RESTRICTED

PSYCHOLOGICAL OPERATIONS IN MODERN WARFARE

INTRODUCTION

The point of war is not to destroy the enemy physically but rather make him act in
harmony with out will and to change his will to the extent that he no longer opposes our
national interest. If we can influence the enemys head we will not have to strike his arm.
Clausewitz

1. Psy Ops are independent wars, those are wedged before, during and after any
regular conventional wars, low intensity conflicts. Conventional wars and low intensity
conflict operations have to some extent been interdependent on Psy ops which may have
come about as a force multiplier or a combat capability.

2. Records of Psy Ops can be found from the recorded history of ancient warfare.
Hebrew Bible mentions about the victory of Gideon in 1245 BC over Medianities using
confusion and dilemma with small forces. The use of unfamiliar devices to excite panic has
probably been the earliest method in Psy Ops. Another method of Psy Ops was use of
propaganda which was developed by Greeks, still being used today.

3. The Black propaganda of Genghis Khan was another demonstration of Psy Ops in
the past that was so effective that its results linger to this day. The Greeks used inscriptions
as leaflets while Genghis Khan used espionage to plan his Campaigns and deliberately used
rumour to exaggerate stories of huge members and ferocity which drove fear into the
enemy, thus frightening them away.

4. During the major wars like World Wars, various methods were used in Psy Ops by all
the belligerents. After World War II, during Cold War with bi-polar world order, there were
no major conflict but many low intensity conflicts and operations which fall short of war.
During that period, the methods of Psy Ops and propaganda were developed to undermine
opponents capabilities.

1
 RESTRICTED

5. However, after the Cold War many regional and local conflicts emerged as a result of
ethnic, religious and nationalists causes. Psy Ops under gone major change especially
during the Gulf Wars. With the revolution of information and computer technology,
Information Warfare has emerged as a deciding factor in warfare. The US military has put
Psy Ops within Information Warfare.

6. In recent years we see that various social media, email, and other application based
messaging services are being used in spreading ideology which may create division among
nations, religion and ethnic groups and rise of terrorism. These are the Psy Ops and
propaganda which are increasingly propagated by non state actors, creating unstable
situations.

7. To counter such Psy Ops, defensive Psy Ops are required to be employed. Now, the
question remains whether Psy Ops is relevant in modern warfare?

AIM
8. With this background the aim of this presentation is to introduce Psy Ops and
examine its relevance in modern warfare.

SCOPE
9. This paper will start with defining Psy Ops and its related terms and then will
examine its historical evolution. Thereafter present world security scenario and
characteristic of modern conflicts will be discussed. Information warfare in information era
will be discussed to find out relevance of Psy Ops in modern warfare. Finally, it will try to
find out possible employment of Psy Ops to counter threat in relation to Bangladesh.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Psy Ops
10. US Department of Defence defines Psy Ops as:

Psy operations are planned operations to convey selected information and indicators to
foreign audiences to influence their emotions, motives, objective reasoning, and
ultimately the behavior of foreign governments, organizations, groups, and individuals.
The purpose of Psy operations is to induce or reinforce foreign attitudes and behavior
favorable to the originators objectives Department of Defense Joint Publication 1-02

2
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

11. In addition military aspects, the Psy Ops in addition, encompass those political,
economic and ideological actions planned and conducted to create in neutral or friendly
foreign groups the emotions, attitudes, or behaviour to support the achievement of national
objectives.

12. Its scope and application is much wider with far reaching impact in national
perspective covering peace as well as war time. In a generic sense it is one of the four
instruments of statecraft, the other three being political, economic and military instruments
involve considerable efforts and resources, Psy means is less expensive, as it requires human
intellect much more than material resources.

13. The term Psy Operations (Psy Ops) and Psy Warfare are often used interchangeably
and both terms are however are known to be of recent origin. Psy Warfare was first used by
in 1920 and Psy Ops in 1945.1

Propaganda
14. Any form of communication in support of the national objectives designed to
influence opinions, emotions, attitudes, or behaviour of any group in order to benefit the
sponsor whether directly or indirectly.

Target
15. A target is an aggregate of people who share certain predispositions which
when successfully manipulated may lead to mental or behavioural effects that will assist in
achieving certain Psy objectives.

