3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

TWImainsite TechnicalCapabilities IndustrialMembership TrainingandExaminations Accessibility TextOnly SiteMap Globalwebsites

> TechnicalKnowledge > PublishedPapers > Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperature

hydrogenservice(February2007)

Share:

Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghigh
temperaturehydrogenservice
MFGittos,JLRobinsonandTGGooch

IIWdocumentCommissionIX223407.February2007.

Summary
Theinfluenceofweldingprocess,consumabletypeandpostweldheattreatment(PWHT)onthephenomenonofdisbondingwas
investigated.Smallweldcladtestblockswerethermallychargedwithhydrogeninanautoclave.Arangeofausteniticstainless
steelconsumablesandaNiCralloywereusedtomakethecladdingson2.25Cr1Moparentmetalbysubmergedarcstripand
wire,electroslag,plasmahotwire,andmanualmetalarcprocesses.Theeffectsofsimpleandmultiplepostweldheattreatments
at565690Cweredeterminedandlocalhydrogencontentsincladmaterialsweredeterminedbothbymeasurementandalso
finiteelementmodelling.

Examinationoftheinterfacemicrostructuresanddisbondingcracksshowedthatthecrackswerelocatedinthe
compositional/microstructuraltransitionzonewithinabout100mofthefusionboundary.Inthisregion,martensitewaspresent
afterPWHT,givingrisetohighhardnessandsusceptibilitytohydrogenembrittlement.

Somedisbondingsensitivitywasfoundwithallconsumabletypes,butthestainlesssteeloverlaysshowedappreciablyhigher
susceptibilitythantheNiCrcladding.Disbondingresistancewashigherwithmanualmetalarc(MMA)weldingthanwiththe
varioushighdepositionratemethods.Themicrostructureofthebulkfirstlayercladdingexertedaninfluenceonsusceptibility
withbothhighferriteandhighmartensitebeingbeneficial.Minimisingpostweldheattreatmenttimeandtemperaturereduced
disbonding,asdidduplexpostweldheattreatmentswiththesecondstagetemperatureatorbelow650C.

Computedandmeasuredhydrogenlevelsindicatedthatapeakinhydrogenconcentrationformedneartheinterfaceoncooling.

Introduction
Vesselsforelevatedtemperaturehydrogenservicearetypicallyfabricatedfrom200mmthick2.25Cr1Molowalloysteelwhichis
weldcladwithausteniticstainlesssteel.Servicetemperaturemaybeuptoabout450Cwithahydrogenpartialpressureofup
tosome175bar.Anumberofinstanceshavebeenreportedwheredisbondingofthecladdinghasoccurred(i.e.localseparation
ofthecladdingfromthesubstrate)aftersometimeinservice.Thedisbondingisbelievedtooccurduringshutdown,andcan
ariseinvesselssuchashydrodesulphurisers,hydrocrackers,heatexchangers,andvesselsincoalconversionplant.

Althoughtherehavebeennoseriousproblemsassociatedwithdisbondedvesselsinservice,disbondinghasbeenviewedwith
someconcernbecause,whiletheprobabilityofservicefailuresandresultingunscheduledshutdownsappearstobelow,the
possibilitycannotbecompletelyruledout.Anumberofstudiesintothephenomenonhavebeencarriedout(e.g.17),anditis
generallyagreedthattheproblemstemsfromahydrogenembrittlementmechanism,hydrogendiffusingthroughthecladding
(andvesselwall)inserviceandcausingcrackingoncooldowntonormalambienttemperature.However,ithadnotbeen
possibletodefine,unambiguously,eitherthemechanismofcrackingortheroleplayedbymaterial,weldingandpostweldheat
treatmentvariablesindeterminingitsoccurrence.Inviewofthissituation,aprojectwasinitiatedtogenerateappropriatedata
withtheaimofdefiningmeasuresenablingdisbondingtobeavoided.

Objectives
Toevaluatetheinfluenceofweldingprocessandproceduralvariablesoninterfacedisbonding.
TodeterminetheoptimumcombinationofconsumablesandPWHTconditionsforresistancetointerfacedisbonding.
Toelucidatethemechanismofdisbonding.

Experimentalapproach
Weldcladspecimensweremadeusingprocessesandproceduresrepresentativeofindustrialpractice.Arangeofconsumable
typeswasusedwithpostweldheattreatmentcarriedoutwithvaryingtimeandtemperatureconditions.Thesampleswere
chargedwithhydrogen,inanautoclaveatelevatedtemperature,andtheextentofdisbondingwasassessedfollowingcooldown.

Metallurgicalexaminationwascarriedoutonthemicrostructureoftheinterfaceregionandonthemorphologyofcracking
developed.Modellingofhydrogendiffusionwasemployedtoexaminethelocalhydrogenlevelsreachedatdifferentlocations
withinboththesamplesandpressurevesselwalls.

Experimentalprogramme
Materials
Parent2.25Cr1Mosteelwasobtainedwithacompositionrepresentativeofnormalproduction.TheanalysisisgiveninTable1.
ThebulkoftheworkinvolvedausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingsasindicatedinTable2.Itwillbenotedthatoneandtwolayer

http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 1/14
3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

claddingswereinvestigated,theconsumabletypesbeingselectedtoproducearangeofdepositcompositionsand
microstructures.Anickelchromiumconsumablewasusedforcomparativepurposes.

