Design Criteria of U. S.

Naval
Ship Electrical Systems
By R. A. Brand, 1 Visitor, T. E. Broderick, 2 Visitor, and J. J. Moyer, 3 Visitor

Reliability and continuity of service are the keywords in U. S. Naval ship electrical system
design. First the number, size, voltage, and ,frequency of the ship service and emergency
generators are selected on the basis of an electrical load analysis. The ship service,
emergency, casualty, and any special power-distribution systems are then designed to
provide this reliability by supplying three sources of power to vital loads. Special dis-
tribution systems with voltage and frequency regulation of plus or minus 1/~ per cent are
often required for guided-missile ships. These loads are fed by a motor-generator set
with either a magnetic-particle, hysteresis or eddy-current-type clutch between the motor
and the generator for frequency regulation. Close voltage regulation is obtained by
employing a combined static exciter and. voltage regulator. Increased use of 400-cycle
power is anticipated as the number and size of shipboard electrical loads steadily grow.
Single-phase transformers are used on Navy ships, connected delta-delta in three-phase
banks. If one transformer is lost, the remaining two can operate open delta at 58 per
cent of the three-phase rating. The fused circuit breaker represents a new development
in the molded case breaker. It has a maximum interrupting rating of 100,000 amp and
yet is the same size as the standard AQB circuit breaker. It is used for system back-up
protection. Navy electric cable is designed to withstand excessive temperature, moisture
and mechanical abuse. The rectifier is replacing the motor-generator set for direct-
current power supply; it provides higher efficiency, weight and space savings and
greater dependability since-it is a static device. Electric propulsion of Navy ships has
been replaced by the geared drive except for certain type ships such as tugs and ice-
breakers. Direct-current power provides greater flexibility of control for propulsion
than alternating-current power. Navy ships have more stringent electrical-system
requirements than do commercial ships. Continuity of service is emphasized by a more
flexible distribution system. Electrical equipment on Navy ships must withstand higher
shock and vibration. Future electrical equipment for the Navy will have fewer moving
parts. Present designs must attempt to anticipate electrical system and equipment
developments of the future.

EVER since Dr. William Gilbert, the " F a t h e r of
Electricity," recorded the results of his experi-
m e n t s in magnetism in 1600, the history of elec-
tricity has been one of constant and rapid ad-
vancement. T h e N a v y was not slow to recognize
the advantages of direct-current electric power for
shipboard application. Only three years after the
invention of the incandescent lamp b y Edison, the
cruiser USS Trenton, in 1883, installed. 238 of these
lamps. Power was supplied b y one 13.2-kv, 80-
volt direct-current s t e a m engine-driven dynamo.
Although Westinghouse's alternating-current

1 Electrical Engineer, Submarine, Minesweeper and
Electric Propulsion Ship Group of the Electrical Scientific
Section, Bureau of Ships, Navy Department, Washington.
2 Electrical Engineer, Surface Combatant Ship Group
of the Electrical Scientific Section, Bureau of Ships, Navy
Department, Washington.
8 Electrical Engineer, Auxiliary Ship Group of the
Electrical Scientific Section, Bureau of Ships, Navy De-
partment, Washington, D. C.
Presented at the Annual Meeting, New York, N. Y.,
November 14-15, 1958, of THE SOCIETY OF NAVAL
ARCHITECTS AND MARINE ENGINEERS.

579
induction motor had been adopted for a wide
range of industrial applications by 1890, its usage
b y the N a v y was delayed. This was due, in part,
to the uncertainty of the safety and reliability
of alternating-current power. Edison himself
claimed t h a t it could not be regulated safely and
was a menace to its consumers. Some 40 years
later in 1932 alternating-current-motor drive for
shipboard auxiliaries was finally introduced.
Since t h a t time, power requirements have in-
creased to such an extent t h a t the ship service
electrical generating plant on a modern-day super
aircraft carrier could satisfy the electrical power
needs for a city the size of Albany, Sacramento,
Austin, or Knoxville.
Shipboard electrical systems are divided into
three main categories, namely, propulsion, ship
service and emergency service. This paper deals
principally with ship service and emergency
service although a discussion of electric propulsion
system requirements is included.
The two most i m p o r t a n t electrical system
design criteria for naval ships are the provision
for m a x i m u m possible reliability and continuity of
service. All the vital functions of a naval ship
such as steering, auxiliary machinery, armament,
electronics, lighting, ventilation and degaussing
operate on electric power. Therefore, it is essen-
tial t h a t the electric power supply provided to these
vital functions be sustained after battle damage
or when service breakdown to system components
Occurs.
Major design considerations t h a t affect this
necessary dependability are physical separation of
normal, alternate, and emergency power supplies,
routing of cables, simplicity of operation and
equipment design. Electrical equipment aboard
ship m u s t be designed for h i g h shock, vibration,
noise and environmental conditions such as tem-
perature, salt atmosphere, radio interference, and
explosive vapors. In addition, since a n u m b e r of
changes in size and location of electrical loads
occur during the life of a ship, there should be
sufficient ship service generator capacity and dis-
tribution-system flexibility to allow for electrical
load growth. This additional generator-capacity'
design for electrical load expansion reaches a prac-
tical limit when space and weight requirements
become excessive. Indeed, naval ship design in-
volves m a n y factors not encountered in a merchant
or commercial type vessel. This difference will be
described further under a later heading.
Generating Plant
N a v y ship basic power-generating systems have
been standardized for one of the following voltage
and frequency ratings:
580 U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems
Alternating Direct
Current Current
Voltage . . . . . . . . . 450 volts 240/120 volts
120 volts 120 volts
Frequency . . . . . . 60 cycles
400 cycles
Standards for shipboard power-consuming
equipment have likewise been established.
Equipment selected to operate on these systems is
designed to have one of the following nominal volt-
age and frequency ratings:
Alternating Direct
Current Current
Voltage . . . . . . . . . . 440 280
115 115
Frequency . . . . . . . . 60 cycles
400 cycles
The evolution of these standard voltages and
frequencies has been made on the basis of their
widespread proven use for landbased commercial
application. Standardization has resulted in the
most economical and reliable electrical system.
The selection of 400 cycles as a standard frequency
was made as the result of extensive development of
high-speed, lightweight equipment for use on air-
craft.
The selection and sizing of the electric gen-
erating plant to be installed on a ship always be-
gins at the same point; namely, the preparation of
an electrical load analysis. This analysis is ini-
tiated b y estimating loads in the preliminary ship-
design stage and is continually refined and modi-
fied as the ship design progresses. I t consists of a
calculation of electrical loads for the various
operating conditions of the ship. A detailed tab-
ulation of the total connected load and the op-
erating loads at cruising, functional, battle (which
m a y or m a y not be its functional load), anchor,
cold-ship start, and emergency condition are in-
eluded.
From the results of the electrical load analysis,
a preliminary ship service and emergency gen-
erating plant is selected. Other factors which
must be considered in choosing the number and
size of the generating units for a ship's electric
plant are :
a) T y p e of ship.
b) Full operation of the ship within the designed
battle damage and maintenance limits.
c) N u m b e r and location of machinery spaces.
d) Desirability of installing standard size genera-
tors.
e) E s t i m a t e d future load growth.
I t e m s (a), (b), and (c) are considered together
and form the following rules:
1 In the event of derangement of one ship
 105 i J i
~-ROTARY AMPLIFIER REGULATQR

~ R H EOSTATREGULATOR
100-
y-- ,4

~ C~IMBINEDS!ATICEXCI!ER
0 ANDVOLTAGEREGULATOR
95 I I

e~
0Z
90 ,/
I--

Y:
j /

I0 20 30 40 50 60 70 I
I T,ME IN CYCLES I
O 0.5 1.0 1.5
TIMEIN SECONDS
Fig. 1 Graph showing the recovery time of regulators used on Navy ship service
generators

service generator, the remaining ship service gen- practically all N a v y ships have an emergency gen-
erators shall carry the battle load. erating plant. This plant is sized to supply the
2 In event of the loss of the generators in two electrical operating load for ship control and pro-
adjacent spaces, the remaining ship service and tection upon complete loss of the ship-service
emergency generators shall carry the battle load. plant. Loads supplied from this system are steer-
This condition is not applicable to single-shaft- ing, lighting, emergency communications, radar
ships or to ships-where all ship servicd generators and sonar, machinery-space exhaust ventilation,
are located in two adjacent spaces. interior communication, damage-control equip-
3 In the event of derangement of one ship ment, and p a r t of the ordnance. T h e generating
service generator, the remaining ship service gen- units m a y be driven b y completely self-contained
erators shall carry the cruising load on split plant diesel engines or gas turbines and are automati-
operation. cally started on loss of ship service voltage to the
Electrical load growth, item (e) is estimated on: emergency switchboard. These units are located
in so far as practical a b o v e the waterline and re-
1 Known probable growths of equipment; for
mote from the main ship service units.
example, the aircraft elevators on the super carriers
Turbine-driven and diesel-driven generators on
now have a 10-year growth included in their
N a v y ships have been standardized in a series of
design.
m a x i m u m continuous ratings (with no K W over-
2 Predicted load growth of systems based on
load capacity). M a x i m u m continuous rated sets
present-day design progress; for example, missile
were adopted several years ago as a result of
guidance system modifications and improvements
"studies showing a savings in cost to the N a v y .
from missile flight test data.
T h e theory is t h a t if a generator is loaded above
Compatible with these design considerations, it approximately 80 per cent of its continuous rating,
is self-evident t h a t a major effort should be made a second generator is put in service and a n y over-
to obtain the least weight' and size and lowest load rating would not be utilized. T h e perform-
cost for a n y given installation. ance requirements for steam-turbine, diesel and
In the selection of a diesel-generator installa- gas-turbine-driven generators are covered b y ap-
tion, as a minesweeper design, light loading condi- plicable military specifications. These require-
tions of port and anchor m u s t be considered. Sets ments have been established to meet the majority
are selected on the basis t h a t t h e y will never be of navalA~hipboard applications and are only de-
operated at less t h a n 50 per cent of the rated gen- viated from for special applications. An example
erator capacity continuously. This is to prevent of such a n exception is the variable-frequency tur-
engine fouling and reduce excessive maintenance.- bine-generator set developed specifically to supply
In addition to the ship service generating plant, reactor coolant pumping power.

