JABATAN PENGAIRAN DAN SALIRAN (JPS)

KEMENTERIAN SUMBER ASLI DAN ALAM SEKITAR (NRE)

MALAYSIA

NOTA KURSUS TAHUN 2006

KM 7, JALAN AMPANG
68000 AMPANG, KUALA Lw P'U T
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1 KURSUS KESTABILAN CERUN DAN 1
TEMBOK PENAHAN
PADA 16 - 18 ME1 2006

DESIGN OF RETAINING
STRUCTURES

NG KOK SENG
Penolong Pengarah Kanan
Bahagian Struktur, Geoteknik dan Empangan
Cawangan Ampang, K.L.
e-mail : ngks@water.gov.my
Tel: 03- 42552509
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS AND
RELATED SOIL INVESTIGATION
REQUIREMENTS
 Shear Strength of soils
State of stress of soils
-Terzaghi's Principle of Stresses in soil
0' =0 -u and u = us + u,
o Total normal stress on a plane
' Effective normal stress on the plane, (due to inter-contact of soil particles)
U pore water pressure (due to water in void)
us static water pressure in voids
u, excess pore water pressure in voids
- When saturated soils are loaded,
- Total stress increases, o
- soil particles (incompressible) rearrange by slidinglrolling - o'
- water pressure in voids immediately increases - excess pore water pressure, u,
- U, dissipate in time if allow to seep
* Before full dissipation 3 applied stress carried by soils particles +water i.e.
undrained condition
* Full dissipation of excess pore pressure, i.e. u, = 0 ,
3 soil particles rearranged to take full applied stress with decrease in volume
i.e. drained condition

Shear Strength of soils

State of stress of soils
- Soil deform and fail when
> applied stresses > shear strength of soil

- Stability of slope and retaining structures required shear resistance Istrength of the
soils, i.e. Limit Equilibrium method analysis.
 Shear Strength of soils (cont...)

Coulomb's shear strength - 2 components of shear strength i.e.

- 0 (angle of internal friction) i.e. sliding friction between grains & stress dependent ,
- C cohesion, non- stress dependent

Thus, Coulomb's equation

s=c + a'tan I$
Where,
s = shear strength or shear resistance, kNlm2

-
c = cohesion, kNlrn2 (not dependent on normal stress)
a' intergranular pressure acting perpendicular to the shear plane, k N h 2
= (o - u ) o = total pressure
u = pore water pressure
= angle of internal frictional of soil, degrees.
Note : a' tan I$ = frictional resistance between soil grains and proportional to normal
pressure

Shear Strength of soils

- Graphical Representative of Coulomb's (straignt Line)

S
Granular/ cohesionless / non-
cohesive or frictional soil
b.)
(coarse grained soil)

s = o' tan I$ where c = 0

0'

Fine-grained or cohesive soil

(fined-grained eg clay, silt &
colloids)
. f s= C where 0=0
o'
Shear Strength of soils - by Mohr Circles Envelope

Mohr Circle Envelope - represent shear stresses on

failure plane at failure as function of normal stress
on that plane i.e.
Initial
s,=f (0,)
Conditions
By carrying a series of tests with varying normal
stresses until failure (triaxial), a plot of increasing 1

-n-
normal stresses (resembling confining pressures in 'T cell
in-situ) versus shear strength at failure, give the
graph below: -

Mohr Failure
Envelope
t
At failure
4
1 axial (at f a ) 1
1 cell (at fail) J Oqf

-
cell (at fail) - 3f

Shear Strength of soils - Mohr-Coulomb's Envelope

Mohr Failure 01 '
Envelope
I

-
Mohr-Coulomb's Envelope
- a state where combination of shear stress and normal stress
give the stress conditions at the failure plane at failure.
- 4 and c known as strength parameters , important in stability
and foundation analysis.
 f Mohr-Coulomb's Envelope

0'
a) For cohesionless soils
- the slope of the straight line tangent to the series of Mohr circles
represents I$
- Q more pronounced for cohesionless soils and approach zero for soft
cohesive soil.
- series of varying confining pressures in Triaxial tests are reflected by the
plotting of the Mohr Circles
- +, c can be determined from undisturbed samples but usually from SPT
and in-situ penetration cone , direct shear test
- apparent cohesion, c" i.e. cohesionless soil exhibit characteristic of
cohesive soils (evident - stand vertical when cut)
% due either t o capillary attractive forces (when dry of saturation) or
mineralogy action. For capillary action, it usually disappear with
time, thus normally ignore in stability analysis.