Intelligence
16. Information when analysed towards producing valuable inputs for specific usage
becomes intelligence.

Media
17. All audio, visual and electronic means of communication including social and
application based messaging service are termed as media.

Subversion

1
Origin of PSYOP Terminology By William E Daughtery in Military Propaganda.

3
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

18. Subversion comprises all measures short of the use of armed force taken by a section
of people of a country or to overthrow those governing the country to force them to act as
per their will. It can involve the use of political and economic pressures, strikes, protest
marches and propaganda and can also include the use of small scale violence for the purpose
of coercing recalcitrant members of the population into giving support 2.

Low Intensity Conflict Operations (LICO)

19. These are primarily operations other than war ranging from civil unrests, guerilla
warfare, secessionist, civil war, terrorist activities, espionage and the list goes on.

Operations which Fall Short of War

20. A war situation between two or more countries (normally two) but not an all out
war and not all the armed forces are committed from either country.

EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL OPERATIONS

21. Psy Ops and propaganda are as old as mankind itself, however it has taken modern
specialization to bring them into focus as separate subjects. The history of Psy Ops and
propaganda dates back to time when wars were recorded. As mentioned earlier, in 1245 BC
Gideon with 300 men defeated much larger and superior force of Median by instilling fear in
enemy. He used pitchers and lamps together with the sound of trumpets he confused his
enemies who fought amongst themselves and fled.

22. The Greeks however developed perhaps the early use of propaganda as recorded in
the writings of Herodotus. There was the message to their enemies the Ionians, to persuade
or make them think as to why and whom they were fighting. The inscriptions the Greeks
engraved on the stone walls were perhaps the early forms of todays use of leaflets. In this
method the Greeks saw things from the viewpoint of the enemy of the targeted audience in
anticipation to the type of reaction to be achieved.

23. The Chinese similarly about 200 AD developed another type of early military
propaganda issued at the beginning of war which combined various main factors such as
naming the specific enemy, appeal to better people, simplicity for common people, claim for
support for legitimate government, affirmation of ones own strength and high world
2
Frank Kitson Low Intensity Operations Faber and Faber London, First Edition, 1971, Page 3.

4
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

innovation of unity and appeal to religion. This type of material may appropriately be
termed as Military Propaganda.

24. Ideology and political faith of the people formed the basis for Psy appreciation of a
given situation, which propaganda may be focused on. This is shown by the classical
examples such as Islamic faith, Protestant / Catholic wars of the past and many other similar
examples.

25. Psy operations also played an important role in the American Revolution with the
Whig Campaign leading to the colonial defiance of Britain. The Americans controlled the
media outdistancing the British whose papers were confined to the cities they held. The
propaganda was based on political reasoning, economic arguments, allegations concerning
the cause of war and atrocity stories. Similarly, the Mexicans waged Psy Ops on the
Americans and thus resulted successfully by American Artillery men dealing out heavy
murder fire to American troops outside the Mexico City.

PSY OPERATIONS IN WORLD WAR I

26. Psy Ops effort and intensity in World War I played an active part and was classified
as the weapon that won the war. The Allied and the Germans equally displayed propaganda
activities. Mass communication in the form of newspaper, telegraph and radio in World War
I that gave prominence to Psy Ops and propaganda. There are various examples of the
systems of communications, which had been used by various parties

27. The British had in 1914, one of the worlds finest news system; a highly sophisticated
press, and extensive experience in international communication for technical and commercial
purpose, the under sea cable system, and they turned it into war use with considerable
smoothness. The British further had diplomatic and consular service of superb quality.
They had the lead and countered German propaganda on propaganda-to-propaganda while
at the same time circulating their own news.

28. The Germans on the other hand had a far more regimented press and more limited
network of technical and commercial connections despite putting a lot of effort into Psy Ops
they lacked both the organisation and morale drive.

5
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

29. The American Psy Ops efforts of 1917 and 1919 drew heavily on the familiar skills
of the British at that time. They had the organisation and the national drive to support it.
The two agencies, which saw the Psy Ops efforts through were the civilian agency
committee on public information known as the Creel committee and the Military Agency the
propaganda section. The Americans concentrated on morale and surrender of the enemy. It
was really in the combat propaganda that the Americans excelled themselves.