U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems 581

 ') C !
I
(,) E ~t 4SHIPSERVICE6LrNERATOR
5OV,25OOKW

) )I
I )1 i I
I
I

Z I
0
L

/! 5 SHIP SERVICE SWITCHBOARD

'I
I
!
()
I
I
I
I
Fig. 2 Ship service p o w e r system with ship-service generator, emergency generator, and bus tie feedersm450 volt, 60 cycle
Distribution Systems ment starting several times an hour and 18 per
The extensive and highly diversified use made of cent for equipment starting several times a day.
electric power on N a v y ships requires an electric The system voltage must recover from these tran-
power-distribution system of high standards in- sients to within 3 per cent of the steady-state band
corporating the latest engineering developments. limits after 2 sec. Iia so far as practical, all elec-
The electric power-distribution system is divided tric power-consuming equipment is required to
into four categories: meet these voltage regulation and transient limits.
1 Ship-service power-distribution system nor- Today, certain equipment required on Naval ships
.
, [ .
mally supplying electric power to the ship s eqmp- will not function properly over such a wide voltage
ment and machinery. range. The missile-guidance equipment has inter--
2 Emergency power-distribution system sup- posed stringent voltage regulation and transient
plying electric power to vital auxiliaries if power requirements on the ship's electric system. Some
is not available from the ship-service power-dis- components of missile-guidance systems require
tribution system. voltage regulation within plus and minus 1/6 per
3 Casualty power-distribution system tempo- cent and a recovery time from voltage transients
rarily established for supplying electric power to ,of 1/~0 sec. Others have a requirement that the
certain vital auxiliaries when the ship-service and maximum transient will not exceed 1 per cent.
emergency feeders have been damaged. The problems presented b y these requirements are
4 Special. power-distribution system supplying studied on an analog computer. Special power-
power to electric equipment or machinery that re- distribution systems are designed based on the re-
quires voltages or frequencies different from those sults of these studies.
supplied b y the ship-service or emergency system. Several different types of equipment can be used
In designing these different categories of the dis- to maintain the voltage levels throughout distri-
tribution system, there are six important points bution systems. In general t h e y are:
which m u s t b e given careful consideration: 1 Induction or stepped voltage regulators.
a) Highest possible continuity of service. 2 Load-ratio controls.
b) Protection of the system from interruption 3 Capacitors.
due to short circuits and overloads. The N a v y in its shipboard installations uses
c) Specified voltage and frequency tolerances only voltage regulators of the following types:
of the power-consuming equipment. 1 Direct-acting rheostatic.
d) Load balance between the switchboards and 2 R o t a r y amplifier.
associated generators. 3 Combined static exciter and voltage regula-
e) A minimum of maintenance. tor system.
f) The most practical engineering value for the Load-ratio controls and capacitors will not m e e t
Government dollar. the recovery times required b y the shipboard
equipment. In fact, the direct-acting rheostatic-
System Tolerances type regulator, Fig. 1, is slow acting and will not
The voltage and frequency tolerance require- meet the recovery-time requirements of the new
ments of missile, nuclear, and electronic installa- equipment. It is being replaced b y the rotary-
tions on N a v y ships have presented many problems. amplifier-type regulator on ship conversions. In
Voltage regulation is causing a great deal of con- addition to selecting the proper regulator, consid-
cern in the design of both naval and maritime eration must be given to distribution feeders to
ships. All electric and electronic equipment is de- electronic, missile guidance, missile control, and
signed to operate within a certain voltage band. vital nuclear-reactor equipment. In so far as
Outside of this band the equipment may not func- practical, loads of this type are supplied through
tion properly. Minor fluctuations cause erratic separate power-distribution panels having a sep-
performance. Large fluctuations cause equip- arate feeder from the main ship-service switch-
ment to drop out of operation and, with voltage boards. This minimizes the effect of voltage vari-
restored, to stay out until the time delay or similar ation of the distribution system of these vital
device functions to bring equipment back into equipments. Where weight, space or bulkhead
operation. ) penetrations preclude separate power panels,
Generally, distribution systems on U.S. Naval these equipments m a y be connected to power-dis-
Ships are designed for a steady-state voltage reg- tribution panels supplying other equipment pro-
ulation of plus or minus 5 per cent of the nominal vided that performance of the equipment is not
voltage. In addition to this steady-state toler- affected.
ance band, voltage transients of 10 per cent are The frequency regulation of the distribution sys-
allowed at the ship-service switchboard for equip- tem is controlled b y the governor Of the prime

U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems 583

 VITAL LOAD
AUTOMATIC T RANSF__ER_
A/ ~ ,

__, , _ _: _ 0
ta/
t-- I I I J
l I I?
art
ALTERNATE SUPPLY E M E N 6 L r N C y SUPPLY

BUS TIENORMAL SUPPLY

[ .... .... 7 ;

l) ;
v
,
1
)' I

! ' J L e u s TIE
(NORMALLY OPEN) FWD SHIP SERVICE SWITCHBOARD
J
AFT SHIP SERVICE SWITCHBOARD

SHIP SERVICE GENERATOR SHIP SERVICE GENERATOR

Fig. 3 Typical distribution system of a small ship, showing feeds to vitalequipment

mover of the ship-service generator. The distri-
bution system is designed for a steady-state fre-
quency regulation of plus or minus 5 per cent. In
addition to this steady-state band a frequency
transient of 3 per cent, 1 per cent of which may be
outside of t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e band, is allowed. The
frequency must recover to within the steady-state
band within 2 sec. Some components require
closer tolerances and must be supplied from special
power-distribution systems, but in general all
equipment is designed to function properly within
these frequency limits.
System Protection
S i n c e the electric power-distribution system is
vital to the life of a naval ship under battle condi-
tions, it is imperative t h a t adequate system pro-
tection be incorporated into the design. Each
unit of equipment and all circuits are protected
from short-circuit currents and overloads. The
protective system is based on the following
criteria:
1 High-speed clearing of all low-impedance
faults.
2 Selective tripping of the various protective
devices to give maximum continuity of service
under fault conditions.
3 Co-ordination of the thermal characteristics
of the circuit or apparatus with the circuit-inter-
rupting characteristics of the protective device to
give maximum protection for electric apparatus
and circuits under fault condition.
4 Adequate interrupting capacity in all circuits
either in the form of circuit-interrupting devices or
suitable back-up protection if the interrupting ca-
pacity of the device may be exceeded.
5 Thermal rating of all circuit protective and
switching devices must be adequate under all serv-
ice conditions.
6 Short-circuit current-interrupting capacity
of the circuit breakers and the bus-transfer equip-
ment must be in excess of the maximum available
short-circuit current at the point of application of
the fault.
The ultimate in protective-system design in-
corporates complete selectivity where the protec-
tive device nearest the fault is designed to inter-
rupt and clear the fault before another breaker

584 U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems

 SHIP SERVICETURBO GENERATOR SET SHIP SERVICE TURBO GENERATOR SET

/ [ 'MOTORGENERATOR
POWERSWITCHBOARO'~~ "m'~m~
] ~ AUTOMATIC
TRANSFER J J

MOTOR GENERATOR ~ ) MOTOR GENERATOR

VITAL REACTORCONTROLS

II-- GUPPY T BATTERY PROPULSION

MOTOR

DIESEL GENERATOR
Fig. 4 Typical nuclear submarine distribution system

closer to the power source operates. T h e N a v y ,
in so far as possible, designs for complete selec-
tivity. The only areas where this is not always
possible are :
1 The 450-volt, 60-cycle system where fused
distribution panels are used, as on nonvital cir-
cuits.
2 T h e 120-volt, 60-cycle system where type
ALB circuit breakers are used in series. How-
ever, to insure m a x i m u m freedom from false non-
tripping, the system has the following require-
ments:
a) No two circuit breakers of the same type
with the same instantaneous trip setting can be in-
stalled in series.
b) No two circuit breakers with the same size
fuses can be installed in series.
c) Fuses are not used in series with type AQB
breakers greater than 100-amp frame size.
SystemCircuitry
Radial-type distribution systems are used on all
N a v a l ships. Ships such as the super carriers with
more than two main ship-service switchboards
have a system in which the main ship-service tur-
bine-generator sets form a ring bus through bus tie
circuits between the main ship-service switch-
boards, Fig. 2. I t is not the purpose of this ar-
rangement to operate all generators in parallel b u t
rather to design the system so t h a t the highest
possible continuity of service will be maintained.
Ships with two ship-service switchboards, such as
the DD931-class destroyer, operate on a split-bus-
distribution system, Fig. 3. ' In this system, there
is a bus tie circuit between the two ship-service
switchboards b u t the electric plant is normally op-
erated with this tie open. This provides flexibility
under damage conditions and also maintains the
highest possible continuity of service.
On large ships such as aircraft carriers, the ship-
service distribution system is divided into zones
which generally coincide with the damage-control
fire zones. In general the power-load centers for
the individual zones are located on the damage-
control deck. This is to facilitate damage-eontroI
functions and the distribution of casualty power.
Functional load centers for such loads as aircraft
elevators and catapults are located with the load.
A separate load-center switchboard is assigned for
each main and auxiliary machinery space. T h e
number of zones supplied b y each emergency
switchboard depends upon the n u m b e r of emer-

U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems 585

 Table 1 Navy Standard Type Circuit Breakers
Frame
Size, Interrupting Rating,
Ampere Voltage ~Amperes ---~
No. Type Rating Rating AC DC
1 ALB-1 50 125 ae or dc 5000 2500
2 ALB-5 50 125 ac or dc 5000 5000
3 ALB-10 200 125 ac or dc 10000 5000
4 AQB-A100 100 500 ac/250 dc 15000 10000
5 AQB-A225 225 500 ae/250 de 20000 15000
6 AQB-A250 250 500 ac/250 dc 20000 15000
7 AQB-A400 400 500 ac/250 dc 30000 20000
8 AQB-A600 600 500 ac/250 dc 30000 20000
9 AQB-A800 800 500 ac 40000 ...
10 AQB-LF100 100 500 ac 100000 ...
11 AQB-LF250 250 500 ac 100000
12 ACB-250 250 500 ac/250 dc 20000 150()0
13 ACB-640 640 500 ac/250 dc 45000 25000
14 ACB-1600 1600 500 ac/250 dc 60000 50000
15 ACB-1600H 1600 500 ac 100000 ...
16 ACB-3200H 3200 500 ac 100000 . ..
17 ACB-4000H 4000 500 ac 100000 ...
18 AQB-A50 50 500 ac 5000 ...
19 AQB-A200 200 500 ac 10000 ...
NOTES:
1 Items 1-11 are small molded-case circuit breakers (relatively inexpensive).
2 Items 12-17 are large open-frame circuit breakers (much more costly than items 1-11).
3 Items 10-11 are the same breakers as items 4 and 6, respectively, except that the
interrupting ratings have been increased to 100,000 amp. This feature has been accom-
plished by incorporating current-limiting, high-interrupting-capacity fuses on the load side
of the circuit breaker.
4 Items 18 and 19 are identical with items 2 and 3, respectively, except modifications
have been made to increase the voltage rating to 500 volts ac.
5 Item 5 is superseded by item 6 for all new designs.
6 Item 12 is superseded by item 7 for all new designs.