Table1Chemicalanalysesoffirstlayersofdepositedcladdingsandparentsteel

Consumable Firstlayercomposition,element,wt%
Process
type C S P Si Mn Ni Cr Mo V
MMA 0.044 0.009 0.018 0.50 1.44 9.5 18.2 0.25 0.08
SAW(1) 0.031 0.006 0.015 1.02 0.91 11.3 20.6 0.12 0.07
309L/347
SAW(2) 0.035 0.007 0.017 0.66 1.43 8.9 18.6 0.22 0.06
ESW 0.019 0.003 0.014 0.28 1.52 8.6 19.4 0.12 0.05
SASA 0.053 0.014 0.022 0.50 2.01 9.3 18.1 0.23 0.03
309Nb
PHW 0.023 0.009 0.011 0.43 2.07 9.6 19.1 0.14 0.03
309Nb/347 SAW 0.039 0.006 0.012 0.94 1.11 11.0 20.1 0.17 0.06
309LMo/308L SAW 0.031 0.006 0.014 0.87 1.18 11.3 17.0 2.83 0.02
308L/347 SAW 0.054 0.007 0.011 0.78 0.90 8.6 15.7 0.19 0.05
NiCr/NiCr SAW 0.024 0.006 0.011 0.53 3.58 65.6 17.9 0.10 0.02
SAW 0.039 0.008 0.020 0.061 1.00 10.1 20.3 0.13 0.05
309L/347
HS 0.037 0.007 0.018 0.49 1.39 9.1 20.0 0.20 0.05
Parentmetal 0.14 0.004 0.006 0.22 0.42 0.11 2.19 0.98 0.01

Consumable Firstlayercomposition,element,wt%
Process
type Cu Nb Ti O N Al Ta Fe Co
MMA 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.060 0.037
SAW(1) 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.046 0.072
309L/347
SAW(2) 0.03 <0.01 0.02 0.070 0.024
ESW <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.019 0.018
SASA 0.05 0.57 <0.01 0.038 0.026
309Nb
PHW 0.03 0.95 0.01 0.006 0.045
309Nb/347 SAW 0.03 0.52 0.01 0.041 0.063
309LMo/308L SAW 0.05 <0.01 0.02 0.034 0.043
308L/347 SAW 0.02 <0.01 <0.01 0.050 0.056
NiCr/NiCr SAW 0.13 1.75 0.09 0.019 0.017 0.05 0.02 10.3 0.02
SAW 0.02 <0.01 0.02 0.077 0.09 0.03
309L/347
HS 0.02 <0.01 0.02 0.024 0.019 0.03
Parentmetal 0.03 0.005 0.006 0.003 0.003 0.022 0.01

SAW=Submergedarcstripwelding
(1)lowcurrentdensityconditions
(2)highcurrentdensityconditions
MMA=Manualmetalarcwelding
ESW=Electroslagwelding
HS=Highspeedsubmergedarcstripwelding
PHW=Plasmahotwirewelding
SASA=Submergedarcseriesarcwelding
=notanalysed

Table2Claddingstested

Consumabletypes Processes
309L/347 MMA/MMA
SAW/SAW(1)
SAW/SAW(2)
SAW/ESW
HS/ESW
ESW/ESW
309L SAW
309Nb/347 SAW/SAW
309Nb SAW
309Nb* SASA
347 PHW
308L/347 SAW/SAW
309LMo/308L SAW/SAW
NiCr/NiCr SAW/SAW
*309LwirewithNbcompensatingflux
SAW=Submergedarcstripwelding
(1)lowcurrentdensityconditions
(2)highcurrentdensityconditions
MMA=Manualmetalarcwelding
ESW=Electroslagwelding
HS=Highspeedsubmergedarcstripwelding

http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 2/14
3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

PHW=Plasmahotwirewelding
SASA=Submergedarcseriesarcwelding

Weldingprocesses
Muchoftheworkinvolvedthesubmergedarcstripcladdingmethodinviewofthewidespreadindustrialuseofthistechnique.
Variantswereemployed,includinglowandhighcurrentdensitiesandahighspeedversionofthetechnique.Inaddition,test
blockswereproducedusingthefollowingprocesses:

1.manualmetalarccladding
2.plasmahotwirecladding
3.electroslagcladding

AsummaryofweldingconditionsusedisgiveninTable3.

Table3Weldingconditions

FirstlayerArc,Weldingcurrent,Weldingspeed,Linearprocesspower,
process V A mm/min kJ/mm
MMA 21.5 133 325 0.5
SAW(1) 28 750 120 10.5
SAW(2) 26 1200 190 9.9
SASA 34 413 267 3.2
ESW 28 2500 150 28.0
SAW(S) 26 1250 190 10.3
SAW(HS) 25 2100 300 10.5
SAWNiCr 30 700 120 10.5
MMA=Manualmetalarc
SAW=Submergedarcstripwelding
(1)lowcurrentdensityconditions
(2)highcurrentdensityconditions
ESW=Electroslagwelding
SASA=Submergedarcseriesarcwelding
SAW(S)=Submergedarcstrip
SAW(HS)=Highspeedsubmergedarcstrip

Postweldheattreatment(PWHT)
Thefollowingaspectsofheattreatmentwereinvestigated:

1.heattreatmenttemperature
2.heattreatmenttime
3.multipleheattreatmentwithahighfinishingtemperature
4.multipleheattreatmentwithalowfinishingtemperature

AstandardisedPWHTof30hoursat690Cwasemployedforallcladdingtypes.Inaddition,sampleswereheattreatedat
temperaturesbetween650and690Cfortimesof130hours.Datageneratedinthecourseoftheinvestigationsuggestedthat
multiplePWHTcouldbeofbenefitinreducingtheincidenceofdisbonding,andstudieswerethereforecarriedoutwithtwostage
temperingattemperaturesof690Cforthefirststageand565640Cforthesecondstage.

Hydrogenchargingandcrackingassessment
Otherworkhadshownthatdisbondingcouldbeinducedbyisothermalchargingofcladsamplesinhighpressurehydrogenat
temperaturesbetween400and500Cfollowedbyfairlyrapidcoolingtoroomtemperature.[16]Followingsuchwork,samples
withdimensionsindicatedinFig.1wereproducedfromthepostweldheattreatedcladblocks.{Itisnotedthatthisworkwas
carriedoutpriortotheintroductionofthecylindricaltestsamplesspecifiedinASTMG14601[8]}Thesesampleswerecharged
atdifferenthydrogenpressures,upto190baratastandardtemperatureof425Cforatimeof3days,thetimebeingselected
onthebasisofavailablehydrogendiffusiondata,andintendedtopromoteclosetothesaturationequilibriumhydrogencontent
inthetestmaterials.Followingcharging,thesampleswerecooledtoroomtemperature,normallyata'standard'rateof
~135C/h.Selectedsampleswerecooledatdifferentratesforcomparativepurposes.