Shear Strength of soils - Mohr-Coulomb's Envelope

0'

SPT Vs 41 for cohesionless soils

Type of soil Penetration Anale o f Internal friction (kN/m2)

Resistance, N Peck (1974) Meyerhof (1956)
Very Loose sand <4 < 29 < 30
Loose sand 4 - 10 29 - 30 30 - 35
Medium Sand 10 - 30 30 - 36 35 - 40
Dense Sand 30 - 50 36 - 41 40 - 45
V. Dense Sand > 50 > 41 > 45
 Mohr-Coulomb's Envelope

1 s=c

b) For cohesive soil

- shear strength due to atomic attraction forces between soils particles
- independent of the confining pressures
- Intercept a t shear strength axis, 'c' (where principle stress, = zero)
-
0

- Soft clay, o, s= in-situ shear strength, 'c'

I$

- 'c' obtained from triaxial tests, cone penetration tests, vane shear and
unconfined undrained (UU) compression test

Total Stress Vs. Effective stress Analysis

c', $, S, changes with time (in relationship to excess pore water pressure)

When load applied on soil mass, add'l load taken by: -

- Soil skeleton
- Pore water , 3 result in excess pore pressure

Excess pore press. will dissipate in time by seepage, hence c', I$, will change with
time

Designer need to determine critical soil parameters i.e.

- short-term or total stress under undrained conditions analysis (immediately I
during construction)
- long-term or effective stress (after dissipation of excess pore pressure i.e. drained
condition)
- Short- or long-term afialysis depend on
Type of soil
- Permeability
- Compressibility -1depend 0
+ - coarse grains or cohesionless soil
- fine grain or cohesive soil
- Soil thickness
- Type of drainage
 Total Stress Vs. Effective stress Analysis (cont ...)

Cohesionless Soils - (sandy 1 granular soils)

- Stability = f ( I$' , y , u)
- High permeability + Excess pore water pressure dissipate rapidly
- Need only consider long-term parameters
- Effective stress analysis
For sand, 4 = $' and c' = 0
- Influence of Pore pressure
Submergence no effect on strength
- Shear strength Tests:
C-D Triaxial (not common)
Direct shear test
SPT relationship

Total Stress Vs. Effective stress Analysis (cont....)

SPT Vs I$ for cohesionless soils

Type of soil Penetration Anqle of Internal friction

Resistance, N Peck (1974) Meyerhof (1956)
Very Loose sand <4 < 29 <30
Loose sand 4 - 10 29 - 30 30 - 35
Medium Sand 10 - 30 30 - 36 35 - 40
Dense Sand 30 - 50 36 - 41 40 - 45
V. Dense Sand > 50 > 41 > 45
 Total Stress Vs. Effective stress Analysis (cont ....)

Cohesive Soils - (clayey soils)

- Low permeability 3 Excess pore water pressure dissipate slowly
- Analysis using either total or effective stress analysis (or check for both)

a) Effective stress stability b)Total Stress stability

- drained conditions
+= and c = c' - Undrained condition
- In-situ undrained strength with
- Shear strength Tests: c = s u , r$ = o
- CU ICD Triaxial - Applied when soil saturated
- SPT relationship - Shear strength not affected by
position of water table or phreatic surface
- Shear strength Tests:
- UU 1CU Triaxial
- Vane shear in-situ test
- Correlation with Plasticity
Index (PI) i.e.
C,/cr,' = 0.11 + 0.0037 (PI)

- Clay with >25% PI -3 can develop low

residual shear angles when
disturbed

Total Stress Vs. Effective stress Analysis (cont.. ..)