gency g e n e r a t o r s installed. Specific v i t a l loads Ships with n u c l e a r p l a n t s require t h a t the power

are supplied from t h e n e a r e s t e m e r g e n c y switch-
board. T h e e m e r g e n c y g e n e r a t o r s are n o t tied
t o g e t h e r b u t are c o n n e c t e d to the ship-service dis-
t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m b y b u s tie circuits to t h e m a i n
ship-service switchboard.
S m a l l e r s h i p - d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m design is
b a s e d on the same principles as those for larger
ships except t h a t t h e s y s t e m is n o t d i v i d e d into
zones. T h e power load centers are located in the
same locality as t h e loads t h e y serve a n d t h e emer-
g e n c y s u p p l y feeds directly i n t o t h e v i t a l equip-
m e n t load centers. T h r e e sources of power, a
n o r m a l , a n a l t e r n a t e , a n d a n e m e r g e n c y are pro-
vided to the steering a n d i n t e r i o r - c o m m u n i c a t i o n
switchboards, where c o n t i n u i t y of service is a
prime consideration, Fig. 3. T w o sources of
power, a n o r m a l a n d a n emergency, are p r o v i d e d
to auxiliaries such as n u c l e a r p l a n t e q u i p m e n t a n d
fire primps. Actually, t h e e m e r g e n c y source acts
as a n a l t e r n a t e s u p p l y u n d e r n o r m a l operations.
T h i s is accomplished b y h a v i n g t h e ship-service
g e n e r a t o r feed t h e e m e r g e n c y s w i t c h b o a r d t h r o u g h
the b u s tie from t h e m a i n ship-service s w i t c h b o a r d
O t h e r n o n v i t a l loads are supplied o n l y one source
of power. A u t o m a t i c b u s transfers are installed
a t t h e loads to switch to the a l t e r n a t e feed in the
e v e n t t h a t n o r m a l s u p p l y is lost.
be m a i n t a i n e d a t all t i m e s to c e r t a i n reactor-con-
trol e q u i p m e n t . As previously s t a t e d this equip-
m e n t receives a n o r m a l a n d a n e m e r g e n c y supply.
Since t h e r e is a time d e l a y when the a u t o m a t i c bus
t r a n s f e r operates, the reactor auxiliariesfor a given
r e a c t o r p l a n t are split into two groups which are
fed from different a n d r e m o t e m a i n ship-service
switchboards. T h i s design g u a r a n t e e s c o n t i n u e d
control of t h e reactor u n d e r o t h e r t h a n a b n o r m a l
conditions.
T h e 120-volt d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m is considered
p a r t of the l i g h t i n g s y s t e m a n d will be covered
u n d e r the discussion of t h a t system.
T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m for n u c l e a r s u b m a r i n e s
is u n i q u e . Since all space w i t h i n a s u b m a r i n e
hull is utilized to its u t m o s t , p a r t i c u l a r care is
t a k e n in t h e design of the s y s t e m to insure con-
t i n u i t y of electric power for a period of approxi-
m a t e l y 5 rain w i t h o u t a n y i n t e r v e n t i o n b y a n op-
erator. Fig. 4 shows a t y p i c a l s u b m a r i n e distri-
b u t i o n system. T r u e , the basic s y s t e m is similar
to the t w o - g e n e r a t o r - p l a n t ship which operates
split bus; b u t care is t a k e n to m a i n t a i n a s u p p l y
of a l t e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t power to vital equip-
m e n t a t all times. On this d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m
there are two a l t e r n a t i n g - d i r e c t c u r r e n t motor-
g e n e r a t o r sets with reverse power-flow capability.

586 U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems

 These motor-generator sets supply either direct-
current power or alternating-current power to vital
equipment. One of these sets continuously floats
on the distribution system to supply power to vital
reactor controls in case of a failure of the ship-serv-
ice turbine-generator.
T h e individual components such as the switch-
gear of the split-plant system are not installed in
the same structure. Shock requirements dictate
t h a t a 6-in. space be maintained between two ad-
jacent structures. This requirement minimizes
the possibility of loss of electric power.
A diesel generator set and b a t t e r y are installed
for cold reactor start-up conditions. T h e diesel
generator set also serves to provide get-home
power if the reactor cannot be repaired at sea.
Design of Special Power-Distribution Systems
Computer-studies have proven t h a t the normal
voltage and frequency fluctuations which occur in
the standard ship service system cause erratic op-
eration of missile-guidance computers and result in
noise levels t h a t produce unreliable missile-guid-
ance systems. Therefore, missile components
require specially regulated frequency and voltage
power supplies.
Missile installations also increase the sta-
bility problem on ships. T h e majority of the
missile-system components are installed on the
main deck and above. Since weight and space are
at a premium in these levels and some means of
providing more stable power are required, the
N a v y designs as m a n y of the missile-system com-
ponents as practical for 400-cycle power. A
typical single Terrier missile installation with as
m a n y of its system components designed for 400-
cycle power as practical weighs in excess of 235
tons and requires approximately 18 per cent of the
area on the main deck and above on a destroyer-
leader-type ship. This represents quite a weight
and space saving since a 10-hp motor designed for
400-cycle is one sixth the weight and one t e n t h the
volume of the same motor designed for 60 cycles.
T h e question m a y arise as to why the N a v y
chose to design 400-cycle equipment after the diffi-
culties encountered with the electrical installation
on the USS T i m m e r m a n , DD828. T h e design of
the T i m m e r m a n was a success for the purpose for
which it was intended; namely, t h a t of finding the
minimum design limits of 400-cycle equipment and
systems. The N a v y received a wealth of knowl-
edge, on 400-cycle power from the DDS~8:~whieh
will result in a greater and more diversified use
of this frequency on future ships. "'"~'~ ~'
. As previously stated, some e o m p o ~ o i t s of the
missile-guidance systems require t h a t tfi~ voltage
and frequency regulation be within plus or minus
U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems
a/~ per cent with a recovery time from voltage
transients of 1/~0 see. Other components require
t h a t the m a x i m u m voltage transient will not ex-
ceed 1 per cent. At first a central 400-cycle sys-
t e m was planned b u t it was soon apparent t h a t the
m a x i m u m allowable voltage transient of I per cent
made this impossible. T o m e e t this transient re-
quirement, the generator rotor mass would have to
be increased or a flywheel attached to supply the
mass to absorb the excess transient. The size of
the load which would cause the m a x i m u m voltage
transient was such t h a t it made a generator of this
type impractical. Therefore, individual motor-
generator sets are installed to supply the types of
power required. Each load which is limited to a
m a x i m u m voltage transient of 1 per cent is sup-
plied from an individual motor-generator set.
T h e loads which require frequency regulation of
1/~ per cent are fed from motor-generator sets
which have a clutch between the motor and the
generator and thereby maintain a constant genera-
tor speed. The clutch can be either a magnetic-
"particle, hysteresis, or eddy-current type. The
demand for voltage regulation of 1~ per cent and
recovery time from transients of 1/~0 sec is m e t b y
employing a combined static exciter, and voltage
regulator. T h e generators supply switchboards
from which power is distributed to the loads.
These systems are presently installed and opera-
ting on naval ships. T h e y adequately m e e t the
requirements for which they were designed.
Lighting System
The shipboard lighting-distribution system is
designed for o p t i m u m operational economy, maxi-
m u m continuity of service, and m i n i m u m vulner-
abifity to mechanical and battle damage. The
system is primarily one of radial distribution with
load-center panels being established at the ap-
proximate electrical load center of a volume of the
ship, chosen to approach, as closely as possible, a
cube configuration. T h e feeders to these panels
will be either 450 volt or 120 volt chosen on the
basis of economy of the system. However, the
system yoltage in either ease will be 120 volts.
For m a n y years the primary source of illumina-
tion on naval ships was incandescent lamps which
provided good general illumination from inex-
pensive luminaires. However, at a b o u t the time
of the end of World W a r I I the N a v y made a
conceited effort to improve lighting aboard ships
and at this time fluorescent lamps were introduced
in a new line of lighting fixtures. S h o c k and
vibration problems were of u t m o s t importance but
satisfactory fixtures were designed to withstand
these evils.
When the N a v y became habitability conscious,
587
 further progress along the line of new detail illumi- Motors are divided into several categories as de-
nation, t h a t is desk lights, reading lights and berth termined b y the performance requirements for the
lights were installed for the comfort of the officers driven equipment and their environments. These
and men. categories are service classification, enclosure,
At the present time the N a v y has under study duty, speed, ambient temperature, starting cur-
and in the development stage several other ad- rent, and breakdown torque.
vancements which m a y some day be installed on T h e first of these, service classification, depends
board ships. Some of the new proposals being on the service condition of operation. The two
studied are 400-cycle supply to fluorescent lights, service classifications are N a v y service A and
luminous ceiling-type illumination, broad-band N a v y service C. N a v y service A motors are
blue lighting for areas where oscilloscopes must be those essential to the military effectiveness of the
constantly scanned, and electro-lun~nescent panel ship. N a v y service C motors are not essential to
lighting. These are all part of a continuing pro- the military effectiveness of the ship. Thus, a
g r a m to make the tasks of the men on .our ships _motor used to drive a gun m o u n t or.an.air,search
easier, their recreation hours more enjoyable, and radar on a c o m b a t a n t ship would necessarily be
their surroundings more livable. N a v y service A while a motor used to operate a
garbage grinder would be N a v y service C. To
General Requirements of Electrical Equipment assist in determining the proper classification of a
Now t h a t we have discussed the general rules particular motor application, a design data sheet,
for designing a ship's electrical distribution sys- which lists the most common types encountered
tem, let us investigate the requirements for the and their classification, has been developed as an
various components t h a t go to make up this sys- aid in electrical ship design. A N a v y service A
tem. motor is restricted in material (cast iron is not
allowed) and is designed for high shock service. A
Motors N a v y service C motor differs from a commercial
Electric motors comprise b y far the major por- motor only in the added features of corrosion pro-
tion of the electric-plant load. T h e n u m b e r and tection, radio interference noise, and special bear-
horsepower of electric motors have increased ing requirements.
steadily over the past 10 years. This is the result The second requirement to be considered is the
of the over-all increase in modern-day ship design, degree of motor enclosure. This is based on loca-
improved habitability standards, increased size of tion and service requirements. Installation of
aircraft, missile launchers and missile-guidance electrical equipment in spaces where gasoline
systems. vapors m a y occur is avoided whenever possible.
The basic requirements of electric motors for If an electric motor m u s t be installed in such a
shipboard use are similar to those for other N a v y space, it requires an explosion-proof enclosure.
electric equipment with respect to design, material For most shipboard motor installations drip-proof
and construction. Primary considerations are: protected enclosure is satisfactory. This provides
1 M a x i m u m reliability. the minimum degree of protection. Other degrees
2 M i n i m u m weight and space. of enclosure are watertight, for motors on the
3 M a x i m u m resistance to salt-water corrosion. weather deck and other locations subject to fre-
4 Satisfactory operation under shipboard con- quent spray; spraytight, for locations in an en-
ditions. vironment of steam, dust, oil v a p o r or acid fumes;
5 M i n i m u m cost of procurement, operation totally enclosed, for fuel-oil and lubricating~oil
and maintenance. pumps; and submersible, for vital equipment in-
6 M a x i m u m interchangeability and minimum stalled in locations which m a y be subjected to
n u m b e r of parts. flooding. Examples of the latter are portable sub-
7 M a x i m u m accessibility for ease of repair. mersible p u m p s and damage-control pumps.
While there are certain special electric-motor The third important design criterion of the elec-
applications in the Navy, just as in industry, tric motor is its duty. Any load required to
standard motor sizes have been selected for ship- operate for unrestricted periods of time at constant
board use. T h e y range in size from a l~-hp load must have a motor rated for continuous duty.
motor up to a 450-hp aircraft elevator p u m p This classification also includes m o t o r loads of an
motor. If t h e motor horsepower required does unpredictable d u t y cycle such as compressors and
not coincide with a standard rating, the next larger water pumps: Motors which operate for unre-
standard rating is used; the only exceptions are stricted times at reduced loads with an occasional
direct-current submarine motors, where the motor peak load are rated intermittent or varying duty.
rating is seldom larger than necessary. Examples are the anchor windlass, elevators, and