Fig.1.Testblockgeometry,dimensionsinmm.Cladononesurfaceonlyasshownabove

Theextentandlocationofinterfacedisbondingwasassessedinitiallybyultrasonictesting.Metallographicsectioningwasusedto
confirmtheultrasonicassessmentofcrackdevelopment.

Metallurgicalstudies
http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 3/14
3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

Detailedmetallographicexaminationoftheclad/parentmetalinterfacewascarriedoutforthedifferentsamplesusinglightand,
wherenecessary,electronmicroscopy.Microanalysiswasperformedusinganelectronprobemicroanalyserandanenergy
dispersiveXrayanalyserattachedtoascanningelectronmicroscope.

Hydrogendiffusion
Hydrogenconcentrationprofiles,whichevolvedduringtheautoclavechargingofthetestblocksandduringshutdownofa
reactorvesselwitha200mmthickwallcladwith8mmofausteniticstainlesssteel,werecalculatedusingfiniteelementanalysis
tomodeldiffusion.Thisinformationwasderivedasafunctionoftemperatureandtimeafterinitiationofcoolingusing1and2
dimensionalsolutionstothediffusionequationsforthevesselwallandtestblocks,respectively.Inordertomodeltheeffectof
therelativechangesinhydrogensolubilitybetweentheparentmetalandtheweldcladdingduringcooling,supersaturations,
ratherthanconcentrations,wereemployed,asdescribedbySakaietal.[3]Inaddition,directmeasurementwasundertakenof
hydrogenlevelsinthechargedblocksbycoolingthemrapidlytosubzerotemperaturesandmachiningsamplesfromthedifferent
locationsusingacoldcuttingtechnique,sothathydrogenlosswasminimised.Hydrogencontentsweredeterminedusinga
vacuumhotextractionmethod.

Results
TheresultsoftheindividualdisbondingtestsareplottedinFig.2intermsofarea%disbondedagainsthydrogencharging
pressureintheautoclave.Thechargingtemperaturewasthesameinallruns,namely425C.InTable4,thedisbonding
susceptibilityischaracterisedintermsofthresholdpressuretoinitiatedisbondingandthearea%disbondedafterchargingat
150bar.

Fig.2.Resultsofdisbondingtests:

a)Allresultsfor309L/347submergedarcstripcladdingusinglowcurrentdensityweldingconditions

b)Theeffectsofdifferentweldingprocessesusingthe309L/347combinationofconsumables

c)Resultsforsubmergedarcstripcladdingusingdifferentcombinationsofconsumables

http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 4/14
3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

d)Effectsofsingleanddoublelayercladdingsforsubmergedarcstripwelding

e)Effectofheattreatmenton309L/347submergedarcstripcladding(highcurrentdensity)

f)Effectofheattreatmenton309Nbseriesarccladding

g)Effectofheattreatmenton309Nbplasmahotwirecladding

h)Effectofpostweldheattreatmenton309L/347submergedarcstripcladding(lowcurrentdensity)

http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 5/14
3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

Table4Criteriafordisbondingsusceptibilityforallcladdingstested

Estimatedthresholdhydrogen
Consumabletype Processes Area%disbonded150bar
chargingpressure,bar
NiCr/NiCr SAW/SAW 115 0.5
309L/347 MMA/MMA 110 2
309L/347 ESW/ESW 90 16
309L/347* SAW/SAW 85 4
309L/347 SAW/ESW 70 16
309L/347 HS/ESW 60 6
308L/347 SAW/SAW 55 16
309L/347(1) SAW/SAW 45 21
309L/347(2) SAW/SAW 45 23
347 PHW 45 26
309Nb SASA 45 26
309Nb/347 SAW/SAW 45 26
309Nb SAW 20 31
309LMo/308L SAW/SAW 15 31
309L SAW 10 37
SAW=Submergedarcstripwelding
(1)lowcurrentdensityconditions
(2)highcurrentdensityconditions
MMA=Manualmetalarcwelding
ESW=Electroslagwelding
HS=Highspeedsubmergedarcstripwelding
PHW=Plasmahotwirewelding
SASA=Submergedarcseriesarcwelding
*=Additionalpostweldheattreatmentof16hrsat580C

Weldingprocess
Manualmetalarcweldingwasthemostresistantprocess.Thehighdepositionrateprocessestendedtobegroupedtogetherbut,
fortheparticularprocessvariantstestedinthisproject,electroslaghadthelowestsusceptibilityandconventionalsubmerged
arcstripandwireprocessesthehighestsensitivitytodisbonding.

Consumabletype
TheNiCralloycladdingshowedthehighestdisbondingresistanceofallthecladdingstested.Theconventionalstainlesssteel
stripconsumables,withandwithoutniobium,hadasimilarsusceptibility,whilethe309LMoconsumablehadthehighest
susceptibilityandtheloweralloycontent308Lfirstlayerproducedamoreresistantdeposit.Forthehighdepositionrate
processes,therewereatrendsofincreasingdisbondingresistancewithincreasingferriteinthebulkasdepositedmicro
structuresofthefirstlayercladdings,Fig.3,andincreasingcladdingthickness,Fig.4.

Fig.3.Effectofasdepositedferritecontent(IIWRef.Atlas)inthefirstlayercladdings(equaltoorgreaterthan
7mminthickness)ondisbondingsusceptibility

Fig.4.Effectofcladdingthicknessondisbondingsusceptibilityfor309L,309Nband347firstlayerconsumables

http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 6/14
3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

Postweldheattreatment
TheresultsinTable5andFig.2eshowthatdecreasingthePWHTtemperatureortimedecreasedtheamountofdisbondingand
thedatainFig.5showthattheamountofdisbondingwasapproximatelyproportionaltothelogofthePWHTtime.Theresults
forthesingleandmultipleheattreatments(finishingat690C)appliedtothesubmergedarcseriesarccladdingfallinthesame
scatterband,Fig.2fand,althoughthemultipleheattreatmentappliedtotheplasmahotwirecladdingdidcauselessdisbonding,
Fig.2g,thisisprobablyattributabletothelowertotaltimeattemperatureforthemultiplePWHT.UsingalowerPWHT
temperatureintherange565640C,forthesecondstageofaduplexheattreatment,decreaseddisbondingsusceptibility.
Timesof5and16hourswereusedforthissecondstageofheattreatment,buttheresultsofboththesingleandduplexheat
treatmentswereconsistentwiththefinalheattreatmenttemperaturebeingthecontrollingvariable,whetherinsingleorduplex
heattreatments,Fig.6.