Examples of Time Dependent Shear Strength (cohesive soil)

Embankment Cutting
I I
Height

Pore water
pressure (u)

FOS
Steps Involved in Slope Stability and Retaining Structure Analysis - Design

1. Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required

2. Determine Type and Method of Geotechnical lnvestigation

Required

3. lnterpret Geotechnical lnvestigation Results

4. Analysis & Design

Steps Involved in Slope Stability and Retaining Structure Analysis - Design

Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required

Determine Type and Method of Geotechnical lnvestigation

Required

lnterpret Geotechnical lnvestigation Results

Analysis & Design

1. Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required

Type of Analysis Required

k Stability
@ Slope Stability
C? Retaining wallslsheet piles
@ Bearing Capacity

Parameter Required

> Shear Strength

@ Cohesion, c - Triaxial
4 Internal frictional angle, $ - Triaxial

1. Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required (cont...)

Others Parameter Required

(3 Unit Weight, y - Lab

@ Moisture Content - Lab
@ Soil Classification - Lab
(3 Plastic 1 liquid limit - Lab
@ Sensitivity - Lab
@ Phreatic Line (Water Table) - In-situ
Steps Involved in Slope Stability and Retaining Structure Analysis - Design

1. Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required

2. Determine Type and Method of Geotechnical Investigation

Required

3. Interpret Geotechnical lnvestigation Results

4. Analysis & Design

-- -- - -

2. Type and Method of Ground Investigation Required

*3 Boreholes with Field Tests + Laboratory Tests

2.1 Boreholes (BS 5930: 1981) - General

Include sampling, in-situ testing and water table observations

Depth > 100 m
Drill through all soils and core through rocks
Types
J Rotary drilling by circulating fluid - most common
J Wash boring utilizes the percussive action of a chisel bit to
break up materials and flush to the surface by water or
drilling fluid pumping down the hollow drill rods
 2.2 Boreholes - Sampling

a) Wash samples
J Soil Strata Description

b) Install piezometers to measure ground water level

c) Disturbed Samples
J Split Spoon samples after SPT

2.2 Boreholes -Sampling (Cont.. ...)

d) Undisturbed Samples
- laboratory strength and consolidation tests

J Thin wall sampler

o Cohesive soils up to firm consistency (N < 0)Iand free
from large particles eg. marine deposits

J Thin wall piston sampler

o Cohesive soils with low strength like very soft to soft clay

J Continuous sampler
o Identifying sand lenses, description/classification tests
o Usually for soft marine deposits

J Mazier Sampler
o Triple-tube core-barrels containing detachable liners
within the inner barrel
o Undisturbed soil samplers from stiffer soil stratum
 2.3 Boreholes - Field Tests

a) Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

b) MackintoshIJKR Probe
c) Field Vane Shear Test eg. Geonor vane
- to determine in-situ undrained shear strength (S, ) of soft cohesive soil
- give good results due to insitu testing
- usually overestimate S, , thus need to be corrected by Bjerrum's
correction factor related to Plasticity Index

d) Static Cone Penetration Test

- Undrained shear strength
- Soil Type

e) Pressuremeter Test
- Borehole (Menard) or self boring

f) Permeability Test

2.4 Boreholes - Laboratow Tests

a) Classification
J Bulk Density
J Moisture Content
J Specific Density
J Gradation
J Atterberg limits

b) Strength
J Unconfined Compression
J Triaxial Tests (UU, CU, CD with pore pressure
measurement)
J Shear Box
 2.4 Boreholes - Laboratory Tests

c) Consolidation
4 One-dimensional test
d) Compaction
J Standard Proctor Compaction
4 Relative Density
e) Permeability
4 Triaxial cell
4 Hydraulic consolidation cell
4 Constant Head permeability test
f) Chemical
J Organic content, sulphate, pH test

Steps Involved in Slope Stability and Retaining Structure Analysis - Design

1. Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required

2. Determine Type and Method of Geotechnical Investigation

Required

3. Interpret Geotechnical lnvestigation Results

4. Analysis & Design

 3. Interpret Geotechnical Investigation Results

3.1 Field Tests - Mackintosh / JKR Probe

9 Suitable in softlweak layer
9 Determine hard layer or shallow bedrock
9 Preliminary subsoil info
9 Assist in interpolation between boreholes
9 Limited Use
J Shallow Bedrock profile
J Weak zone at shallow depth
J Shallow foundation
o No recent fill and future settlement
o Structure of low risk
o if in doubt, use borehoie