588 U.S.: Naval Ship Electrical Systems "

 steering gear. The third d u t y classification, short
time, is intended for a constant or varying load
which operates for a definite short time followed
b y a long shutdown to permit cooling. Examples
are motor-operated valves and hangar d o o r s .
Motor speed is another important design factor
and is determined b y the load. Constant-speed
motors have a very low slip and speed adjustment
is not necessary. This also applies to varying
speed motors which have a high slip character-
istic; they h a v e their application where changes
in speed with load occur. A winch motor requires
this speed characteristic. Multispeed motors are
used where operation at two or more speeds is re-
quired. T h e additiofigl reqtiirement i~f reversing
m a y be added for motor-driven deck machinery.
The m a x i m u m rated speed for most 60-cycle in-
duction motors driving auxiliary machinery is
3600 r p m while the minimum is 600 r p m (syn-
chronous speed). However, most motors used are
either 1800 or 3600 rpm.
The motor also must be designed for ambient
temperature. For motors in machinery spaces
a n d firerooms, the motor is designed for 50 C.
For all other locations the motor design is based
on an ambient temperature of 40 C. There are,
however, special applications where 65 C. class I t
insulation motors must be provided; for example,
exhaust fans located near the overhead in ma-
chinery spaces. Closely allied to t e m p e r a t u r e de-
sign is the method of cooling the motor. N a v y
service A totally enclosed auxiliary motors above 5
hp are fan-cooled. Other shipboard auxiliary
motors are cooled b y natural ventilation.
T h e design designation for three-phase squirrel-
cage induction motors is based on torque and cur-
rent requirements. Design A motors have limited
use on shipboard because of the high starting cur-
rent and breakdown torque involved. Design B
has the most common usage because of its normal
starting current and torque characteristies. De-
signs C and D both have high starting torque
characteristics with normal starting current.
T h e y are used for cranes, elevators, and similar
high-starting-torque applications.
Controllers
A controller is provided for every electric motor
installed. The selection of ambient temperature,
duty, and enclosure for the controller is based on
the same guide lines used for the motor. Opera-
tion of controllers is either manual or magnetic.
Manually operated controllers have nonautomatic
performance. Magnetic controllers m a y have
either automatic or semi-automatic performance.
Automatic and semi-automatic controllers ate
initially operated b y a manual switch (push-
U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems
button). Automatic controllers are then under
control of a master switch such as a limit, tem-
perature, or pressure switch. T h e majority of
controllers are semi-automatic. A common ap-
plication of automatic controllers is for a refrigera-
tor compressor. These are also semi-automatic
in t h a t they m a y be shut down b y a manual
"Stop" master switch.
Voltage protection is provided in all controllers.
.The three types of voltage protection are :
Low-Voltage Protection. This employs a mag-
netic controller whose contacts open upon reduc-
tion of voltage to a predetermined limit. I t pro-
vides the following safety features:
.a) P r e v e n t i o n of overloading the electrical sys-
t e m b y excessive motor-starting currents upon re-
turn of voltage, since controller must be restarted
manually.
b) Prevention of damage to driven auxiliaries.
c) Prevention of injury to operating personnel.
Low- Voltage Release. This also operates to open
the main contacts upon a decrease in voltage, but
upon return of voltage the motor starts automati-
cally. This protection is restricted to vital loads
such as steering gear and main lube-oil pumps so
as to avoid excessive starting currents when a
group of motors are automatically placed on the
line upon return of voltage.
Low-Voltage Release Effect. This t y p e of pro-
teetion requires only a manual, nonautomatic-type
controller since its contacts do not open upon a
reduction or loss of voltage. I t has the same effect
as the low-voltage release in t h a t the m o t o r starts
automatically upon return of voltage. I t is ade-
quate where the starting-current-limitation pro-
tective feature is not required.
Overload protection also is provided for all al-
ternating-current motors of ~ - h p size and larger.
This consists of a coil which trips the line contacts
when the load current exceeds a n y value between
116 to 125 per cent of the rated motor current for
more then 30 rain. Controllers for vital motor
loads are often equipped with an emergency run
device. This feature requires manual operation
and is used to render the overload protective de-
vice ineffective. I t is usually a pushbutton and
cannot be locked in position.
Full-voltage, across-the-line starting controllers
are used for the majority of shipboard alternating-
current electric motors. However, if the alternat-
ing-current motor-starting current will cause a
voltage dip in excess of the design limits of the
distribution system, a reduced-voltage starting
controller must be employed. Direct-current
controllers for motors of ~ hp and less are across-
the-line type. Controllers for larger d-e motors
are usually of reduced-voltage starting type.
589
Transformers
Distribution transformers are necessary to sup-
ply 120-volt alternating-current circuits which
cannot be operated on the ship-service primary
voltage of 450 volts. Common 120-volt applica-
tions are interior communication and fire control,
galley equipment, lighting, electronics and small
ventilation fans. Transformers are installed on a
functional basis; t h a t is, separate banks are pro-
vided for each individual 120-volt load or panel. ,
In general, all transformers used on shipboard
are single phase, connected in delta-delta, three-
phase banks. T h e transformers in a particular
three-phase b a n k all have identical ratings and are
selected from the standard size next above the
KVA capacity requirements. The capacity re-
quirements range from 100 to 125 per cent of the
connected load depending upon the type of equip-
m e n t supplied. With this arrangement, one
single-phase transformer m a y be removed and the
remaining two can still operate at approximately
58 per cent of the three-phase rating on an open
delta connection. Spare transformers are not
provided. T h e y usually have a drip-proof en-
closure, and are of the dry type, naturally cooled.
Transformers are designed for continuous rating in
a 40-C ambient and are derated to 94 per cent in a
50-C ambient.
Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers perform a vital function in pro-
tecting the-ship-service electric-distribution sys-
t e m as was stated previously. Therefore the cir-
cuit breakers themselves must have certain char-
acteristics to provide this protection. T h e three
types of breakers used b y the N a v y are air
circuit breakers (ACB), air-quench breakers
(AQB), and low-voltage breakers (ALB).
The type ACB circuit breaker has an open frame
and is classified according to its frame size. T h e
frame size indicates the m a x i m u m coil rating which
a particular breaker contains. A 640-amp frame
size would have a m a x i m u m continuous current
rating of 640 amp. The type ACB breaker also
has ranges of overcurrent protection; namely,
long time delay, short time delay and instantane-
ous trip. These settings of the trip coils are made
at the factory. Thus, for a predetermined fault
current of given magnitude and duration, the long
time delay coil will trip the breaker. The short
time delay operates at a higher fault current in a
shorter time and the instantaneous trip operates
with no intentional time delay anywhere from its
setting up to the interrupting rating of the circuit
breaker. The largest A C B - t y p e circuit breaker
now used b y the N a v y is the 4000H frame size. I t
will carry 4000 a m p continuous current and satis-
590 U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems
factorily interrupt a m a x i m u m alternating-current
fault of 100,000 amp. I t is to be installed to pro-
tect the 2500-kw ship-service generators on the
CVA(N). ACB circuit breakers also have a short-
time rating in amperes. This is the highest cur-
rent t h a t the circuit breaker can carry for speci-
fied short time intervals before damage results
from thermal and magnetic stresses.
The air-quench breaker (AQB) differs from the
ACB breaker chiefly in its construction. I t is en-
closed in a molded case and can be put in operation
b y manual means only. T h e AQB breaker is
used chiefly for protection of feeder circuits with
a load current of 250 amp or less. There is an
AQB-600 a m p frame size breaker but, in general,
where selective tripping breakers in series are re-
quired, it is no longer used. A new type of AQB
which has been adopted for shipboard use is the
fused AQB. As the name implies, this is a stand-
ard AQB with a current-limiting fuse added in the
molded case. The fuse is of the silver-sand type
and has an interrupting capacity of 100,000 amp.
This fused breaker m a y be installed for back-up
protection where the load current is within the
AQB-frame-size limits but the available short-cir-
cuit current exceeds the m a x i m u m interrupting
capacity of a conventional AQB-type breaker.
The disadvantage of carrying replacement fuses is
more than offset b y the installation of the smaller
and more economical AQB as compared to the
ACB circuit breaker.
The low-voltage breakers, ALB-5 and ALB-10,
have continuous current ratings of 50 and 200 amp,
respectively, at 125 volts. The long-time delay
coil is of the thermal-overload type while the in-
stantaneous trip operates magnetically. These
same breakers are presently being modified to ex-
tend their use to 450-volt systems.
The electrical characteristics of all these circuit
breakers are listed in Table 1.
Cable
Without a reliable means of transferring electric
power from the source to the load, all other strin-
gent equipment requirements would be to no avail.
For this reason N a v y electric cable must conform
to the following requirements:
1 I t must have m a x i m u m usable life under
service conditions of temperature, moisture and
mechanical abuse.
2 I t should have minimum weight for the serv-
ice intended.
3 I t should be located to minimize damage
from battle action.
4 I t should be located to provide for m a x i m u m
dissipation of internally generated heat.
N a v y cable falls under the general classification

