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very often when writing a paper or an essay, we have to use complex or compound
sentences, i.e. we need to combine two or more simple sentences using coordination or
subordination
COORDINATION
A complex sentence has an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses
(independent clauses are in italics):
o Since we got to the concert late, we had to make our way to our seats in the
dark.
o We left class early so that we could attend a special lecture.
Lucy sang beautifully(main clauses), even though she was tired(subordinate clause).
subordinating conjunction - because, since, after, although, when or a relative
pronoun such as that, who, or which.
o When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
o B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.
R Conjuctions example
e
l
a
ti
o
n
s
h
i
p
Ti when, while, Whenever the afternoon bell rings, a teeming horde of
me whenever children rush eagerly out of the school building.
I never knew what love meant until I met you.
after, once, still,
My uncle always calls after he watches the news.
until, before, as soon
as
Pl Where, I know a place where blackberries grow wild all along the
ace wherever roadside.
Wherever you can find an empty spot, just drop your
luggage there.
C as, in order Since you have to leave early, why don't you arrive a few
ause/ that , because , days earlier too?
e since, so that The cat took off in a panic because the dog started barking
ffect and growling.
C if, provided that, If my ticket doesn't arrive today, I won't be able to fly out
ondition unless tomorrow.
if only, in case He won't listen to you unless you make him turn off the radio
and look at you.
C although, Although I have called repeatedly, the credit card company
ontrast though has not corrected my account.
even though, He still brings her roses even though he knows she is allergic
to them.
while, wheras,
Punctuation patterns
RELATIVE CLAUSES
A relative clause is a dependent, subordinate clause that begins with a question word
(e.g. who, which, where) or the word that. You can use it to modify a noun or
pronoun (i.e. to identify or give more information about it).
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
o these clauses give essential information to define or identify the person or thing we
are talking about. Obviously, this is only necessary if there is more than one person
or thing involved.
Elephants who like mice are very unusual.
o In this sentence we understand that there are many elephants, but it is clear that we
are only talking about the ones who like mice.
o Punctuation: Commas are not used in defining relative clauses.
o You use a non-defining relative clause to supply additional information about the
noun, whose identity or reference is already established. You can also use it to
comment on the whole situation described in a main clause.
Albert Einstein, who put forward the theory of relativity, is considered by many
as the most intelligent person in human history.
o You should not use the relative pronoun that in non-defining relative clauses.
o Non-defining relative clause is always separated by commas from the rest of the
sentence
Relative pronouns
Person Thing Place Time Reason
Subject who/that which/that
Object who/whom/ that/ which/ where when why
Possessive whose whose
- In defining relative clauses who, that or which can sometimes be omitted. This
depends on whether the relative clause is the subject or the object of a sentence.
- When the relative clause is the subject of the sentence it cannot be omitted.
o The woman who lives next door works as a nurse.
o We cannot say The woman lives next door works as a nurse, as the woman is
the subject of the sentence.
- When the relative clause is the object of the sentence it can be omitted.
o The chair that I am sitting on belonged to my grandmother. =
o The chair I am sitting on belonged to my grandmother.
- A trick that may help decide if the relative clause is the subject or object is to look at
the word followed by the relative pronoun
o ... who showed me the pictures... --> the pronoun is followed by a verb so you
cannot omit it
o ... which I showed him ... --> the pronoun is NOT followed by a verb so you can
omit it
- But this explanation only applies for "who", "which", and "that".
- In addition to this, when a defining relative clause takes a continuous or ing form who,
that or which can be omitted.
1. The dog that is lying on the grass is very vicious. The dog lying on the grass is
very vicious.
2. The children who are doing the test are very intelligent. The children doing the
test are very intelligent.
In extra information clauses nothing can be omitted from the sentence. Instead, it
should be remembered that commas are always placed around the extra information
clause.
Exams make candidates feel nervous, and so they forget what they have
o
learned.
o Students do not perform well under the pressure of an exam.
o Examinations make people work hard.
o Students memorize a lot of information in the last few weeks, so that they can
pass the exam.
Those sentences have two things in common.each makes a definite and not a cautious
statement
(For example, the definite statement in the first sentence means that all exam
candidates feel nervous, and all candidates forget everything they have learned.)
Similarly, the second sentence wrongly states that all candidates do not perform well
on exams. The third sentence incorrectly suggests that everyone works hard - not just
some candidates. The last one means that no one ever learns in the months before the
exam.
o Do not write definite statements unless they are facts that are indisputable.
1.Sometimes, exams may make candidates feel nervous, and they may forget what
they have learned.
2. It appears that some students do not perform well under the pressure of an exam.
3. Some authors (Burns, 1998; Jones, 2011; Smith, 2001) claim that
examinations make people work hard.
4. Some students may try to memorize information in the last few weeks, so that they
can pass the exam.
Below are some of the word and phrases used to make statements more tentative
Formal vocabulary
o Informal writing-compare
o When I look at the situation in emergency wards, with many staff leaving, it's
hard not to worry about how many doctors will be available to treat patients in
the future.
o It's so obvious that people were given jobs just because they were male or
female. I don't think that is an acceptable approach and is even against the law.
longer words instead of simple ones more precise and less ambiguous in meaning,
e.g. get obtain, look into investigate
use Standard English and avoid slang words and colloquialisms :kid-child
1 Nouns are useful in academic writing because they convey an objective, impersonal
tone; can also make the text more concise because they can pack a great deal of
information in a few words; formal written English uses nouns more than verbs
This information enables us to formulate precise questions.