3.2 Correlations between SPT and S,

i. S, = 20 N kNlm2 (Meyerhof)
ii. 2 S,= 13N kNlm2 (Terzaghi & Peck)
iii. S, = 70 N kNlm2 (Reese, Touma & O'Neil)
iv. S, = 4 to 6 N kNlm2 (Stroud & Butler)
v. 2 S, = 0.1 + 0.15 N kNlm2 (Fukuoka) -

(Ref: Fleming et al, Piling Engineering Survey Uni. Press, Glasgow (1985))
vi. ForCHClay
2 S, = 13.7N kNIm2 ) Sambhandharaksa & Pitupakor,
) 1985
2 S, = 10.4N kNIm2 ) for Bangkok Clays

1 Note; N = SPT 'N' corrected I

 3.3 Relationship Between SPT, JKRlMackintosh Probe and
Unconfined Compression Strength of Cohesive Soil

Consistency Bulk Unit Unconfined JKR Probe

(Blowlft) Weight, y, Compressive (Blowlft)
kN/mZ Strength q, (kNI mZ)

+
15 - 30 Very stiff

Note:- S, = q , where S, = undrained shear strength,

3.4 Relationship Between SPT, JKR /Mackintosh Probe, Allowable

Soil Pressure, Soil Density, Internal Frictional Angle for Granular
Soils

N Consistency Bulk Unit Internal Allowable

(Blowlft) Weight, y, Friction Soil Pressure Probe
kN/mZ anale. &I (blowllft)
Not suitable 0 - 10
4 - 10 Loose 15-20 28 - 30 0 - 80 10-30
10 -30 Medium 1 7 - 21 30 - 36
30 -50 Dense 17 - 22 36-41
> 50 Very Dense > 21 41
 3.5 Relationship Between SPT and 0
- Recommended for Cohesionless
soils as representative sample of in-situ is
almost impossible to achieve for lab. test

=, ,N Corrected N value
N = Actual SPT - N value
o ,,= Vertical effective stress ton/ft2

Anale of Sheanna Resistance. d. darees 1

3.6 Sample Triaxial Test Results

"'I
I000
Interpreted From Mohr

Effective Stress

1b00 ZQQO Z ~ O Q ZLOQ

NORMAL STRESS lkNfn7
 3.7 Example of Some Undrained Shear Strengths by
Various Test Methods

0 I I I I
!

Depth vs. Typical

Undrained Shear Strength
by various Methods for
Morgan City recent
Alluvium, ie.
- Unconfined Compression
- Undrained Triaxial
- Laboratory Vane
- Field Vane

snastreoghan'

3.8 Mackintosh Value Vs Allowable Bearing Capacity

M.P. < 10,

Very loose, wet, fine sand,
silt or clay, genrally
unstable.
M.P. 10 - 40
Moist, fine sand or sand
with large amount of clay
from soft to firm
consistency
M.P. > 40.
Moist sand and clayed
sand from firm to very hard
consistency.
I MacintoshValue (blowslft) I
Allowable Bearinn Ca~acitvVs Mackintosh Probe
-
Note:
1. Used for square foundation only, normally founded at least 5' below finished level.
2. Generally can be applied to moist clayey sand soils
3. Mackintosh probe < 18 blowslft, need special treatment
4. If foundation near slope, stability of slope need to be considered
3.9 JKR Probe Vs Allowable Bearing Capacity
(Ooi& Ting, 1975)

. Plate bearing test on sand A

plate bearing test on'
I Residual granite soil

10 20 30 40 50 SO 70 80 90 100
PENETRATION RESISTANCE (B lows/ft)