Table5Effectofpostweldheattreatmenttemperatureondisbondingof309L/347submergedarcstripcladding
depositedusinglowcurrentdensityweldingconditions

Heattreatmenttemperature Area%disbondedaftercharging
C(30hduration) at150barhydrogenpressureand425C
690 13,20,20,23,27
650 5,8

Fig.5.Effectoftimeofpostweldheattreatmentat690Conarea%disbondedfor309L/347submergedarcstrip
(highcurrentdensity)depositstestedusingthestandardprocedureafterchargingat425Cand80barhydrogen
pressure

Fig.6.Effectoffinalpostweldheattreatmenttemperatureonthearea%disbondedofsubmergedarcstrip
309L/347depositedunderlowcurrentdensityconditionsandtestingusingthestandardprocedureaftercharging
at425Cand150barhydrogenpressure

Metallography
Thecrackingobservedinthetestblockswassimilartothatobservedonasampleofservicedisbondingfromareactorvessel,
Fig.7.Forthemostpart,itwaslocatedinthecladdingwithin100mofandapproximatelyparalleltothefusionboundary,
althoughveryoccasionalexcursionsintotheheataffectedzonewereobserved,Fig.8.

Fig.7.Disbondingcracksfromareactorvesselwallcladbysubmergedarcstripweldingusing309consumable,
etchedelectrolyticallyandin2%nital

http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 7/14
3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

Fig.8.Disbondingcrackingfromanautoclavetestblock,preparedfrom309Lmanualmetalcladding,etched
electrolyticallyandin2%nital

Themicrostructureintheregionwherecrackingwaslocated,Table6,wascomplexand,followingPWHT,fourmicrostructural
zonescouldbeidentified(Fig.9).viz:

1.Attheinterfacetherewasaregionoftemperedandcarburisedmartensite.
2.Anarrowbandofvirginmartensitewaspresentontheedgeofthetemperedandcarburisedmartensitezone.
3.Thenextregionmovingtowardsthecladdingwasalightetchingzoneinwhichgrainboundarieswereheavilydelineated
bycarbideprecipitates.
4.Fromthepositionwhereweldmetaldeltaferritewasobserved,therewasafurtherregionheavilyprecipitatedwith
carbidepenetratingapproximately100mintothecladding.

Table6Measurementsofvariouscladdingcharacteristics

Weldmetalferrite Tempered/carburisedmartensitebandwidth,m
Consu Magn
Processes Scha
mables Ref.*Atlas egage Mean Range
effler
NiCr/NiCr SAW/SAW 0 0 9 143
309L/347 MMA/MMA 5 6 3 15 329
309L/347 ESW/ESW 12 15 45 1966
309L/347 SAW/ESW 9.5 13 26 1353
309L/347 HS/ESW 11.5 13 11 824
308L/347 SAW/SAW 5 136 29301
309L/347(1) SAW/SAW 10 11 1 13 527
309L/347(2) SAW/SAW 10 7 37 2182
347 PHW 9 11 14 396
309Nb SASA 5 6 16 348
309Nb/347 SAW/SAW 9 7 1.5 38 11106
309Nb SAW 9 9 20 1129
309LMo/308L SAW/SAW 7 5 0.5 25 348
309L SAW 10 11 14 827

Linear%ofdisbonding+in Cladding
Consu Meancarbon Maximumtempered/carburised
tempered/carburisedmartensite thickness,
mables penetration,m martensitebandmicrohardness,HV
layer mm
NiCr/NiCr 112 464 100 9
309L/347 70 441 39 5.5
309L/347 187 0 11
309L/347 84 21 10.5
309L/347 77 12 9.5
308L/347 532 40 8.5
309L/347
77 412 54 8
(1)
309L/347
20 8.5
(2)
347 447 59 8
309Nb 88 423 93 7
309Nb/347 473 56 8
309Nb 133 5.5
309L
187 447 53 8.5
Mo/308L
309L 129 4.5

SAW=Submergedarcstripwelding
(1)lowcurrentdensityconditions
(2)highcurrentdensityconditions
MMA=Manualmetalarcwelding
ESW=Electroslagwelding
HS=Highspeedsubmergedarcstripwelding
PHW=Plasmahotwirewelding
SASA=Submergedarcseriesarcwelding

http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 8/14
3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

*IIWFerriteReferenceAtlas
=notdetermined
Blank=notidentifiable
+=asmeasuredonatransversesection

Fig.9.Microstructuralzonesatthecladdinginterfaceof309L/347submergedarccladdingmadeusinglowcurrent
densityweldingconditionsandpostweldheattreatedfor30hat690C:

a)Etchedelectrolyticallyin2%nital

b)Electrolyticallypolished

Inmaterialheattreatedat690C,microhardnessinexcessof400HVwasobservedinthetemperedandcarburisedmartensite.
AfterasecondstagePWHTat600C,themaximummicrohardnessof309L/347SAWcladding,measuredinthisband,fellfrom
412to376HV.However,therewasnooverallcorrelationbetweenthemicrohardnessmeasuredintheinterfaceregionsandthe
disbondingsusceptibility.

Theseobservationsweregeneralforthestainlesssteeloverlays,themajorvariationbetweenprocessesbeingthatthefusion
boundarygeometrywasverymuchmoreirregularwithMMAweldingthanwiththeothermethods.Inthefirstlayerstainless
steelcladdings,thebulkweldmetalmicrostructurewaspredominantlyausteniteandferrite(Table6),withsomedegreeof
sigmaformationafterPWHT.Thehighestasdepositedferritecontentwasfoundwiththeelectroslagoverlay,whilesubstantial
martensitewasnotedinthefirstlayerstripcladdingproducedwitha308Lconsumable.Tosomeextent,similarcommentscan
bemadeforthenickelalloycladding.However,inthiscasethecompositionalgradientacrosstheinterfacewasverymuch
steeperandtheextentofmartensiteformationwas,consequently,greatlyreduced,Fig.10.