30. The French showed high professional skills in adapting their military and diplomatic
Personnel to propaganda tasks. French position as battleground ensured her the rage of her
own people and the sympathy of neutral giving propaganda from Paris a hearing.

31. The Bolshevik Revolution of the Russians came about with dynamic propaganda
developments. They were Socialists and pitilessly sabotaged all other democratic groups in
Russia and thus their anti democratic propaganda lead them to achieve their socialistic state.
The Bolsheviks had two weapons, the propaganda and terror. Their propaganda effort was
probably the finest propaganda effort known in history.

32. The Chinese Revolution of 1922-1927 represented the situation created by the
communist Psy operations. The Chinese leaders adopted the theory from the Russians in
1922 which saw them to achieve communist domain is China.

33. The success in propaganda and Psy operations in World War I has been attributed to
the major players, Germany, United States, Britain and countries that were affected.
Departments and agencies were established just to cater for the process and implementation
of Psy Ops.

PSY OPS IN WORLD WAR II

34. Psy Ops in World War II arose from the consideration of propaganda. The
Governments of countries involved and affected in the war fall back on Psy Ops by merely
supplementing politics and military operations by propaganda. There were efforts of
developments and improvements made and those were from the lessons of World War I by
the countries who didnt do well at that time. Equally a lot of effort was put into Psy Ops
by almost all major players of World War II, as was in World War I.

German PSY OPS Effort

6
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

35. Germany was one of those countries that learned a great deal from World War I from
its failure. They developed the belligerent propaganda into a fine art exploiting each
possible difference that could contribute to the weakness of the enemy. It was very much
Black Propaganda and they tried to agitate every one against each other to delay military
action against Germany and weaken the enemys potential to fight.

36. The Germans went into special pains to organise German speaking minorities in
other countries but they never neglected using people who have no open connection with
Nazism at all. The achievements of German basic propaganda were:

a. Firstly in the political warfare field, they succeeded in making large sections
of the world opinion believed that world future was a choice between communism
and fascism.

b. Secondly in the strategic field, they made each victim seem the last. There
was still the hope that the war would not arise, the British hoped that they could stay
out even after Czechoslovakia fell and the Russians hoped to stay out even after
British and French fought, and

c. Thirdly in the purely Psy field, the Germans used outright fright that even
made their own people afraid of communist liquidation. It implies that when one
country or nation is ready to fight and the other knows its inability on not to fight
can be reduced to something resembling a nervous break down by the constant
uncertainty.

British Effort
37. The British went into radio propaganda battle with the Germans. Both the British
and the Germans could reach almost all of Europe on standard wave and each could jam
others transmission without much success.

38. The British had their hands full getting news in languages of occupied countries.
They had to make radio warfare highly sensitive to politics that it addresses the right people,
with the right language, at the right time on penalty of failure. This led them to set up the
Political Warfare Executive (PWE), which had representation from the War Office, the
Admiralty, the Foreign Office, and the Ministry of Information. The Political Warfare

7
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

Executive facilitated policy servicing and coordination agencies for all British external
propaganda and left the execution of its operations to the ministry of information, and the
British Broadcasting Cooperation. The British radio propaganda did maintain a high level
of effectiveness.

American PSYOP Effort

39. Americans used Psy operations extensively in World War II, from the strategic to the
tactical level. National-level white propaganda was the responsibility of the Office of War
Information, while black propaganda was most often the responsibility of the Morale
Operations branch of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS).

The OSS Morale Operations (MO) branch was the Psy operations arm of the OSS. In
general, its units worked on a theater-by-theater basis, without a great deal of central
coordination. The OSS was responsible for strategic propaganda, while the military
commanders had operational and tactical responsibility.

40. For the first time in U.S. history, American psywarriors employed electronic psywar
in the field, in September 1944. Engineers of the 1st Radio Section of the 1st MRBC
recorded POW interviews for front- line broadcasts, and reproduced the sound effects of
vast numbers of tanks and other motor vehicles for Allied armored units in attempts to
mislead German intelligence and lower enemy morale. Leaflets were delivered principally
from aircraft, but also with artillery shells.