3.10 Atterbern Limits to predict soil strenath:

Undrained shear strength&
9 Peck (1940) - for Chicago clay
9 Skempton (1954)

for normally consolidated clays : C, = (0.1 1 + 0.37 PI) * o

9 P.1 used as Correction Factor for C, measured by Vane
Shear test

Effective Stress Parameter

9 Bjerrum and Simons (1960)

4' for normally consolidated clays assuming C' = 0

Relationship between sin 4' , and Plasticity Index for
Normally consolidated Soils (Kenney 1959)

Sample of Soil Profile Used for Designlanalysis

0 SPT'N' A JKR Probe

 Relevant B.S.for Geotechnical Enginnering
1 BS 1377 (1990) Methods of Test for soils in Civil
Enginneering Purposes
2 BS 5930 (1981) COP for Site Investigations
3 BS6031(1981) COP for Earthworks
4 BS 8002 (1994) COP for Earth Retaining Structures
5 BS 8004 (1986) COP for foundations
6 BS 8005 (1986) COP for StrengthenedlReinforced soils and
other Fills
7 BS 8081 ( I 989) COP for Ground Anchors

Steps Involved in Slope Stability and Retaining Structure Analysis - Design

1. Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required

2. Determine Type and Method of Geotechnical Investigation

Required

3. Interpret Geotechnical lnvestigation Results

4. Design Analysis
- Slope Stability Analysis
- Retaining Structures
 Kursus Analisa Kestabilan Cerun
dan Rekabentuk Tembok Penahan
pada 16 - 18 Mei 2006

Design Guide For Retaining Walls

(Adopted from Design Office, JPS Malaysia)
I. 1 SCOPE OF THIS DESIGN G U I D E
T h e s c n o t e s a r e i n t e n d e d a s a G u i d e f o r u s e i n t h e e s t i m a t i o n of
e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e s , and For t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n of r e t a i n i n g
w a l l s and o t h e r e a r t h Y e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s . Recommended m e t h o d s
a r e g i v e n For m o s t a s p e c t s o f d e s i g n , e x c e p t f o r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , w h e r e
g u i d a n c e i s g i v e n on o n l y a f e w s p e c i a l p o i n t s . Throughout t h e G u i d e ,
r e f e r e n c e i s made t o r e l e v a n t t e x t b o o k s , C o d e s a n d p u b l i s h e d p a p e r s , a n d t h e
r e a d e r s h o u l d c o n s u l t t h o s e o r i g i n a l ' d o c u m e n t s f o r more d e t a i l e d c o v e r a g e o f
p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s of t h e s u b j e c t matter.

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o remember t h a t e n g i n e e r i n g j u d g e m e n t s h o u l d
always be e x e r c i s e d i n a p p l y i n g t h e t h e o r i e s and d e s i g n methods g i v e n i n t h e
Guide- I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e p r a c ~ i t i o n e rm u s t b e a w a r e o f c h e l i m i t a t i o n s o n
t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s employed i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e o r e t i c a l o r c o m p u t a t i o n a l
method.

1.2 RETAINING WALL DESIGN PRINCIPLES

1.2.1 F/ree-4-tand&tg Re,ta&&~g ~~

I n t h e design of free-standing r e t a i n i n g w a l l s , t h e f o l l o w i n g
a s p e c t s need t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d :

(a) t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e s o i l around t h e w a l l ,

(b) t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e r e t a i n i n g w a l l i t s e l f ,

(c) t h e s t r u c t u r a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e w a l l ; and

(d) damage t o . a d j a c e n t s t r u c t u r e s d u e t o w a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n -

The m a g n i t u d e o f t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e w h i c h w i l l b e e x e r t e d o n a
wall i s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e amount o f movement t h a t t h e w a l l u n d e r g o e s .
 I t i s u s u a l t o assume f o r f r e e - s t a n d i n g r e t a i n i n g w a l l s i h n t .
s u f f i c i e n t outward movement o c c u r s t o a l l o w a c t i v e (minim~im) e a r t h p r e s s r j t c s
t o develop. The d e s i g n e r must e n s u r e c h a t s u f f i c i e n t movemcnt cnn t a k e p l a c c
w i t h o u t a f f e c t i n g t h e s e r v i c e a b i l i t y o r a p p e a r a n c e of t h e w a l l .