\
\xxJ, \
175,
% RATED CURRENT
% R A T E D VOLTAGE . . . . . . . . .
I I
o zo 4o 6o
OUTI~JT- %
Fig. 5 Derating of selenium rectifiers with increased
ambient temperature
of either cable for nonflexing service or cable for re-
peated flexing service. Factors involved are the
insulation, general construction and service condi-
tions. The most common type of nonflexing cable
is SGA which is shipboard, general use, armored
with silicon-treated glass-tape insulation. This
cable is used for all portions of electric-distribu-
tion systems including power, lighting, electronics,
interior communication, and fire control. T h e
T S G A three-phase power cable sizes v a r y from
TSGA-3 which will carry 10 a m p at 50 C to
T S G A 400 which is rated at 400 amp. If the cur-
rent demand exceeds 400 amp, additional cables of
equal size are run in parallel as required. The
approximate cross-sectional area of the conductor
in thousands of circular mils is represented b y the
number following the cable type. Thus, TSGA-
400 is approximately 400,000 circular mils; it is
actually 413,600 circular mils. T h e most widely
used cable for repeated flexing service is I-IOF
which is heat and oil resistant, flexible with butyl-
rubber insulation. I t has its application in port-
able appliances and revolving structures such as
turret columns.
The allowable voltage drop in a cable from the
power source to the load is another prime consider-
ation. Cable used to supply motor loads is usu-
ally selected on the basis of sufficient current-
carrying c a p a c i t y . N a v y cable is so designed
t h a t if this requirement is met, the voltage drop
will be within allowable limits, provided the cable
length does not exceed 250 ft.
Factors involved in the installation of electric
cable are location, method of support, and use of
\ end sealing and stuffing tubes. Allowance must
be made for deflection of bulkheads and decks.
N o t more than one row of cables is ever installed
on a single hangar. " Cable runs must be as direct
\ as possible without interfering with piping, ventila-
tion ducts, or possible maintenance required for
machinery. Spaces harmful to cable or which are
subject to explosion are avoided wherever possible.
Sealing of cable ends is required to prevent water
damage and disruption of energy supply to other-
wise intact electrical equipment. Cable~end seal-
ing also serves to minimize the possibility'of, addi-
tional flooding from a flooded space to other com-
partments. Power cable located below the water-
tight level is sealed and entry into watertight en-
closures is made through stuffing tubes. All
watertight or airtight bulkheads and decks em-
I ploy stuffing tubes for cable penetration.
6o IOO 12o
T h e metal straps used to support electric cable
also serve to ground cable armor. Armored cables
connected to electronic equipment which m a y
cause radio interference are bonded to the equip-
ment. Radio receiving antenna and sonar trans-
ducer input cables are usually run in separate wire-
ways. If they are installed on hangars with power
and lighting cables, a minimum separation of 2 in.
is required.
All power and lighting cables are m a r k e d to in-
dicate the source, voltage, service (power, lighting,
emergency), and destination. T h e purpose of this
designating system is to adequately identify cables
from working plans during installation and after-
wards for maintenance and damage control. This
marking is accomplished b y means of attached
cable tags.
Rectifiers and Motor Generators
T h e three types of electric-power-supply con-
version equipment for shipboard use are motor-
generator sets, rectifiers, and transformers.
Transformers were discussed previously. Motor-
generator sets and rectifiers are required to provide
electric power which differs from t h a t supplied b y
the ship-service generators. There are numerous
loads on alternating-current ships which require
direct-current power. T h e more common applica-
tions are aircraft starting and servicing, degauss-
ing, electronic equipment, missile servicing, inte-
rior communication and fire control, test switch-
boards, and welding. Although motor-generator
U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems 591
sets are still extensively used aboard ship, rectifiers
are finding ever-increasing application as their
design and performance are improved. Where a
frequency other than that provided by the 60-
cycle ship service is needed, a motor-generator set
must be used, as for 400-cycle gyrocompass re-
quirements. Direct-current power for welding is
also supplied by motor-generator sets owing to the
large inrush currents and intermittent-duty type
of load. However, rectifiers are now used exclu-
sively for supplying direct-cfirrent power for air-
craft starting and servicing on carriers and heli-
copter ships. Direct-current power to electronic
equipment also is supplied by rectifiers. Some of
the outstanding advantages of rectifiers are:
1 Good efficiency over a wide range of loads.
2 High power factor (approximately 0.95).
3 Small size and weight (approximately 30
per cent less weight and volume than the motor-
generator set of same rating).
4 High resistance to shock and vibration.
8 Minimum maintenance required.
6 Static device with quiet operation.
7 Can be constructed to any capacity b y
proper assembling of stacks.
8 No standby units required since faulty
stacks can be readily replaced.
9 Can be dispersed in ship and placed near the
load alleviating space problems and long cable
runs.
There are, however, certain disadvantages in the
use of rectifiers. T h e y must be derated when op-
erated above the ambient temperatm'e for which
they are designed. For this reason, installation
requirements are written so as to insure maximum
possible cooling and ventilation. Fig. 5 shows
typical derating of selenium rectifiers required
when operating above design temperature. An-
other disadvantage is the aging of rectifiers. This
causes an increase in the forward resistance and
the alternating-current input" voltage must be
raised to maintain a constant direct-current out-
put voltage. Some rectifiers tend to age more
rapidly than others; it is difficult to predict ac-
curately the life of a metallic rectifier.
Recently silicon rectifiers have been specified for
use on nuclear submarines to supply static excita-
tion for the ship-service turbine-generator sets.
T h e y have the added advantage of less space and
weight as compared to selenium rectifiers of the
same capacity. The requirement for increased
ventilation has been satisfied by locating the unit
in the cooling air stream of the turbine-generator.
Standardization
Standardization of electrical equipment is far
more important in the N a v y than in industry.
592 U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems
The outstanding advantage of standardization in
commercial equipment is the ease in procurement
of replacement parts. In addition to this the
N a v y standardizes their electrical equipment to
reduce the number of repair parts carried aboard
ship. This results in both space and weight sav-
ings. Although electric motor sizes are standard-
ized, as previously stated, their applications em-
brace such a diversified field that it is often diffi-
cult to install motors of identical construction,
even though they may have the same horse-
power, rating. However, interchangeability is
achieved to the greatest extent possible by estab-
lishing maximum dimensions, functional charac-
teristics and quality considerations for a particular
motor. The ambie~t temperature used with the
permissible temperature rise controls the selection
of frame sizes. Functional characteristics include
horsepower, speed, voltage, torque, enclosure and
starting current. Quality as regards material
and noise is determined b y stalidard test methods.
Controllers, circuit breakers, transformers and
cable are all standardized items. Thus, there
would be only one particular manufacturer's 640-
amp frame size type ACB circuit breaker or 50-
kva transformer installed on a particular ship.
Also, if a ship is designed for diesel-electric propul-
sion, the same manufacturer usually provides the
diesel engines for both the propulsion and ship-
service generators, even though they will probably
not have the same rating.
A publication of military standards was issued
in July 1953. Its purpose is to attain the highest
degree of standardization practical for all products
used b y the Armed Forces. Standardization does
suffer when a commercial ship is converted for the
Navy. It is then necessary to carry both com-
mercial and N a v y spare parts.
Electric Propulsion
At one time the use of electric systems for ship
propulsion was widespread, especially for ships re-
quiring relatively large shaft horsepower. Today
this type of propulsion system has practically been
replaced b y the modern, highly developed and
efficient geared drives. The geared drive not only
is more eff~.cient but requires less space and weighs
less than the electric propulsion system. How-
ever, for some applications the electric drive should
be investigated thoroughly. Examples are tugs,
icebreakers, and ships that require power sources
which can be supplied b y the propulsion generat-
ing equipment during periods when the ship is not
being propelled.
The alternating-current propulsion system has
characteristics similar to the geared drive in that
there is a fixed ratio between the prime mover a n d
the shaft speed. Shaft speed is controlled by
varying the prime-mover speed. A direct-current
system has greater flexibility of control and allows
for a better matching of prime-mover power char-
acteristics to a ship having widely varying operat-
ing conditions. The direct-current will be
heavier and less efficient than the alternating-cur-
rent system. The design requirements for the
equipment and system are similar to the design
requirements of any of the Navy's other electrical
systems except the voltages and method of pro-
tecting the system are different. For alternating-
current systems, voltage levels as high as 6900
volts have been used. For direct-current systems,
a maximum limit of 900 volts per armature is al-
lowed. Wherever feasible, system short-circuit
protection will be obtained by the use of circuit
breakers. If the circuit breaker does not have
adequate interrupting capacity, then provision is
made for automatic field removal from the motor
and generator. The selection of a series loop or
parallel propulsion circuit for a direct-current sys-
tem requires analysis of the particular application.
In general, the series loop circuit is preferable but
the parallel circuit is always investigated.
Comparison of the Electrical System for a Navy
Ship and Commercial Ship
The basic development and system protection
for ships of both types of service is similar. There
is, however, a greater emphasis on continuity of
power t o a larger variety of equipment on N a v y
ships. This is accomplished by extensive use of
two and in some instances three separate feeders.
These feeders are designated as normal, alternate,
and emergency and the load is supplied from these
feeders b y means of automatic bus-transfer equip-
ment. As shown in the discussion on system
tolerances, the requirements of t h e s y s t e m voltage
and frequency regulation on N a v y ships are much
more stringent than those normally required for
commercial ships. This is brought about b y the
various types of special equipment, for example mis-
sile-system components, which are installed on N a v y
ships and are not required by commercial ships.
The requirements for the individual components
making up the electrical system for a N a v y ship
are more rigid than those for commercial ships.
This is primarily the result of shock and vibration
requirements as well as the a t t e m p t to provide the
smallest and lightest equipment. For this reason
higher cable-current densities than allowable for
commercial application are used.
The generating plants usually have a larger
capacity than those required for a commercial
ship.
As a result of the special requirements for the
U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems
electrical plant of a N a v y ship, the cost is much
higher than for a comparable commercial installa-
tion.
Outlook for the Future
During the past 10 years the growth of electric
power for ships has been phenomenal. The
450-volt, 60-cycle system reached its practical
design limit on the nuclear-powered carrier.
Studies indicate that power requirements will
continue to increase. Therefore, higher volt-
age and frequency systems must be designed.
The N a v y is now studying a 2400-volt, 60-cycle
system and extended use of the 400-cycle system.
It is hoped t h a t b y the use of these two systems
the shipboard electrical system will stay within
practical limits, weight and space-wise, and still
meet the increased speed response and closely
regulated frequency and voltage requirements of
the missile and nuclear age. Rotating machinery
and equipment with moving parts cause a main-
tenance problem. As more complicated systems
are installed on ships the maintenance problem
mounts. The N a v y is striving to develop equip-
ment with few or no moving parts. Interesting
possibilities being investigated are:
1 A means of propulsion based on the use of
electromagnetic pumps.
2 A silent type ventilation system based on
electrostatic principles.
3 The production of refrigeration and elec-
tricity by thermal electric material.
4 The production of high-pressure air by plas-
molds.
5 The use of a fuel cell for continuous supply
of direct-current power.
There is a saying in the missile field that what is
operational is obsolete. Since some margin for
future growth must be designed into the electric
system on Naval ships, the N a v y must not only
keep abreast of present developments but antici-
pate developments of ten or fifteen years hence.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assist-
ance of the engineering personnel in the Electronic-
Electrical Design Branch of the Bureau of Ships
for technical comments and guidance.
References
1 "Recent-Naval Progress," Bureau of Navi-
gation, June 1887.
2 A. J. Rovero, "Rectifiers Displace Motor
Generator Sets Aboard Naval Vessels," BuShips
Journal, February 1954.
3 "Reference Book for Ship's Service Electric
593
Power Plants and Electric Propulsion Systems,"
NavShips 250-660, 1945.
4 RADM. H. G. Rickover, USN, "Ship's Serv-
ice Power Systems for Naval Vessels," Electrical
Engineering, August, 1945.
5 T. E. Cassey, "Alternating Current in the
Electrical Plant on" Naval Vessels," vol. 44, Jour-
nal of the American Society of Naval Engineers,
1932.
Discussion
W.A. Hall, Associate Member: The authors have
clearly and concisely enumerated and expounded
upon the various design criteria for Naval Ship-
board electrical 'systems. T h e y have pointed out
the problems involved in engineering a power plant
that occupies minimum space, provides utmost
reliability, contains the correct amount of reserve
capacity when new, and yet which, later on, will
be flexible enough to supply power to some new
and hitherto unheard of weapon system. The
last mentioned portion of the p r o b l e m - - t h a t of
anticipating the growth of the load for any partic-
ular ships p l a n t - - is a k n o t t y one and I cer-
tainly cannot help with its solution. I would,
however, like to enlarge somewhat on the section
entitled, "Outlook for the Future."
In this particular section the authors state that
the 450-volt 60-cycle system reached its practical
design limit on the nuclear-powered carrier. The
ship service power plant on this vessel, as illus-
trated in Fig. 2, consists of eight 2500-kw turbine-
driven generators creating a total installed plant
capacity of 20,000 kw exclusive of the diesel-driven
generators.
It is true that some of these machines are spare
units and that the eight machines will never be
paralleled but the fact is that the paralleling of
just three of these machines would create a condi-
tion wherein the combined short-circuit-current
capabilities of the generators would exceed the
interrupting capacity of the largest available low-
voltage air-circuit breakers. Probably it will not
be necessary to operate for any length of time with
three generators paralleled on the system but it is
my opinion that in this case the 450-volt system
has been pushed somewhat beyond its practical
limit. This system would appear to have lost
some of its flexibility because it has been pushed
too far. If the normal load requirements increase
to the point that operation of three generators is
necessary, then it appears that split-plant opera-
594 U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems
6 E. F. Seaman, "Standardization and En-
gineering Planning," Magazine of Standards, June,
1957.
7 J . w . Kellogg, "Uses of Electricity on Ship-
board," reprinted from Marine Engineering, New
York, N.Y.
8 J o h n Oliver, "History of American Tech-
nology," Ronald Press Co., New York, N. Y.,
1956.
tion is also automatically necessitated. Perhaps
this is not considered to be a disadvantage by the
Navy. I would appreciate it if one of the authors
would touch briefly on this point and explain the
operation of this plant; (1) under its presently
calculated normal load, and (2) with the same nor-
mal load expanded to take care of a 5 or 10 year
anticipated growth. To me it seems as though a
higher level of voltage should have been chosen
for the generating plant in this case with perhaps
some large motors operating directly at this volt-