41. The Americans learned three major lessons in World War II, which were not
discovered in World War I, and of course; were never noticed by the responsible officials;
(a) Firstly, Psy Ops is a function of command.

(b) Secondly, atrocity propaganda begets atrocity.

(c) Thirdly, Americans do not normally produce Psy Ops personnel in peace time.

The Soviet PSYOP Effort

42. The Soviet Psy Ops used communist party facilities during World War II. Soviet
showed real innovative and political policies behind them were both far-sighted and far
reaching. Revolutionary Communist themes were brilliantly intermingled with patriotic

8
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

Russian items. The Soviet officials were able to tailor their social system to fit propaganda.
They did so even to the name of war and called it the Great Patriotic War.
The Russians however in their combat propaganda were equally ruthless and realistic. Their
propaganda was aimed at attracting and gaining favourable support rather than persuasion.
They turned prisoners into real military assets by employing them in propaganda and used
captured Nazi Generals into free Germany movement.

43. It was only in the radio that the Russian retained some of their revolutionary fire for
non communist people. They also maintained domestic propaganda half secret by imposing
a censorship ban. Their radio propaganda however was to be audible to everyone and it was
therefore, the least ingenious in seeing reactionary themes effectively. Both Germans and
the Russians used black radio since each policed the home audience rigorously against
each other.

The Japanese PSYOP Effort

44. The Japanese invented very little in the field of Psy ops: however they made excellent
and judicious use of the news to the American audience. There were more Japanese
official news going into the American press during the war years than they had
succeeded in placing during peacetime. They did that by maintaining the regular Domei
News Service (Dmei Tsshinsha) in the English Language, Morse Wireless for the
American press, readily edited for the newspaper office.

45. On the Asiatic audience special Japanese Butai did a great deal of Black propaganda
along subversive operations, but delayed with little initiative in the use of basic techniques.
Their chief merits were industry, patience and the delivery of a first class news service.

Chinese PSYOP Efforts

46. The Chinese communists broke all records for certain specialist aspects of combat
propaganda. Japanese prisoners were given better treatment with maidens, gifts, and
political indoctrination on the freedom of Japan. These prisoners were then sent back to the
front lines to motivate Japanese soldiers.

47. The Yenan Forces went into great pains with this type of propaganda and even went
to the extremes of electing a Japanese prisoner to the city council of Yenan. The Chinese
communist identified the problems of Japanese common soldiers and their weaknesses,

9
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

thereby took advantage in propagating to weaken their will to fight. The other extreme
measures they took were sending gift packages into Japanese lines instead of booby traps,
and learned the names of Japanese telephone operators. They trained selected prisoners for
political brainwashing and released them beyond Japanese lines, with indoctrinated
messages, not to shoot at their Chinese brethren there but into the air.

48. While under Chiang, the Chinese National Government waged a dignified humane
kind of Psy Ops against Japan. It was shortly after the outbreak of the first quasi-war
between China and Japan in 1937, the Generalissimo ordered his bombers to attack Japan,
using American built Chinese bombers. Instead of dropping bombs, they dropped leaflets
denouncing Japanese aggression and persuaded Japanese not to bomb China.

49. Generalissimo had Japanese on his political staff and democratic persons whom his
officials encouraged and regular Japanese broadcasts were kept up throughout the war on
the Chung King Radio.

PSY OPS AFTER WORLD WAR II

50. After World War II, during Cold War, both US lead western block and Soviet led
Eastern Block. During that time there were some localized wars, some proxy wars and
some Low Intensity Conflicts (LIC) mainly in developing countries.

51. During Cold War period, a number of guerrilla wars broke out across the globe like
in Nicaragua, in Algeria and in Indonesia. A guerrilla fighters objective is the people, and in
order to succeed one has to learn to be persuasive and that is archived by direct
communication with the people. Therefore, it is important that every guerrilla fighter be
able to communicate face to face, to be a propagandist and a combatant at the same time.
In some cases, in guerrilla warfare and similar warfare led to the formation of the armed
propaganda team.

52. Psy Ops is well applied in guerrilla warfare. It is very important to know the
psychology of the population for all the armed propaganda teams with constant intelligence
data obtained to keep abreast of the developments.