Mlere i t is n o t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e r e q u i r e d outward movement t o

o c c u r , f o r i n s t a n c e due t o wall o r foundation r i g i d i t y , higher p r e s s u r e s
w i l l d e v e l o p and t h e w a l l must b e d e s i g n e d For t h e s e . F u r t h e r g u i d a n c e on
t h i s m a t t e r i s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 3.2.

1.2.2 0;thm Retaivtirtg S . t h u c t w r e ~

I f a s t r u c t u r e p r e v e n t s outward movement o f the s o i l , t h e w a l l
w i l l u s u a l l y be s u b j e c t t o s t a t i c e a r t h p r e s s u r e s g r e a t e r than a c t i v e . This
o c c u r s where a w a l l r e t a i n i n g e a r t h is p a r t o f a more e x t e n s i v e s t r u c t u r e ,
s u c h a basement w a l l i n a b u i l d i n g o r a n abutment w a l l of a p o r t a l
structure. It a l s o o c c u r s when t h e w a l l i s c o n n e c t e d t o a n o t h e r s t r u c t u r e , .
s u c h a s a b r i d g e abutment c o n n e c t e d t o t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e .

1.3 LOAD CASES

1.3.1 8 a h - i ~Loadingd
The b a s i c p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g t o b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r d e s i g n i s :
fiormal l o a d i n g = s t a t i c earth pressure + water pressure +
p r e s s u r e due t o l i v e l o a d s o r s u r c h a r g e .

The p o s s i b l e o c c u r r e n c e o f o t h e r d e s i g n c a s e s , or v a r i a t i o n s oC t h e
o n e a b o v e , c a u s e d by c o n s t r u c t i o n sequence o r f u t u r e development of s u r r o u n d i n g
a r e a s should a l s o be considered. For i n s t a n c e , a d d i t i o n a l s u r c h a r g e s may s e e d -
E d e c o n s i d e r e d and a l l o w a n c e made f o r any p o s s i b l e f u t u r e removal of g r o u n d
i-n--.f r o n t of--- -t h e w a l l i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h s e r v i c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e p a s s i v e
r e s i s t a n c e o f t h i s m a t e r i a l is i n c l u d e d 3.n t h e s t a b i l i t y . c a l c u l a t i o n s .
The e f f e c t o f e x c k t i o n on t h e w a l l b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y may a l s o need t o b e
considered,

F o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of e a r t h p r e s s u r e s , i t i s u s u a l t o c o n s i d e r
a u n i t l e n g t h of t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n of t h e w a l l and r e t a i n e d s o i l . A.unit
- l e n g t h i s a l s o ussd i n t h e s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n o f c a n t i l e v e r w a l l s and o t h e r
w a l l s w i t h a uniform c r o s s - s e c t i o n .
 2.1 GENERAL
For a l l w a l l s h i g h e r t h a n 5 m e t r e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e w i t h s l o p i n g
b a c k f i l l , t h e s o i l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e n a t u r a l ground and b a c k f i l l sliould be
e s t i m a t e d i n advance o f d e s i g n from t e s t s on samples of t h e m a t e r i a l s i n v o l v e d .
I n a d d i t i o n , s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be p a i d t o t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f ground
G a t e r l e v e l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o maximum probable v a l u e s .

..

For l e s s i m p o r t a n t w a l l s , . a n e s t i m a t i o n of t h e s o i i p r o p e r t i e s
may be made frbm p r e v i o u s t e s t s on s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s . A careful visual
e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e m a t e r i a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t a t t h e proposed f o u n d a t i o n l e v e l
s h o u l d b e made and i n d e x t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e assumed m a t e r i a l
type is c o r r e c t .

2-2 SELECTION AMI USE OF BACKFl L L

The i d e a l b a c k f i i l f o r a minimum s e c t i o n w a l l i s a f r e e d r a i n i n g
g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l of high s h e a r i n g . s t r e n g t h . However,-the f i n a l c h o i c e o f
m a t e r i a l s h o u l d b e b a s e d o n t h e c o s t s and a v a i l a b i l i t y of such m a t e r i a l s
b a l a n c e d a g a i n s t t h e c o s t o f more e x p e n s i v e w a l l s .