age and all other loads supplied through unit sub-
stations located at the approximate centers of the
loads. Again, I would like to hear the authors'
views on this point.
The authors touch on the subject o f the 400-
cycle installation on the USS Timmerman. T h e y
state that the N a v y received a wealth of knowl-
edge from this experiment and that the experi-
ment was a success. I am glad to see these state-
ments. I would like to supplement them by add-
ing that, in Iny opinion, every segment of indus-
try that contributed to the Timmerman plant
profited by the knowledge gained while so doing.
For example, the General Electric Company built
for this ship a 600-kw, 1000-volt, 400-cycle turboal-
ternator set designed to operate at 24,000 rpm.
After some initial troubles and some remodeling of
the generator, the set was made to perform quite
successfully. Brush life, however, remained a
problem because brushes seldomlasted more than
a few weeks. With the knowledge gained on the
Timmerman set we have been able to build 12,000
rpm sets of the same rating with complete success.
In similar fashion we profited b y the develop-
ment work that was performed for the Timmer-
man, in the areas of motors and motor-control
equipment. The knowledge acquired by us dur-
ing the oft-time painful development stages has
already proven valuable in other areas, and I am
sure will continue to prove valuable in the future.
 Cdr. J. N. Thornburg, USN, Member: The authors
have done an excellent job of providing a concise
exposition of electrical system design criteria
affecting US N a v a l ships. The continuing rapid
growth of warship electrical requirements and the
added requirements imposed b y conversion from
guns to missiles lends particular pertinence to the
"paper at this time. I t is incumbent on ship de-
signers in every engineering and naval architec-
tural category to become increasingly aware of
these criteria since the design of the electrical sys-
tem affects to some degree practically every space
on the ship. This paper, being couched in lan-
guage easily understandable b y anyone with a
minimum knowledge of electricity, provides a
basis for the noneleetrical designer to understand
the electrical system requirements.
I t is realized t h a t time and space limitations
precluded detailed t r e a t m e n t of all phases of this
subject. However, it is felt t h a t an expansion in
detail of some of the areas would be helpful.
Specifically, more detail on power analyses for
generator sizing and some discussion of the con-
troversial aspects of grounded versus ungrounded
systems and radial versus network distribution
seem pertinent.
The selection and size of the electrical generat-
ing plant, as is stated in the paper, depends on the
preparation of an electrical load analysis. I t is
apparent t h a t this load analysis cannot be exact.
In a comprehensive circuit- which includes a large
number of consuming devices, it is to a high degree
of probability unlikely t h a t all of them w i l l b e in
service at the same time. I t then is incumbent on
the system designer to arrive at some figure for
weighing the various loads or groups of loads for
each operating condition so as to approximate the
probability of a particular load or group of loads
being in service at a given time. The final sizing
of the generator is dependent to a degree on the
accuracy of these "probability" estimates, which
must be based largely on experience and engineer-
ing. judgment. Guide lines for the estimation
of these "operating load factors" (which when
multiplied b y the connected load give the demand
load for a particular operating condition) have
been prepared b y the Bureau of Ships and are tab-
ulated in Design D a t a Sheet 6101-1. These
suggested factors should be approached with cau-
tion in the design of a new ship since new types of
a r m a m e n t and variations in the propulsion plant
m a y drastically alter the suggested factors for
large loads or groups of loads.
The problem is similar to t h a t of sizing feeder
cable. Here, though, the problem is m u c h sim-
pler and susceptible to more exact t r e a t m e n t since
U.S. Naval Ship Elecfrical Systems
only a small number of loads will be fed from a n y
given feeder cable. The determination of total
power requirements is, of necessity, m u c h more
complex and at best an approximation.
A f t e r sizing the generators based on the esti-
m a t e d load for the various operating conditions,
future load growth and the other criteria men-
tioned in the paper, it is possible t h a t the number
and size of generating units will result in require-
ments which are not compatible with the available
space. In the design of warships some compro-
mise is inevitable in arriving at a well-integrated
design. I t is assumed t h a t such would be the case
here and t h a t the criteria for sizing the generator
plant are not inviolate but should be m e t if at all
possible.
The US N a v y has consistently held to an un-
grounded distribution system; t h a t is with a-c
systems, a 3-phase, 3-wire distribution with insu-
lated neutral is used. I t might be valuable to re-
view the advantages and disadvantages for un-
grounded power-distribution systems.
Ungrounded distribution systems are suscep-
tible to overvoltages of several times normal volt-
age from several causes. Among these are:
a) Inductive impedance phase-to-ground
fault.
b) Repetitive arcing or "restrike" resulting
from a sputtering or intermittent fault o n one
phase. This m a y be the result of" successive
breakdown and sealoff of the space between con-
ductor and ground, or to vibration causing a con-
ducting cable to m a k e intermittent contact with
ground, or from various other causes.
c) I n a d v e r t e n t contact with higher voltage
circuits.
d) Resonantly tuned inductance-capacitance
load circuits.
There m a y be other overvoltages from other
sources, b u t all of those listed can be prevented
through the use of a grounded-neutral distribution
system. I n industrial practice, most systems
have been either designed to operate with a
grounded neutral or have converted from un-
grounded to grounded. Typically the outage rate
and equipment damage are substantially reduced
after system grounding.
.In addition to the inherent protection from
overvoltages provided b y the grounded system,
another m a j o r advantage is t h a t line-to-ground
faults are immediately cleared. While this is in-
deed an advantage it also m a y be a disadvantage
in t h a t there is greater possibility of violation of
one of the m a j o r design criteria of the system,
continuity of service. With an ungrounded sys-
tem, service interruptions will not be experi-
595
 eneed as a result of a single ground. Therefore,
continuity of service should be better with the un-
grounded system than with the grounded system.
This presmnes t h a t the degree of supervision of
naval ships is such that a single ground will be dis-
covered prior to a second ground occurring. If
such were the case, the interruptions in service due
to faults to ground would be eliminated on naval
ships except in the unlikely event of two grounds
occurring simultaneously. Unfortunately the de-
tection of a single fault to ground is not always
easy. High-resistance grounds are particularly
difficult to detect and locate. Additionally, there
is always considerable leakage and capacitance to
ground on board ship caused by the enviromnent in
which a ship's electrical system must operate.
The concept of a perfectly isolated system is of
questionable validity. Without this isolation it
no longer can be claimed t h a t a single fault to
ground will not cause an interruption in service.
However, it m a y be claimed with some validity
t h a t there is a.greater likelihood of maintaining
continuity of service with the ungrounded sys-
tem.
In view of the foregoing, it appears t h a t adher-
ence to an ungrounded system is questionable and
will become even more so as the systems become
more complex. With greatly enlarged and more
complex systems and a scarcity of skilled techni-
cians, the possibility of undetected grounds in the
system increased rapidly. This added to the
overvoltage disadvantage of the ungrounded sys-
tem would seem to suggest a re-examination of the
policy of maintaining ungrounded electrical sys-
tems on naval ships.
The authors state t h a t all US N a v y ships used
radial distribution systems. I t might be pointed
out t h a t this involves an apparent contradiction
oi the basic criterion of continuity of service. To
review briefly, in the radial system each load has
alternate paths. At any one time only one p a t h
carries power from the generator to the load. If
a fault or failure occurs in the connected path, an
alternate p a t h is switched in either automatically
or manually. This of necessity introduces a brief
interruption in service with its concomitant diffi-
culties. I n . t h e network type of distribution sys-
tem each load is supplied through m a n y paths
simultaneously. If a fault or failure occurs then
the failed branch is switched out and the remaining
branches carry the load. Therefore, there is no
interruption in service.
I t might appear from the foregoing t h a t the
network system would be preferable. However,
it should be mentioned t h a t there is a possibility
of a complete loss of power under some cas-
aulty conditions with a network system, and t h a t
596 U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems
the network system permits larger fault currents.
I t is believed t h a t the Bureau of Ship's position
in using the radial rather than the network system
is based primarily on the possibility of complete
loss of power, and secondarily on the fact t h a t the
network system results in somewhat more com-
plexity and weight than a radial system. How-
ever offsetting these factors is the fact t h a t in the-
n e t w o r k system all power sources are parallelled
at the load and all load points receive power f r o m
any generator in service and over at least three
different paths. The result of having all power
sources contributing to all of the network at Gne
time is a reduction in frequency variations result-
ant from large loads being connected and discon-
nected from the system. These two advantages,
that is, better inherent frequency control and no
interruption of service with a fault, should lead to
a re-examination of the desirability of network
systems in naval ships.
J. A. Wasmund, Member:In considering the prob-
lems presented b y the very low-voltage a n d
frequency tolerances required of missile, nuclear,
and electronic installations on N a v y ships, it ap-
pears t h a t the voltage problem has been brought
under control quite well b y the use of static excit-
ers and voltage regulators. As the authors point
out, the frequency regulation of the distribution
system is controlled b y the governor of the prime
mover of the ship-service generator. I t appears
t h a t more thought given to the use of an electric
governor might produce worth-while results. The
electric governor load-sensing characteristic antic-
ipates frequency change and therefore is able to
control to extremely close limits under conditions
of changing load or other transient disturbances.
The statement is made t h a t shipboard power
has been standardized at either 60 cycles or 400
cycles, with a later reference to variable-frequency
generators for reactor-coolant pumping power. I t
is true t h a t until recently these two frequencies
were used for practically all power but with the
rapid growth in the application of nuclear power
systems the use of 30-cycle and variable frequency
from 15 to 60 cycles is becoming so prevalent t h a t
they are no longer an exception, but rather com-
prise a good p a r t o f the power generated on board
a modern nuclear vessel.
I t is mentioned t h a t m i n i m u m weight and space
are primary considerations in design of motors.
I t could be pointed out t h a t these considerations
are also of great importance in design of switch-
gear and t h a t much work has been done along
these lines. The majority of the nuclear sub-
marines as well as the later aircraft carriers and
the nuclear cruiser C G N 9 are being outfitted with
aluminum-frame switchboards which effect a con- M. W. Pully, Member: The following comments
siderable saving in weight over comparable steel are offered as pertinent to the subject m a t t e r of
switchboards. the paper.
T h e authors make the s t a t e m e n t t h a t fuses are 1 In the foreword several methods of control-
not used in series with type AQB breakers greater ling the frequency of motor-driven generators are
than 100-amp frame size. However, they point mentioned. Another method is available in which
out later t h a t the AQB-LF250 is a standard N a v y a motor-generator set with a wound-rotor, induc-
breaker, using current limiting fuses with a 250- tion-motor driver is used and in which the motor
a m p frame AQB breaker. I t m a y be t h a t they speed is regulated automatically b y means of a fre-
had a different type of fuse application in mind in quency regulator acting on the wound-rotor-motor
making the original statement but there appears secondary resistance.
to be a contradiction. 2 Also it is stated t h a t the rectifier is replacing
Standardization in switchgear has been a goal the motor-generator set for direct-current power
of the Navy, not only in component parts as men- supply. The increasing use of the rectifier is dis-
tioned, but in entire switchboard units designed cussed later more fully. However, for m o t o r
for specific purposes. Ideally, this would permit driven deck machinery the rectifier has not yet
complete interchangeability between switchboard been proven satisfactory since present t y p e recti-
units from different manufacturers and also m a k e fiers are one way only and therefore do not permit
it possible to stock spare units for quick replace- the regenerative braking of overhauling loads
m e n t in damaged switchboards. Practically, required with most deck machinery.
though, the shipbuilders have been given so much 3 Class H insulation is mentioned as being ap-
latitude in designing electrical systems t h a t very plied where the ambient temperature is above 50 C.
few " s t a n d a r d " units have been applied without However, class H insulation is also used as a means
modifications. These standard units are being of reducing the weight of electrical equipment as in
designed to accept circuit-breaker assemblies from 400-cycle generators and 400-cycle transformers.
the various manufacturers on a completely inter- Although sufficient data for long-time opera-
changeable basis. tion m a y not be available to prove its moisture
I t also might be pointed out t h a t the difficul- resisting qualities, there also seems to be a definite
ties mentioned in connection with the electrical advantage of Class H insulation over classes A and
system on the USS Timmerman, DD828, were B in extremely d a m p or humid locations.
somewhat compounded b y the utilization of 1000
volts as well as the 400 cycles. The generation of Cdr. O. T. Estes, USCG, Member: There can be no
1000-volt power has been at least temporarily dis- quarrel with the statements made in this very in-
carded in favor of the 2400-volt study mentioned formative paper because these statements are
in this paper. true. However, it is felt t h a t the words used b y
I n the field of propulsion the authors point out the authors in comparing naval ships with com-
t h a t geared drive is not only more efficient but mercial ships lead to the inference t h a t the de-
requires less space and weighs less t h a n the elec- signers of merchant ships are not concerned with
tric propulsion system. This statement is un- c o n t i n u i t y of service. This is not the case.
deniably true and in addition it also might have True the N a v y is concerned with continuous
been stated t h a t the first cost of electric propul- power supply to vital circuits, including systems
sion is considerably higher. In spite of these three considered vital such as missile systems, guns,
strikes against us, we in the electrical business are and so on, which the commercial ships do not even
still able to apply electric drive to vessels requir- possess, b u t continuity of power to vital circuits
ing high maneuverability a n d / o r constant horse- is not overlooked in commercial ships.
power at the propeller under a wide range of ship Electrical systems common to b o t h naval and
conditions and propeller speeds. m e r c h a n t ships, which are required for the safety
I t has been bur experience t h a t the series loop of ship and personnel, such as lighting, com-
circuit with a number of generators feeding a sin- " munieations, emergency loudspeakers (battle
gle propulsion motor usually has sufficient advan- announcing), damage control . a n d fire-fighting
tages to dictate its use. However, for vessels equipment are considered vital in b o t h types of
requiring more t h a n 9.000 hp in a single-armature vessels. These vital systems are usually supplied
m o t o r and utilizing three or more generator sets, a through automatic transfer switchgear to emer-
study should be made comparing series-connected gency systems both in naval and merchant ships.
generators with parallel-connected generators in Generally, emergency power for naval surface
order to m a k e certain t h a t the system offering the ships is provided b y means of emergency diesel-
greatest number of advantages is used. generator sets. In cases of failure of the ship's

