conducted within a time period of about a week. The

researchers did not randomize who conducted each trial because there were only two

different samples being tested and trials had to be conducted as fast and as accurate as

possible in order to get all the trials done during the assigned week. The different heating

methods could have contributed to a difference in the average amount of mass lost after

the first heating. Bicarbonates begin to lose carbon dioxide gas and water vapor at 100

degrees Celsius and does not stop until 200 degrees Celsius. With two different ways of

heating the samples there was no guarantee that the samples were breaking down as well

as they should have. However, this is unlikely that there would be a difference as big as

was calculated if the heating methods were conducted in a way that they were constant

during every trial.

The results of the research experiment, though accurate, do not significantly affect

the scientific community. This is because the results of such an experiment are commonly

known among professionals of green chemistry. For instance, the reaction when a
 Ameye Koshko 39

bicarbonate compound is heated results in the production of water vapor, carbon dioxide

gas, and a carbonate compound. Based on the law of conservation of mass the amount of

mass before the reaction took place should equal the mass after the reaction occurred. In

this reaction the carbon dioxide gas and water vapor leave the system, which accounts for

the mass lost. When they leave the system it results in a decrease in mass, which was

observed in every trial conducted. However, this research does help others outside of the

field of green chemistry to understand the importance and effects that green chemistry

principles can have on different industries that produce large quantities of hazardous

waste harmful to the environment.

Further research that could be conducted on this topic include using different

sample types as well as taking an existing chemical reaction and adjusting it by using

green chemistry principles. Green chemistry principles are guidelines to adjust chemical

processes in order to reduce the amount of waste produced in different industrial settings

such as in pharmaceutical companies. Applying green chemistry principles to different

chemical reactions will allow researchers to not only reduce the amount of waste

produced by those chemical reactions, but also establish how effective the principles are

or if there are different aspects in which to approach the reduction of chemical waste

products more efficiently.

 Ameye Koshko 40

Appendix A

Experimental Setup

Procedure:

1. Set up a Bunsen burner on the base of a ring stand. Plug the tube of the bunsen burner
into the gas jet. Do not turn the gas on or light the Bunsen burner.

2. Add a ring clamp to the ring stand. Adjust the height of the ring clamp so that it is
slightly higher than the top of the Bunsen burner.

3. Place a clay triangle on the ring clamp and make sure the ring clamp is the right size
so the clay triangle will not fall through.

Figure 14. Setup

Figure 14 shows the setup of the testing environment used to heat the bicarbonate

samples throughout the experiment. The setup includes a ring stand, ring clamp, clay

triangle, bunsen burner, crucible, and crucible cover. It displays the crucible with the
 Ameye Koshko 41

substance inside, being heated by the Bunsen burner. The crucible sits inside the clay

triangle which rests on the ring clamp attached to the ring stand.
 Ameye Koshko 42

Acknowledgements

Thanks to Mrs. Hilliard for the materials borrowed, for helping guide this

experiment, and for providing helpful insight when needed. Also, thanks to Mr. Supal for

moral support and constructive criticism to the experiment. Thanks to Mrs. Tallman and

Mr. Acre for providing mathematical knowledge to enhance the paper. Thanks to Michael

C. Cann of the University of Scranton for providing valuable information about green

chemistry throughout the experiment and research process.

 Ameye Koshko 43

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