This information enables the formulation of precise questions.
Nominalization
2 Nominalization
Noun phrase with two or more nouns where the first / the first two nouns function
as adjectives
Officer of the police-police officer
The investigation of an accident-accident investigation
FORMAL GRAMMAR
use There, or One as a subject, e.g. There is a serious risk of ..., One may ask whether ...
use empty it (It was found/ it is not possible/ it is evident/it will make/it may be
important)
use the passive voice and inanimate subject with active verb (the results/findings
indicate..)
o e.g. The committee discussed the topic. The topic was discussed by the
committee.
Avoid rhetorical questions-do not directly address the reader with a question,
o Do social workers reinforce institutionalized racism?
The bus which leaves at 6:03 was late today. The bus leaving at 6:03 was late today.
The film is about what happens when you become middle-aged The film is about
what happens when a man becomes middle-aged/to a man when he becomes middle-
aged
The film makes you meditate on the meaning of life. The film makes one meditate
on the meaning of life.
Many uneducated citizens who have never attended school continue to vote for
better schools.
He assumed
"true fact," "twelve noon," "I saw it with my own eyes"-should be avoided
do not exaggerate
Avoid ambiguity
Each of us saw her duck. It is not clear whether the word duck refers to an action of
ducking (avoiding) or a duck that is a bird and belongs to her.
COHESION
o the way in which the elements of the surface text are interrelated;
o it is a semantic relation between one element in the text and some other element that
is crucial to the interpretation of it-one element is interpreted by reference to another
o the way in which the elements of the surface text are interrelated;
o it is a semantic relation between one element in the text and some other element that
is crucial to the interpretation of it-one element is interpreted by reference to another
o examples
Jean tries to get her work done on time. She has a physical disability.
Although she has a physical disability, Jean tries to get her work done on time.
CONNECTIVES
-however, nevertheless, nonetheless, yet, in spite of that, despite that, all the same
Make three sentences using one of the three types of connectives (other than AND, OR,
BUT)
ACADEMIC DISCOURSE
discourse - (1) In linguistics, a unit of language longer than a single sentence. (2) More
broadly, the use of spoken or written language in a social context.
academic discourse -primarily expository writing
with the intent to demonstrate knowledge within an
academic setting
Academic discourse, is the (often written)
communication of ideas and thoughts to others
within a particular field or specialization (most
often) with an aim to persuade.
GENRES
the study of how language is used within a particular setting
SUPPORTIVE SENTENCES
supporting sentences support or explain the idea expressed in the topic
sentence
there are often more than two supporting ideas in a paragraph
five to seven sentences, at minimum in a paragraph
CONCLUSION SENTENCE
Restate the topic sentence in different words.
A clincher sentence or concluding sentence clinches the point made in the
paragraph.
It summarizes the paragraph.
a sort of a topic sentence in reverse
Types of paragraphs
The narrative paragraph - tells a story
The persuasive paragraph. - tries to convince the audience
The descriptive paragraph - describes something
The expository or explanatory paragraph - gives information or explains
something
Text types
Expository texts
require the writer to this can be accomplished through
o investigate an idea, o comparison and contrast,
o evaluate evidence, o definition,
o expound on the idea, and o example,
o set forth an argument concerning o the analysis of cause and effect,
that idea in a clear and concise etc.
manner.
Argumentative texts
Language functions
Language functions are uses and structures of the language organised according
to what the writer wants to communicate. They consist of sentences and / or
paragraphs that are connected in a logical way.
INTRODUCTIONS
Will indicate the structure of the writing by giving an overview of the content in
sequence
o get the reader's interest so that he or she will want to read more.
o let the reader know what the writing is going to be about-a carefully crafted
thesis statement.
Usually-a summary of the main points already made-commenting the implications, the
need of further research or certain action
Has to logically follow from what has been written before
Should not introduce a new argument or examples
To conclude, to end, therefore,
in conclusion, to complete, in short,
to close, to bring to an end, to sum up,
last of all, thus to summarize,
finally, hence, to recapitulate
DESCRIPTION
Passive
present passive (is/are + verb stem + ed)- general description of process and
procedure
past passive (was/were + verb stem + ed)- particular procedure in the past
description that does not envolve proces or procedure present simple active
tense
Sequence is important in both process and procedure
describing time relations
actions in sequence
sequence markers first, then, next, finally used to link the sentences
relative pronouns and relative clauses (relative pronouns-who, which, that,
whom, whose, where)-used to avoid repeating a subject
DEFENITIONS
Example:
ACADEMIC DEFINITION
o Cautious in defining:
Theology may be defined as the study of religious beliefs and theories.
Define:Geography-science-earths surface/ Linguistics-science-language
Relative clauses ( wh- word) : Plastics can be defined as substances which are made of
long chains of carbon atoms.
Omitting wh- word : Plastics can be defined as compounds made with long chains of
carbon atoms.
Wh-word may also be omitted in the following way:
o Criminology can be defined as the study which deals with crime.
o Criminology can be defined as the study of crime.
Define: special education - the education children- have physical or learning
problems
Use verbs: name (but rarely used)
Denote
call (but can be tricky)
refer (use for terminological explanations)
When using these verbs you normally provide the definition first and then at the end
provide the term you are defining.
Use phrases: known as / defined as
Frequently used verb tenses for definitions are present simple (active and passive).
Verbs that are often used for definition:
o Is concerned with
o Deal with
o Relate to
o Involve