U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems 597

service power supply the emergency sets m u s t be
started (usually automatically) before emergency
power is available for most vital circuits. In large
commercial passenger ships greater continuity of
power supply to vital circuits is provided t h a n is
available on most naval surface ships. This is
accomplished b y providing a storage b a t t e r y as a
t e m p o r a r y source of emergency power for the vital
circuits, and b y using a diesel-generator set as a
final source of emergency power designed to back
up the t e m p o r a r y source.
For example, emergency lighting on board pas-
senger vessels is of utmost importance. One
merely has to visualize the stampede which could
result in a darkened ship with passengers crowding
to the lifeboat to see the need for emergency light-
ing at all costs. Here, in the commercial ship,
emergency lighting is maintained through floating
emergency batteries directly or through conver-
sion units in a fashion similar to t h a t described by
the authors for the distribution systems in nuclear
submarines. These emergency batteries are usu-
ally backed up b y automatically started emer-
gency diesel generators which form the final emer-
gency system.
The foregoing comments are not intended as
criticism of the paper but rather to clear up any
misconception t h a t might develop in regard to
merchant-ship design.
R. S. Berney, Associate Member: About a year ago
one of our leading tanker operators approached
us with the idea of installing some additional cargo
pumps. T h e y already had discussed with the
General Electric C o m p a n y the possibility of using
a highez~ voltage inasmuch as the p u m p s would
require higher power than a 440-volt system
could handle satisfactorily. After consultation it
was decided t h a t the 2300-volt plant would be
entirely satisfactory. We therefore had the
pleasure of working with General Electric and the
tanker people in the development of this system
and the result was t h a t two 2300-volt pumping
motors were installed in the engine room to replace
two of the existing pumps.
I believe we should work toward the develop-
m e n t of 2300-volt pumping systems not only for
tankers, passenger ships, and N a v a l vessels, but
also wherever it would be possible to use the
higher voltage.
G. O. Watson, 4 Visitor: M y personal experience
has been mainly with merchant ships with only a
slight acquaintance with N a v a l requirements, and
4 Retired, formerly Principal Electrical Engineer Sur-
veyor, Lloyd's Register of Shipping. Address, 15 Prentis
Road, Streatham, London S. W. 16, England.
598 U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems
it is from this standpoint t h a t I venture to com-
m e n t on this very valuable paper. Although the
requirements of the two services differ to a very
large extent, nevertheless each has something to
learn from the other and all m u s t benefit in the
long run from this type of paper.
Reliability and continuity of service are essen-
tials in merchant ships b u t possibly not to the
same extent, nor for the same resaons, as in N a v a l
vessels. Neither is weight, within reason, of out-
standing importance. The N a v a l practice of
physical separation of generators is not followed
in merchant ships although advantages would
accrue in respect of short-circuit protection were
it possible to do so. The growth in generating
capacity, all concentrated at one point on the
main switchboard, is leading to difficulty i t / p r o -
viding adequate MVA rating in the circuit break-
ers. Physical and electrical separation would al-
leviate the difficulties which arise from the prac-
tice of adhering to 450 volts ac for generation.
T h e y could be m e t b y generating at, say 3.3 kv,
and transforming down at load centers. There
can be no objection to 3.3 kv, or even higher, on
the grounds of danger to personnel as 450 volts is
lethal anyhow; neither would it be a n y less reli-
able. The higher voltage would reduce the
magnitude of the currents involved which is the
crux of the problem particularly with regard to
" m a k i n g " as distinct from "breaking." I t is
therefore interesting to note t h a t the United States
N a v y is now studying the possibility of using a
2400-volt system. Although loads in merchant
ships have been steadily creeping up it would
seem t h a t there m a y be a steeper rise in the near
future owing to a trend towards greater use of air
conditioning. N o t only is this now being ex-
tended throughout passenger accommodation but
crew and officers' quarters are being brought in
and this trend will not be confined to passenger
ships. Stabilizers and degaussing also call for
more generating capacity.
There is another difference between N a v a l and
merchant ship requirements which deserves con-
sideration. Merchant ships and tankers in par-
ticular are at sea under virtually full power con-
ditions for much longer periods than most N a v a l
craft and electrical equipment is therefore being
used, except for short periods when in harbor, at
or near its full rating for a greater proportion of
its life. A N a v a l vessel in peacetime spends con-
siderable periods in N a v a l dockyards and when at
sea operates mainly at cruising speed which gene-
rally means half power or less. When in commis-
sion the domestic services for the crew will of
course be at full power b u t under peacetime con-
ditions propulsion equipment will be lightly loaded
and fighting equipment will be loaded only during
practice and maneuvers. Such equipment, if
rated on normal standards, will therefore have a
longer life and will be in better shape when re-
quired under battle conditions. I t also will be
capable of sustaining prolonged overloads, "if re-
quired, without permanent injury. On the other
hand it might be worth while in some cases to
authorize a higher temperature rise if the conse-
quent reduction in weight is beneficial without
sacrificing reliability. In some countries, e.g.,
Germany, Russia, and so on, this factor is recog-
nized commercially and intermittently rated ma-
chines are given a higher temperature rise. The
argument is t h a t standard temperatures for con-
tinuous ratings are based on a 20-year life and ma-
chines only in use intermittently will also have a
20-year life with a slightly higher temperature.
Although small extra services m a y be added in
merchant ships, particularly in passenger ships,
they generally can be regarded as static, and pro-
vision for future growth in demands is not usually
taken into account. I t is understandable however
t h a t some such provision is essential in Naval
craft. As far as ac motors are concerned care
needs to be taken t h a t they are not too large for
the job. If they run much below their full-load
rating the power factor will be very poor and this
will affect the whole system. The practice of
selecting tlle next larger standard m o t o r m u s t
therefore be exercised with caution. The me-
chanical engineer already m a y have included a
margin in hand a n d the two margins together
m a y be relatively very large.
British practice is in future to be based on con-
tinuot~s m a x i m u m ratings for generators and mo-
tors, i.e., without sustained overload ratings and
will thus be in line with United States N a v y prac-
tice as described in the paper.
A type of generator which is gaining ground in
Europe is the self-excited ac generator; i.e., dis-
pensing with c o m m u t a t o r - t y p e exciters and using
rectifiers. These have proved very satisfactory
in service although the ratings available at pres-
ent are limited to about 400 to 500 kw. The
response to loads suddenly switched on, such as
the starting currents of relatively large induction
motors, is excellent. The voltage dip is reason-
able for added loads of considerable magnitude
and subsequent recovery is very rapid. N o t only
is an exciter dispensed with but so also is the auto-
matic voltage regulator and there is considerable
latitude in synchronizing. Voltage dip is inherent
in any design and cannot be eliminated; commer-
cial machines of this type will maintain the volt-
age under normal loading conditions to within
1 X per cent.
U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems
I note particularly the introduction of the new
fused AQB circuit breaker with an interrupting
capacity of 100,000 amp. One of the major prob-
lems with circuit breakers is t h a t of making on a
short circuit. Will this new circuit breaker be-
have satisfactorily if the current is 100,000 a m p on
closing? I t would seem to me t h a t what m a y be
required is a breaker in which t h e "free handle"
principle does not operate on short circuits so t h a t
the contacts remain closed, leaving the fuses to
clear the circuit. Otherwise the c o n t a c t s m a y
start to separate' before the fuse has had time to
clear.
A. J. Stromsted, Member: Although the electrical
systems installed on modern N a v y ships are the
result of m a n y years of intensive study, research
and testing and whereas constantly undergoing
developments in the methods and means b y which
the various component functions are being
achieved, it appears t h a t the criteria guiding the
over-all designs m u s t remain essentially un-
.changed.
I t is therefore difficult to find a n y point of issue
within the frame of the paper, with which either
to take exception or a b o u t which further en-
lightenment might be deemed desirable.
T h e paper could perhaps have digressed a
little further on the system of control and the
means of protection against faults and untimely
disturbances t h a t are employed in normal opera-
tion of the network of plant circuitry used in the
comparatively complex arrangement shown in
Fig. 2.
With the great number of different combinations
of interconnections possible in a system as
flexible as the one shown, it would appear t h a t a
brief outline of the means and methods employed
in making the system practicably workable with
reference to control and protection under the
various conditions of operation m i g h t h a v e been
desirable.
However this is a small point and does in no
way detract from the admirable quality of the
paper as a briefing document in electrical marine
engineering or either a student of naval archi-
tecture, the host of marine designers and
builders not directly associated with the electrical
phases of ship design, and last b u t not least for
the electrically informed designer who through
this medium receives the benefit of new thoughts
on an old subject from the know-how gathered
from the years of experience and research t h a t
forms, the background of U.S. N a v y designs in the
marine electrical field.
While the paper, as denoted b y its title, chiefly
concerns itself with design criteria specifically
599
applicable to electrical systems for naval ships,
the basic principles underlying the arrangements
of circuitry, safeguards, and so on, are quite
closely related to t h a t motivating the corre-
sponding installations on a commercial vessel, the
main difference being one of degree, rather than of
philosophy, as determined b y cost considerations
t h a t of necessity m u s t be more stringent in a
commercial ship design than those applying to
N a v y installations. T h e paper is therefore no
less useful to the merchant marine designer than
to one principally occupied with straight N a v y
designs.
After due allowance has been made for the more
rigid requirements for electrical installations on
N a v y ships, both in regard to duty, dependability
and flexibility under all conditions of military
operations, the aims of a designer of commercial
ships are essentially the same as those o f the naval
electrical ship designer, except for the circuitry of
purely military nature, even if the latter m a y come
closer to realizing the dream of an infallible
system than the former who cost-wise is under a
greater restraint.