53. In case of our great Liberation War, with the call of the Father of the Nation,
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, whole population of the then East Pakistan jumped

10
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

into war and fought valiantly against occupying Pakistani Force. Support to the war was
given by total population. Shwadhin Bangla Betar Kendro carried out one of the effective
Psy Ops and propaganda to rejuvenate Mukti bahini and demoralize Pakistani Army. In the
beginning of December 1971, leaflets were also dropped by Combined Forces of
Bangladesh-India to urge Pakistani Forces to surrender immediately to avert bloodshed.

PRESENT WORLD SECURITY SCENARIO

54. Now lets survey the present world security scenario. Presently, many conflicts are
going on in around the globe like, Syria, Sudan, South Sudan, Central African Republic,
Iraq, Libya, ISIL, Palestine, Yemen, Afghanistan, Nigeria, tension in South China Sea,
tension in Korean Peninsula, etc. In these conflicts, there are state actors and non-state
actors. It is easier to identify and deal with state actors. But in case of non-state actors the
contest is asymmetric and difficult to contain.

Figure 1: Current Conflicts around the Globe

55. With the easy accessibility of internet, various social media, apps based messaging
services are being used by state actors and non-state actors to the detrimental of the state
and social security. We have seen the cyber attack on the states military, security,
communication and finance network and on social harmony.

56. Another aspect is the spreading of hatred on the basis of ethnicity, religion,
nationalism, etc. Terrorist organizations taking advantages of cyberspace indoctrinate young
generation and commit crimes which affect national security and social harmony. It is very
difficult to detect and deter such activities. The States are now more vulnerable to such
attacks than to conventional military attacks.

11
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN CONFLICTS

57. Some characteristics of modern conflicts may be summarized as follows:
a. Enemies often have an organising logic that is far more agile, fluid and
responsive than our institutions to counter them.
b. For many, violence is a daily struggle to survive with little space for
philosophy.
c. For many states, authority is absent or predatory.
d. The reasons that sustain violence are often separate to the original causes.
e. Most violence is directed at civilians.
f. Conflict is simultaneously global and local.
g. The international community is overwhelmingly state-centric and curiously
delusional regarding violence involved in state building.
h. The risk of non-state competitors offering viable alternatives to a state.
j. Many antagonists reject the normative premises upon which the international
system is founded.
k. Ubiquity of information makes owning the narrative and perceptions a key
challenge.
l. The very notions of identity and loyalty are increasingly challenged.

INFORMATION ERA AND INFORMATION WARFARE

58. Now with the advent of information age and changing characteristics of modern
conflicts, Information Warfare has becoming an increasingly important factor in todays
warfare. Such examples can be seen in both the Gulf Wars, where Information Warfare
played a critical role in defeating Iraqi Forces. Information warfare can be defined as the
process of protecting ones own sources of battlefield information and, at the same time,
seeking to deny, degrade, corrupt, or destroy the enemys sources of battlefield
information. Information warfare includes six pre-existing sub areas:
a. Operational Security.
b. Electronic Warfare (EW).
c. Psy Operations (Psy Ops).
d. Deception.
e. Physical attack on information processes.
f. Information attack on information processes.

12
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

Figure 2: Operational Functions

Figure 3: C2W Concept

59. As can be seen that Psy Ops is a component of Information Warfare. As mentioned
earlier that Psy Ops itself is an independent warfare perused in-conjunction with other
components.

PSY OPS IN VARIOUS LEVELS OF WAR

60. Now lets see how Psy Ops plays its role in various levels of war:

Strategic Psy Ops

61. They are conducted at a global/regional plane to support national strategy. At [the]
strategic level, it may take many forms including diplomatic initiatives, aggressive military
posturing, policy statements, threat of use of force, military deployment, etc., to send a
powerful Psy message of national intent and impending penalties for an act of aggression.

Operational Psy Ops

13
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

62. It is conducted within a defined geographic area in support of a theatre

commanders overall plan or as part of joint operations. Conduct of War manoeuvres close
to [the] international border/line of control, forward deployment of army units, deliberate
disclosure of target vulnerabilities etc., are effective deterrents and potent means of
subjugating the enemy into adopting reactive/defensive posture.