Fig.10.TypicalmicrostructurefortheNiCrconsumable,afterpostweldheattreatment,showingverynarrowband
ofcarbideprecipitationatthefusionline,electrolyticallypolished

Hydrogendistributions
Thecalculateddistributionsofhydrogeninstandardtestblocks3hoursafterreachingambienttemperature,aregiveninFig.11
forchargingat150barand50barwiththestandardtestconditions.Itwaspredictedthathydrogenwouldaccumulateincladding
neartheinterfaceandalargerpeakwouldbegeneratedwhenahigherhydrogenpressurewasused.Themodelpredictedthata
similardistributionwouldbeformedwhenareactorvesselwallwascooledtoambienttemperature,Fig.12.

http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 9/14
3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

Fig.11.Hydrogendistributionsthroughthethicknessofthecentreofanautoclavetestblocks6.7haftercharging
at:

a)50bar

b)150bar

Fig.12.Predictedhydrogendistributionthroughthethicknessofavesselwall16.2hafterinitiationofshutdown.
Thecalculationassumesserviceat425Cand150barhydrogencoolingat25C/hto20C

Directmeasurementsofhydrogenweremadenearthecladdinginterfaceofanautoclavetestblock.Theresultsarecompared
withthecalculateddistributioninFig.13.Itcanbeseenthathydrogendidbuildupinthecladding,neartheinterface,andthat
themeasuredvalueswerehigherthanthosecalculated.

Fig.13.Hydrogenconcentrationclosetothecladdinginterface:

6.7hafterinitiatingcoolingfromchargingat425Cand150barhydrogenpressure:

a)Pointsplottedrepresentthemeanconcentrationinslicesoftheindicatedthickness

http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 10/14
3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

b)Calculatedprofileattheinterface

Discussion
Mechanismofdisbonding
Fromthepresentandotherworkitisclearthatdisbondingisamanifestationofhydrogenembrittlement.Crackingoccursat
temperaturesclosetonormalambient,withaclearincubationperiod,anditdidnotoccurinlaboratorytestsinwhichhelium
wassubstitutedforhydrogenintheautoclave.

Otherworkershavedrawnattentiontothepotentiallyembrittlingeffectofintergranularimpurities[3]andcarbideprecipitation
[7]ondisbondingsusceptibility.Inthecurrentworkintergranularsegregationwasnotinvestigatedandnoobviouseffectof
niobiumstabilisationwasseen.Sincedisbondingispredominantlyintergranular,anymechanismcausinggrainboundary
embrittlementwillpresumablyhaveadeleteriouseffectonresistancetodisbonding.However,metallographicobservation
suggeststhatcrackinginitiatesinthetempered/carburisedmaterialalongthefusionlineandwasvirtuallyconfinedtothe
compositional/microstructuraltransitionzoneattheinterfacebetweenthecladdingandtheparentsteel.Thisregionhasa
complexmicrostructurewithinwhichhardnesses,inexcessof400HV,developafternormalPWHT.Suchhardnesslevelsclearly
indicatethepresenceofmartensite.Metallographicobservationsuggeststhatcrackinginitiatesinthetempered/carburised
materialalongthefusionlineandfour'sources'formartensiteformationwithinthistransitionalzonemaybeinvoked:

1.Martensiteformsoncoolingfromweldingclosetothefusionboundarywherethealloycontentoftheweldmetalis
reducedbydilutionwithparentmetal.
2.HighalloydilutionregionswhichjusttransformedtomartensiteoncoolingfromweldingmayreaustenitiseduringPWHT,
revertingtovirginmartensiteoncoolingfromPWHT.
3.CarbonmigrationduringPWHTfromtheparentmetalintothecladdingmaydestabiliseaustenitebycausingchromium
carbideprecipitationwithconsequentelevationoftheMstemperature,again,resultinginmartensiteoncoolingafter
PWHT.[9]
4.Afurtherpossiblemechanismformartensiteformationcouldbehydrogeninducedtransformationcausedbythehigh
hydrogenconcentrationswhichdevelopattheinterfaceduringandsubsequenttohydrogencharging.Inthiscase,
martensiteformationwouldoccuroncoolingfromhydrogencharging.

Althoughmuchofthedisbondingwaswithinidentifiablemartensiticregions,intergranularcrackingalsodevelopedinmaterialin
whichmartensitewasnotclearlyevidentonetching.Theseregionsmayneverthelessbemartensiticbutitisalsopossiblethat
themartensiteisconfinedtothegrainboundaries,havingformedbymechanisms3and4above,asaresultofmorerapid
diffusionofcarbon(andhydrogen)alongthegrainboundaries.Inthisrespect,itisremarkedthatformationofmartensiteatthe
fusionlineeffectivelyshiftstheinterfacebetweenferriticandausteniticmaterialsothat,asfarashydrogendistributionis
concerned,thepeakconcentrationwaspredictedtooccurinausteniticmaterial{possiblyregions3and4abovewherecracking
hasbeenobserved[3]}.Thelevelsofhydrogenwhichareachievedinthisausteniticmaterialarehigherthancanbeproducedin
homogeneoussamplesbuteventestsonmaterial,withmuchlowerhydrogenlevels,[7]suggestthatmaterialofthecomposition
ofregions3and4wouldbesusceptibletointergranularfracture.

Disbondingcracksformapproximatelyparalleltothefusionboundary.Itisdifficulttoidentifyastresssystemwhichcouldactto
causetheobservedcracking.However,residualstressesexistinthecladmaterialsbeingconsideredintheformoflongrange
stressesintheplaneofcladdingandshortrangestressesattheweldbeadoverlappositions.Somecorrelationbetween
disbondingandoverlappositionswasnoted,but,inviewoftheextensivepropagationinsusceptiblematerial,itcanbe
presumedthatboththesesourcesofstressinfluencetheincidenceofdisbonding.