For all the inherent differences in purpose and
ultimate attainments between the two distinct
classifications of ship design, the paper gives a
concisely organized birds-eye view of the problems
involved in the development of a modern electri-
cal installation on shipboard in general.
While the scope of a subject such as this,
obviously permits only a brief and generalized
mention of the m a n y criteria entering into the
design of specifically naval electrical ship installa-
tions, the paper indeed gives a clear conception of
tire main principles such an installation entails,
and in sufficient detail to m a k e even the casual
reader realize t h a t a ship's electrical system is in
essence a life-giving system, one might say a
life-giving circulatory system in addition to
constituting the "ship's nervous s y s t e m " as it has
once been called, not only extremely intricate
and finely divided b u t also, unlike most nervous
systems, capable of constant rejuvenation and
expansion.
Authors' Closure
T h e authors are grateful to those who have
commented on this paper. We feel t h a t each is a
significant discussion which also serves to indicate
more than a general interest in the paper.
Mr. Hall and Mr. Stromsted requested a brief
description of the operation of the electric plant of
a supercarrier shown in Fig. 2 of the paper. T h e
system shown in the figure is not the power system
600 U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems
of the nuclear-powered carrier. We believe t h a t
this 450-volt system is adequate. In a ship of
this type, one of the main design criteria is t h a t
the generating system must be sized so t h a t the
total battle load will still be carried when a .
casualty causes the loss of the generators in two
adjacent machinery spaces. Normally the gen-
erators do not operate in parallel at battle load
but rather at what Mr. Hall refers to as split
plant; t h a t is, each generator operates b y itself
feeding loads connected to its bus. Now assume
that a generator fails due to loss of its turbine-
generator condenser circulating pump.
Referring to the section of the paper on system
circuitry, the vital loads are fed b y at least two
sources of power, a normal and an emergency. If
the normal supply ceases because of generator
failure, the automatic bus transfer will switch
the load to the supply from the emergency switch-
board. Fig. 2 shows the bus ties between the
ship-service switchboards and the emergency
switchboards. The bus of the emergency switch-
board is always energized b y a ship-service gen-
erator through one of these bus ties. There is an
electrical interlock on the emergency switchboard
which controls the energizing of the bus. T h e
interlock is designed so t h a t there is a normal feed
from a ship-service generator and if this generator
fails then the interlock will connect the alternate
ship-service generator to the emergency bus. The
emergency generator will not start up and feed
the bus until both the normal and the alternate
feeds from the ship-service generators fail. In
laying out the distribution system, the loads
placed on each generator are such t h a t sufficient
margifi is left for this switching of loads from one
generator to another. Thus, we have a system
which is b o t h flexible and reliable. T h e system
protection is designed for normal operation of two
generators in parallel. The ultimate load require-
ments are considered in the basic design so as to
provide a system which will be equally as reliable.
15 years hence as it is today.
The authors agree with C o m m a n d e r Thorn-
bury's comments on the preparation of the
electrical-load analysis and the grounded distribu-
tion system. There are a few points which we
would like to add to the discusser's comments.
The Design D a t a Sheet 6101-1 is in the process of
being revised. A number of the load factors
listed in the sheet are incorrect for ships with
missile installations.
Extensive studies have been made b y the N a v y
to determine if advantages exist in using the
grounded distribution system on its ships. Si-
multaneous failures of a group of motors would be
an indication of an abnormal voltage to ground.
Over a 3-year period motor failures of electrical
origin amounted to 0.2 per cent of the total motors
operating on N a v y ships. This included electrical
failures from all causes such as excessive moisture.
This would seem to indicate we were not getting
m a n y abnormal voltages between line conductors
and ground. I n s t r u m e n t s were placed aboard the
USS Hornet (CVA 12) for 6 months to record the
transient over-voltages. T h e transients during
this period were uniformly distributed among the
three phases and occurred at infrequent intervals,
indicating t h a t the abnormal voltages were the
result of switching operations. Power failures at
a critical time could be disastrous to a naval ship.
As C o m m a n d e r T h o r n b u r y points out, the un-
grounded distribution system is preferred on naval
ships because power is not interrupted due to line
to ground faults. T h e zero sequence current
caused b y ground faults is below t h a t required to
actuate direct-acting trip devices used in ship-
board circuit breakers. I t seems t h a t the N a v y
foresaw the discusser's c o m m e n t concerning a re-
e:~amination of the network distribution system.
A new study of the network system has just been
completed. T h e results indicate t h a t the radial
system is more reliable and economical for N a v y
ships. A nuclear-powered ship has the majority
of its electrical load centralized in the machinery
spaces. In the radial system, the generators are
also installed in the machinery space which puts
the load right at the source of supply. I n the
nuclear ship, the emergency generators are
basically required for the reactor-plant startup.
To operate the emergency generators in the net-
work would defeat the purpose of the nuclear ship
since its endurance is dependent upon liquid fuel.
T h e problem of current limiters has not changed
since the N a v y started studying networks in 1941.
T h e state of art is such t h a t there is no limiter de-
signed to take the high current surges of the 450-
volt system. Right now the network design is
just not feasible for N a v y ships.
Mr. W a s m u n d brings up several points of inter-
est. Utilizing governors having frequency load-
sensing characteristics are being investigated by
the Bureau of Ships. B u t our problem is t h a t often
the frequency requirements of special loads are so
stringent that they require special power supplies.
With reference to the 15-cycle and 30 to 60-cycle
variable-frequency requirements for pumping
power for some of the nuclear-power systems being
installed, it is expected t h a t utilization of two-
speed p u m p s will eliminate this requirement.
One of the factors continually encountered in
ship design is t h a t of equipment weight and spaee
requirements. Pressure is always exerted to re-
duce weight and space of electrical system.
U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems
N o r m a l type A fuses for single load-fault pro-
tection are not backed up with AQB breakers of
greater than 100 a m p frame size in order to obtain
selectivity between the breaker and the fuse. T h e
fuses utilized in the AQB-LF 100 and 250 breakers
are of a current limiting t y p e C co-ordinated with
the breaker to protect the breaker on fault cur-
rents above the normal interrupting capacity of
the breaker. These breakers can be used directly
on a 450-volt system having 100,000-amp fault
current with no back-up breakers. T h e normal
100-amp frame size AQB has an interrupting
rating of 15,000 a m p and the 250 frame size has an
interrupting rating of 20,000 amp.
In regard to the standard switchboard units, it
is true t h a t modifications are made to the standard
units b u t in general these are relatively minor
and a shipyard can take a standard unit from
stock and easily m a k e these modifications for a
complete switchboard replacement. In practi-
cally all cases, though, interehangeability between
the breaker assemblies of different manufacturers
is maintained.
I t was not the intent of the authors to give the
impression t h a t electric propulsion ,is no longer of
major importance. In some ship applications it
is still the natural choice and the N a v y has
several ship studies at the present time in which
electric propulsion is being considered seriously.
In fact electric propulsion would be a natural
choice if some of the projects for direct generation
of electrical energy are realized.
Regarding the applicability of series loop versus
parallel loop system for d-c propulsion systems the
authors heartily recommend the paper b y Mr.
Wasmund, entitled "Series Versus Parallel Con-
nected Generators for Multiple D-C Electric
Ship Propulsion Systems" A I E E Transactions,
1954.
T h e authors are in general agreement with Mr.
Pully's discussion. We would like to add that
a squirrel-cage induction motor utilizing control
of primary-voltage input to the motor b y means
of magnetic amplifiers controlling the motor slip
also can be used to control the frequency of
motor-driven generators. These methods of con-
trolling the frequency are being tested b y the
N a v y . As yet, no conclusive results are available.
We agree with C o m m a n d e r Estes' c o m m e n t that
the comparison of commercial with N a v y ships
does ,not give due credit to the emphasis placed on
continuity of service on commercial ships. I t
was not intended to d e t r a c t from the necessity of
supplying alternate power supplies to the Vital
circuits which ceffainly do exist on commercial
ships. T h e intent was rather to stress the exis-
tence of a greater variety of loads which receive
601
 emergency power on a N a v y ship and the resul-
tant larger emergency electric plant capacity.
For example, the nuclear carrier has 72 per cent
of the ship-service connected electrical load tied
into the emergency electric plant. I t e m s such as
400-cycle motor generators for aircraft servicing,
airplane elevator motors, electronic detection, and
ordnance equipment all m u s t have emergency
power available. Also, it is not as likely t h a t the
ship-service generating plant on a ship such as a
carrier would be totally disable even with its
more hazardous mission. T h e generators are so
located in separate watertight machinery boxes
t h a t the likelihood of total derangement is mini-
mized. Naturally these requirements are nonex-
istent on a commercial ship.
, Mr. Watson's discussion of British merchant
ship electrical design proved very interesting.
Regarding the fused AQB circuit breaker, if the
available fault current is 100,000 a m p on closing,
the fuse will act to clear the fault before the
breaker contacts start to open. This in turn
operates a mechanical interloek which opens all
602 U.S. Naval Ship Electrical Systems
three phases of the breaker, to insure against
single phasing. The interrupting characteristics
of the silver sand fuse are based on the rate of rise
of the fault current. At this high available
fault the fuse acts much more rapidly than the
breaker contacts. Other features of this t y p e
breaker not previously explained are:
1 All overload or fault currents up to 11,000
a m p for the 100-amp frame size and up to 15,000
amp for the 250-amp frame size are interrupted
b y the circuit breaker without blowing or dam-
aging the fuse. Such currents are interrupted
without causing a n y change in the time-current
characteristics of the fuse. All fault currents,
within the band of 11,000 to 14,000 a m p for the
100-amp frame size and 15,000 to 18,000 a m p for
the 250-amp frame size are cleared b y either the
circuit breaker or the fuse.
2 For fault currents above the interrupting
rating of the circuit breaker to at least 100,000
amp, the fuse protects the breaker from being
damaged b y clearing the fault current before the
circuit breaker.