Tactical Psy Ops

63. At the tactical level, they are targeted at the individual engagements in consolidation
of the overall effort against an opposing force or audience. Publicity of destruction of [the]
enemys vital installations, images of the dead, propaganda in the form of make-believe
planned stories of human rights violations such as cruelty against women and children,
invincibility of own forces, etc., have a strong impact on adversarys morale.

BANGLADESH PERSPECTIVE
64. Bangladesh is a rising power in respect to economy, diplomacy, human resources,
military and regional connectivity. Her GDP is growing at a steady rate of 7% annually and
her GDP is the 34th in the world (PPP). In diplomatic field, Bangladesh is a voice of
developing nations of the world with membership of all regional and important global
forums. Bangladesh has a large number of young populations who has the potential to
become an asset for the country. Armed Forces of our country is very efficient and
dedicated, who are respected within the country as well as in abroad. Geo-strategically
located Bangladesh can be a regional connectivity hub.

65. However, we have some vulnerability. Some threats come from outside and some
from inside the country. These are listed below:

a. Terrorism.
b. Threat to Political stability.
c. Threat to Economy.
d. Threat to Culture.
e. Threat to social harmony.
f. Subversion against Armed Forces
g. Threat to Education system.
h. Threat against national integration.

14
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

EMPLOYMENT OF PSY OPS TO COUNTER THREATS

66. Due to obvious reasons, we cannot afford to have good network of Psy Ops system
targeting the hostile audience outside the country. Our aim should be to set our home in
order so that hostile operative from and abroad cannot do harm to us. Therefore, countering
hostile psy ops, check internal dissensions and subversion will be the main concern of ours.
The Psy ops, therefore, have to go into psyche of the own people and armed forces to check
internal ailment of a nation. Following may be the objectives of our Psy Ops:
a. Building national will to survive.
b. Building national pride in own people and armed forces.
c. Make people (including armed forces) aware of national aim, objectives and
interest.
d. Forge national consensus, common outlook on major national issues.
e. Build national morale, a national fiber to develop strength and resilience.
f. Counter hostile subversive propaganda.
g. Put forward own cause in the world forum strongly and earn attention,
sympathy, support and assistance of world community to achieve own national
interest.
h. Established own credibility in the world community particularly in the
countries of immediate concern serving immediate interests.
j. Limited offensive Psy ops targeting people and armed forces of the potential
adversary.
k. Show case our culture, heritage, social harmony, products and achievements
both in civil and military sectors through diplomacy, media and visits.

CONCLUSION
67. As has been discussed, that Psy Ops has been in use from the recorded history of
war. All the leaders and states have employed Psy Ops in her advantage. It is one of the
independent operations that go parallel to other operations. Psy Ops costs litter in terms of
resources and manpower. But its outcome is huge if it can be planned and executed
prudently and systematically.

68. In present security scenario of the world, characteristic of conflict has undergone
major changes. Now-a-days non-state actors play a crucial role in world security scenario.
Information and Computer technology has given opportunity to bad elements to do harm to

15
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

the state and society. Information Warfare has become important in todays war. Psy Ops is
a component in the Information Warfare.

69. For countries like Bangladesh, our threat is from inside and outside borders. We
have to deal these threats with counter Psy Ops. Projecting our achievements, heritage,
culture, etc can be a solution in this regard.

16
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

BIBLIOGRAPHY

118. Paul. M.A Linebarger, Psy Warfare, First Edition 1954, New York: D. Van Nostrand
Company.

119. Ron. D. Mc Laurin, Military Propaganda Psychological Warfare And Operations,

1982, By Praeger Publishers.

120. Strausz-Hupe Kininer Dougherly Cottrell, Protracted Conflictt A Challenging Study

Of Communist Strategy, 1963, By Harper + Row, Publishers New York.

121. Paul M.A. Linebarger, Psychological Warfare, Second Edition,1954, New York, S.
Van Nostrans Company.

122. Edwin G. Boring, Psychological For Armed Services,

123. Tecayan, Psychological Operations In Guerilla Warfare, From The Internet Us

Armed Forces.

17
RESTRICTED
 RESTRICTED

PSY OPERATIONS AND ITS IMPORTANCE AND RELEVANCE IN FUTURE

WARS

18
RESTRICTED