Factorsinfluencingdisbonding
Weldingprocessvariables

Thetestingprocedurehasenabledrankingofthevariousprocessesemployedintermsofdisbondingsusceptibility.Themost
obviousdistinctiontobemadeisbetweenthehighresistanceofmanualmetalarccladdingandtherelativelyinferior
performanceofallthehighdepositionrateprocesses.However,withinthelattergroupthereisagradationinperformance
betweenconventionalsubmergedarcstripcladdingprocessesandtheimprovedresistanceoftheparticularvariantofelectroslag
claddingwhichwastestedandthehighspeedsubmergedarcstripcladdingtechnique.Thewireconsumablemethodsusedgave
resultsbroadlycomparablewiththoseoftheconventionalstripsubmergedarctests.

Consideringthestripsubmergedarcprocess,thetestresultsinFig.2showtheretobesomedependencyofdisbondingon
weldingconditions.However,itwouldnotseemthatthephenomenoncanbeobviatedentirelybycontrolofweldingconditions
alone.Thisisconsistentwiththeconceptthatthe'partiallymixed'or'unmixed'zoneatthefusionlinesofdissimilarwelds
cannotbeavoided,[10]althoughotherworkershaveshownsomeinfluenceofpreheat[11]andcoolingrate[10]ontheextentof
thezone.

http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 11/14
3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

Acceptingtheabovemodelofdisbonding,somesensitivitytodisbondingwillbeinherentwithwelddepositedandheattreated
cladding,sothatageneralsimilarityofresultsfromthehighdepositionrateprocessescouldwellbeexpected.Thehigher
disbondingresistanceofMMAcladdingsisthereforestriking.FromTable6,thiscannotbedirectlyassociatedwithchangesin
depositcompositionstemming,perhaps,fromdifferentbulkdilutionwiththeMMAprocess,althoughtheremaywellbe
variationsinthecompositionalgradientacrosstheinterfacebetweenMMAweldingandtheotheroverlayingmethods.However,
amajordifferencebetweenMMAandtheotherprocessesliesintheinterfacegeometry.ForMMA,itwasverymuchmore
irregularanditisconsideredprobablethatthiswasthemajorcauseofthehigherdisbondingresistancewiththisprocess,
possiblyasaresultofitsrestrictionoflateralcrackextension.

Evenwithinsingleprocess/consumabletype,theresultsshowvariation,theextentbeingatleastcomparabletothatassociated
withdifferenthighdepositionratemethods.Thiswouldseemtobeassociatedwithdifferencesindepositcompositionand
microstructureasconsideredbelow,indicatingthatchoiceofhighdepositionrateweldingmethodisnotoverridingin
determiningdisbondingsensitivity.

Consumabletype

ThecladdingmadewiththeNiCralloyconsumablehadamuchlowersensitivitytodisbondingthananyofthestainlesssteel
variantswhichweretested.Thisdifferenceinbehaviourhasalsobeenobservedbyotherworkers[3,6,12]andcanbelinkedtoa
cleardifferenceinmicrostructure:thesteepercompositionalgradientacrosstheinterface,inthecaseoftheNiCrcladding,
modifiedthemicrostructure,greatlyreducingtheextentofmartensiteformation.Despitethis,otherworkershavepositively
identifiedathinbandofmartensiteatsimilarinterfaces.[13]

Consideringthestainlesssteelconsumables,themajordistinctionwasbetweenthosecladdingsgivingahighferriteor
martensitecontentinthebulkcladdingandthoseinwhichthematrixwasausteniticwithcirca510%ferrite.Inagreementwith
theresultsofotherworkers,[1416]disbonding.resistancewasincreasedbyhigherferritelevelsorthepresenceof'bulk'
martensitebutnoparticulareffectofniobiumstabilisationwasapparent.Themolybdenumcontainingdeposit,producedwith
309LMostrip,didappeartoshowsomewhathighersensitivitythanothertypes,butthiswasalsoassociatedwithalowerferrite
content.

Postweldheattreatment(PWHT)

Ithasbeenshownthatdisbondingcanoccurinbothasweldedandpostweldheattreatedmicrostructures,Fig.2e.Fromboth
thepresentandotherstudies,[2,4,17]sensitivitytodisbondingisclearlyincreasedwithextendedtimeormoreelevated
temperatureofpostweldheattreatmentandthiswouldbeexpected,sincemartensiteformationwouldbepromotedeitherby
increasedaustenitereversionordestabilisationduringheattreatment.

Duringpostweldheattreatment,theoriginalmartensiteatthefusionboundaryclearlybecomestempered.Equallyclearly,the
heattreatmentcyclecaninducetheformationoffreshmartensiteandtrialswerecarriedouttoindicatetheextenttowhich
secondarymartensitecouldbetemperedbyatwostageheattreatmentcycle.Nobenefitindisbondingresistancewasfound
usingasecondtemperaturehigherthanthefirst.However,aconsiderablereductionindisbondingsensitivitydevelopedwhenthe
secondheattreatmentwasatalowertemperature,Fig.6.Thisbenefit,whichhasbeenconfirmedbyotherworkers,[18]
probablystemsfromtwocauses:firstly,thetemperingofthemartensitepresentclosetothefusionboundaryisachievedand,
secondly,thelowtemperatureminimisestheformationoffreshmartensitebyeitherreversionoraustenitedestabilisation.

Claddingthickness

Considerationofhydrogendiffusionthroughthewallofavesselinserviceindicatesthatcladdingofincreasedthicknesswilltend
toreducethepeakhydrogencontentdevelopedattheinterfaceonshutdown.Thelaboratorytrialsonsmalltestblocksshowed
thatincreasedcladdingthicknessreducedtheextentofdisbonding,Fig.4.However,theautoclaveexposurewasdesignedto
saturatesamplethicknessesoftherangestudiedwithhydrogenand,therefore,itisbelievedthatthemeasuredeffecton
disbondingwasanartefactofautoclavetestingofsmalltestblocks,associatedwiththereductionintensileresidualstressesin
thosetestblockswiththickercladdings.Despitethis,inpractice,increasedcladdingthicknessmayhavesomeeffectbecausethe
reducedsteadystatehydrogenconcentrationgradient[19]willlowertheamountofhydrogenneartheinterfaceandmay,
therefore,reducethepeakconcentrationdevelopedonshutdown.