I n g e n e r a l , t h e u s e o f f i n e - g r a i n e d c l a y e y b a c k f i l l s i s n o t recommended.
C l a y s a r e s u b j e c t t o s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t and c o n s e q u e n t
-s w e l l i n g and s h r i n k a g e . T h i s e f f e c t may l e a d t o a n i n c r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e a g a i n s t
a w a l l when t h e s e s o i l s a r e used a s b a c k E i l l . Due t o c o n s o l i d a t i o n , l o n g
term s e t t l e m e n t problems are considerably g r e a t e r than with c o h e s i o n l e s s
materials,

For c o h e s i v e b a c k f i l l s , s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n must b e p a i d t o t h e
p r o v i s i o n of d r a i n a g e t o p r e v e n t t h e build-up of w a t e r p r e s s u r e . Free draining
c o h e s i o n l e s s ~ t e r i a l smay n o t r e q u i r e t h e same amount of a t t e n t i o n i n t h i s
respect- They may s t i l l r e q u i r e p r o t e c t i o n by p r o p e r l y d e s i g n e d f i l t e r ' l a y e r s .
 The w a l l d e f l e c t i o n r e q u i r e d t o produce t h e a c t i v e s t a t e i n c o h e s i v e
m a t e r i a l s w i t h a s i g n i f i c a n t c l a y c o n t e n t may be up t o 10 times g r e a t e r t h a n .

f o r cohesionlcss materials. T h i s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t tile former

g e n e r a l l y have lower v a l u e s o f s l ~ c a r i n gs t r e n g t h , means t h a t t h e amount o f
. s h e a r s t r e n g t h m o b i l i s e d f o r any g i v e n w a l l movement i s c o n s i d e r a b l y lower
f o r c o h e s i v e m a t e r i a l s than f o r c o h e s i o n l e s s m a t e r i a l s . The c o r r e s p o n d i n g
e a r t h p r e s s u r e on t h e a c t i v e s i d e f o r a p a r t i c u l a r w a l l movement w i l l t h e r c f o r r ?
be h i g h e r i f c o h e s i v e s o i l is used f o r b a c k f i l l .

Rock f i l l is a very s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l f o r u s e a s a b a c k f i l l t o
r e t a i n i n g w a l l s and c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n t o i t s use when a v a i l a b l e .
I n g e n e r a l , t h e r o c k f i l l should b e w e l l g;aded and have a nominal maximum s i z e
o f 200mm. A well-graded d e n s e l y compacted r o c k f i l l s h o u l d not have more t h a n
a b o u t 2% f i n e r t h a n 75um i f i t .is t o remain f r e e - d r a i n i n g .

Movement o f s o i l , due t o s e e p a g e , i n t o t h e r o c k f i l l n e e d s t o b e
prevented. T h i s may r e q u i r e t h e p r o v i s i o n o f p r o p e r l y d e s i g n e d f i l t e r l a y e r s .
between t h e s o i l and t h e r o c k f i l l .

I t is e s s e n t i a l t o s p e c i f y and s u p e r v i s e t h e p l a c i n g of b a c k f i l l t o .
e n s u r e t h a t i t s s t r e n g t h and u n i t w e i g h t p r o p e r t i e s a g r e e with t h e d e s i ~ n
a s s u m p t i o n s b o t h f o r l a t e r a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e and dead w e i g h t c a l c u l a t i o n s . Jn
t h i s regard, i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important t o e n s u r e . t h a t the b a c k f i l l behind
a w a l l and on a s l o p e is p r o p e r l y compacted. The b a c k f i l l s h o u l d n o r m a l l y
b e compacted i n t h i n l a y e r s u s i n g l i g h t compaction p l a n t f o r t h e r e a s o n s
o u t l i n e d i n S e c t i o n -3.10.

The a c t i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r
a s t e e p l y s l o p i n g b a c k f i l l , i f t h e f a i l u-
r e plane o c c u r s . i n a material with a
high a n g l e of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e . I n some c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t may be e c o n o m i c a l
t o r e p l a c e weaker m a t e r i a l s o ' t h a t t h e above s i t u a t i o n o c c u r s .