Coolingconditions

Fromthepresentandotherstudiesandpracticalexperience,disbondingcanbecontrolledbyrestrictingthecoolingratefrom
peaktemperature.Thiswouldbeanticipatedonthebasisofslowcooloutpermittinghydrogendiffusionawayfromtheinterface
region.Acorrelationbetweendisbondingtestresultsandpredictedhydrogeninterfacepeakconcentrationshasbeenpresented
byCoudreuse.[20]

Implications
Thereisconsiderabledisagreementintheliteratureconcerningtherolesofthevariableswhichaffecttheriskofdisbonding.Itis
likelythatthesestem,largely,fromdifferencesintestmethodsemployedandincriteriaforassessmentofdisbondingsensitivity.
Thepresentstudyhassoughttorefinetestingtechniqueandassessmenttominimisesuchuncertainties,andtwoaspectsare
consideredparticularlyimportant.Thehydrogenchargingtimeusedwaslongenoughtoachievelevelsofhydrogencloseto
saturationinthecladding(estimatedat93%).Thisisimportantbecause,whenshortertimesareusedforcharging,theactual
levelsofhydrogenwhichareattainedinthetestblockswillbemuchmoresensitivetoanysmallvariationsincharging
conditions,therebyincreasingscatterintheresults.Secondly,theuseofa'criticalthresholdpressure'toinitiatedisbondingis
consideredamoreusefulparameter,foreithercomparativeorquantitativepurposes,thanarbitrarylevelsofdisbondingusedby
otherworkers.

Amajorfindingforthepresentstudywasthat,withausteniticstainlesssteelconsumablesandtheapplicationofconventional
postweldheattreatments,somesensitivitytodisbondinginhighpressurehightemperaturehydrogenserviceisinevitable.
Nonetheless,anumberofwaysofreducingdisbondingsensitivitycanbeidentified,althoughitshouldbeemphasisedthatall
aspectsrelatingtosusceptibilityshouldbecarefullyconsideredbeforeaparticularapproachisadoptedinpractice.

http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 12/14
3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

Thecurrentresultsandthoseofotherworkerssuggestthatthefollowingtechniquesincreasedisbondingresistancewithinthe
rangeofvariablesstudied:

NiCrcladding
Manualmetalarcdepositedcladding
FinishingtemperatureforPWHTbelow650C
Highferriteinthefirstlayercladding
Increasedcladdingthickness
Martensiteinthefirstlayercladding
Useofvanadiummodifiedparentsteel[2124]

Forexistingvesselsthefollowingproceduresareavailableforminimisingsusceptibilitytodisbonding:

Employinghydrogenreleasetreatmentsbeforecooling
ApplyinganadditionallowtemperaturePWHT.

Inthecaseofthefabricationofnewvessels,alloftheabovetechniquescouldbeused,butformostapplicationsitisconsidered
thatthefollowingrecommendationswillbemostefficacious:

Avoidinglowferriteinthefirstlayerdeposits
ApplyingduplexPWHT
UseofVmodifiedparentsteels

Summaryandconclusions
Isothermalhydrogenchargingofsmallweldcladtestblocksinanautoclavefollowedbyrapidcoolingtoambienttemperature
hasbeenusedtoassessthesusceptibilityofcladdings,madeusing.variousweldingprocesses,andconsumablestodisbonding.
Theeffectofpostweldheattreatmenthasbeendeterminedandthemechanismsofdisbondinghavebeeninvestigatedby
metallographicandmicroanalyticaltechniques.Thediffusionofhydrogenintestblocksandreactorvesselwallshasbeen
modelledusingfiniteelementanalysis.Fromtheresultsobtainedinthiswork,thefollowingconclusionsmaybedrawn:

1.Disbondingisduetohydrogenembrittlementandisassociatedwiththepresenceofmartensiteintheinterfaceregion,
themartensiteformingbothduringweldingandfollowingpostweldheattreatment.Crackingoccursalmostexclusivelyon
thecladdingsideoftheinterfacewithonlyafewisolatedexcursions(<1graindiameter)intotheparentmetal.
2.TheNiCrcladdinghadthelowestdisbondingsusceptibilityofalltheprocess/consumable/heattreatmentcombinations
tested.
3.Forstainlesssteelcladdings,manualmetalarcweldingwastheprocessmostresistanttodisbonding.Asagroup,high
depositionrateprocessesshowedgreatersensitivitytodisbonding.
4.Themodifiedstructureatthecladdinginterfaceassociatedwithhighferriteormartensitecontentsinthebulkfirstlayer
claddingconferredanincreaseddisbondingresistanceinstainlesssteeloverlaysdepositedbyhighdepositionrate
processes.
5.Forsubmergedarcstripweldingwith309Lconsumables,highcurrent,hightravelspeedconditionsproducedcladdings
withimprovedresistancetodisbondingcomparedtotheslower,lowercurrentweldingconditions.
6.Forstainlesssteelcladdingsproducedbyhighdepositionrateprocesses,weldingconditions,consumablecompositionand
resultantmicrostructureweremoreimportantthanweldingprocessesperse.
7.Disbondingresistancewasimprovedbypostweldheattreatmentswhichminimised(a)timeattemperatureand(b)the
finaltemperingtemperature.
8.Asaresultofthisworkitcanbeconcludedthattheincidenceofdisbondingcanbereduced,inmanycases,bycareful
selectionandcontrolofweldingprocessandconsumable.However,experimentsinvolvingslowcoolingfollowing
hydrogenchargingweresuccessfulineliminatingdisbondinginthetestblocksemployed.Thisisconsistentwiththe
employmentofshutdownscheduleswhichenablesufficientdiffusiveremovalofhydrogentoavoiddisbonding.

Acknowledgements
ThefollowingcontributedtowardstheworkreportedhereD.S.Rhead,R.W.Gant,H.McMenamin,N.J.Farrant,N.A.Kennedy,
R.L.Smith,C.R.Dye,K.Butcher,D.F.PargeterandR.H.Leggatt.Theauthorswouldalsoliketothankthefollowingcompanies
forfinancialsupport:BP,CB&I,Chevron,Framatome,JSW,Kawasaki,Kobe,NKK,Nooter,NuovoPignone,ShellandSumitomo.

References
1.OhnishiK.,ChibaR.,WatanabeJ.NaitoK.andOkadaH.'Hydrogeninduceddisbondingofstainlesssteeloverlayweld'.
PresentedatPVRCMeeting,NewYork,September,1980.
2.Sims,J.E.andBruck,G.J.'Factorsinfluencingtheperformanceofstainlesssteeloverlaysinhightemperaturehydrogen
service.'PresentedatMPC/ASMESymposiumonperformanceofpressurevesselswithcladandoverlaidstainlesssteel
linings,Denver,June1981.
3.Sakai,T.,Asami,K.,Katsamata,M.,Takada,T.andTanaka,O.'Hydrogeninduceddisbondingofweldoverlayinpressure
vesselsanditsprevention',118thChemicalPlantWeldingResearchCommitteeofJapanWeldingEngineeringSociety,
Tokyo,August1981.
4.Anon.'Studyofdisbondinginoverlayweldment.'NKKTechnicalResearchCentreReport,October,1982.
5.Pressouyre,G.M.,Chaillet,J.M.andValette,G.'Parametersaffectingthehydrogendisbondingofausteniticstainless
claddingsteels'.InProc.'Currentsolutionstohydrogenproblemsinsteels'.ASMWashington,November,1982.
6.Nakano,M.,Yasuda,K.,Imanaka,T.andNishiyama,N.'Weldmetalcompositioneffectivetopreventoverlayweld
claddingfromhydrogeninduceddisbonding'.KawasakiSteelCorporationresearchreport,June1983.
7.Anon.'Hydrogenembrittlementofbondstructurebetweenstainlesssteeloverlayweldandbasemetals'.Finalreportof
TaskGroupIIIJointStudySubcommitteeonHydrogenEmbrittlementMaterials.
8.ASTMG14601.'Standardpracticeforevaluationofdisbondingofbimetallicalloy/steelplateforuseinhighpressure,
hightemperaturerefineryhydrogenservice.'ASTM,2001.
9.GittosM.F.andGoochT.G.'Theinterfacebelowstainlesssteelandnickelalloycladdings.'WeldingJournal71,(12),
1992,461s472s.
http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 13/14
3/21/2017 Disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservice(February2007)

10.KarlssonL.andArciniH.'Formationofunmixedzonesinstainlesswelds.'InnovationStainlessSteel,Florence,Italy
October1993,3.2733.278.
11.OmarA.A.'Effectsofweldingparametersonhardzoneformationatdissimilarmetalwelds.'WeldingJournal77,(2),
1998,86s93s.
12.LewisK.R.,KoersR.W.J.,vanWortelH.C.,andKromA.H.M.'Assessmentofoperatinglimitsforcriticaldissimilar
weldsinahydrocracker.'Corrosion2001,Paper01532,NACE,2001.
13.OldenV.,KvaaleP.E.,SimesenP.A.,AaldstedtS.andSolbergJ.K:'TheeffectofPWHTonthepropertiesand
microstructureinInconel625andInconel725butteredjoints.'Proc.OMAE2003,CancunMexico,June2003.
14.Anon.'OnthedisbondingcharacteristicsofweldoverlaybytheMaglayprocess.'KawasakiSteelCorporationResearch
LaboratoriesReport,1983.
15.TanakaO.,TakebaK.andMatsashitaY.'Highspeedoverlayweldingwithstripelectrodes.'Weldingreview,3,(2),1984,
5862.
16.OhnishiK.,FujiA.,ChibaR.AdachiT.,NaitoK.andOkadaH.'Effectsofstripoverlayweldingconditionsonresistanceto
hydrogeninduceddisbonding.'QuarterlyJournalJWS,November1983,7582.
17.OhnishiK.,ChibaR.,MurakamiY.,FujiA.,NomuraT.,NaitoK.andOkadaH.'EffectofPWHTconditionson
overlay/weldmetalinterfacemicrostructure'.TranslationofpreprintspresentedatAprilandOctobermeetingsofJWS,
JapanSteelworksLtd.,December1982.
18.VignesA.,PalengatR.andBocquetP.'Disbondingmechanismanditsprevention.'Interactionofsteelswithhydrogenin
petroleumindustrypressurevesselservice,MPC,NewYork,1993.
19.JohnsonE.W.andHudakS.J.'Hydrogenembrittlementofausteniticstainlesssteelweldmetalwithspecialconsideration
giventotheeffectsofsigmaphase.'WRCBulletin240,August1978.
20.CoudreuseL.'Meaningofdisbondingtests:resultsofanEuropeanjointresearchproject.'Corrosion2001,Paper01533,
NACE,2001.
21.ShimomuraJ.,NakanoY.andUedaS.'Improvementinresistancetodisbondingofstainlesssteeloverlayed2Cr1Mo
steels'.ISIJInternational,4,1991,379386.
22.BrouwerR.C.'HydrogendistributionthroughthewallofpressurevesselsmadeofconventionalandVmodifiedsteels.'
InternationalJournalofPressureVesselsandPiping,56,1993,133148.
23.CaywardM.S.,KaneR.D.andStevensC.E.'Evaluationofhydrogendisbondingofstainlesscladdingforhigh
temperaturehydrogenservice.'Corrosion94,Paper518,NACE,1994.
24.FusariF.,CoudreuseL.,LefebreY.,CrowtherM.,degrdL.,andBlaauwA.'Propertiesofstripsurfacedoverlaysonthe
newgenerationofparentmetalsforthepetrochemicalindustry.'WeldingintheWorld,36,1995,173180.

http://www.twiglobal.com/technicalknowledge/publishedpapers/disbondingofausteniticstainlesssteelcladdingfollowinghightemperaturehydrogenservicefebruary2007/ 14/14