2.3 UNIT WEIGIfJ

The u n i t w e i g h t of s o i l depends o n t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f t h e
s o l i d p a r t i c l e s and t h e p r o p o r t i o n s of s o l i d , a i r and w a t e r i n t h e , s o i l .
The p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e t o t a l volume t h a t is made up o f c h i s s o i i d m a t e r i a l
i s dependent on t h e d e g r e e o f compaction o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n .
 A s e s t i m a t e of t h e u n i t weight of b a c k f i l l m a t e r i a l t o b e used
b e h i n d a r e t a i n i n g - s t r u c t u r e may br o h i n i n e d f r o n s t a n d a r d I a b o r n t o r y
c o-
m p a c t i o n t e s t s on s a m p l e s of t h e m a t e r i a l o r from r e c o r d s oE f i e l d ' t e s t i n g .
The u n i t weighe c h o s e n must c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e compaction and m o i s t u r e c o n d i t i o n s
t h a t w i l l apply in the actual f i e l d situation.

The u n i t w e i g h t of n a t u r a l s o i l s h o u l d be o b t a i n e d from u n d i s t u r b e d -
s a m p l e s k e p t a t t h e f i e l d m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t and volume. For i n i t i a l d e s i g n
p u r p o s e s , d r y d e n s i t i e s i n t h e r a n g e 1 7 5 0 t o 1850kg/m3 nay be assumed f o r
a l l s o i l s compacted n e a r optimum m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t .

2.4 EFFECT1 V E STRESS AND PORE PRESSURE

An e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s may be c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e s t r e s s t r a n s m i t t e d
t h r o u g h t h e p o i n t s of c o n t a c t between t h e s o l i d p a r t i c l e s of t h e s o i i . It
i s t h i s stress t h a t d e t e r m i n e s t h e s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s o i l . The
e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s , a l , . a t any p o i n t i n a s a t u r a t e d s o i l mass may be o b t a i n e d
by s u b t r a c t i n g t h e p r e s s u r e transmitted by w a t e r i n t h e v o i d s , u , ( p o r e
w a t e r p r e s s u r e ) from t h e t o t a l s t r e s s , a , t h u s :

o l = o - u . .... ( 1 )
An i n c r e a s e d p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e g i v e s a reduced e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s
and' t h e r e f o r e a reduced s o i l s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e . T h i s l e a d s t o an i n c r e a s e d
force against a wall i n the a c t i v e case. Conversely, an i n c r e a s e i h t h e
n e g a t i v e pore p r e s s u r e ( i - e . a p o r e s u c t i o n ) g i v e s an i n c r e a s e d s h e a r i n g
r e s i s t a n c e and r e d u c e s t h e f o r c e a g a i n s t a w a l l i n t h e a c t i v e c a s e .

P o s i t i v e p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e r e s u l t s from a number of f a c t o r s ,
t h e most i m p o r t a n t b e i n g s t a t i c w a t e r p r e s s u r e , s e e p a g e o f
groundwater o r r a i n f a l l and s e e p a g e from o t h e r s o u r c e s , s u c h a s b u r s t o r
l e a k i n g w a t e r s u p p l y mains. I n some s o i l s , s h o c k o r v i b r a t i o n can c a u s e
t r a n s i e n t i n c r e a s e s i n pore pressure. I n low p e r m e a b i l i t y s o i l s , c h a n g e s
i n p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e c a n r e s u l t from c h a n g e s i n t o t a l s t r e s s due t o
ground l o a d i n g , d e w a t e r i n g o r e x c a v a t i o n . T h e s e p o r e p r e s s u r e s d i s s i p a t e
w i t h time, b u t may n e e d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d i n d e s i g n . P o r e w a t e r p r e s s u-r e s
.
d u e t o s t a t i c w a t e r p r e s s u r e and s e e p a g e of w a t e r a r e c o v e r e d i n C h a p t e r 5 -
 - ..- - - -
- - -
N e g a t i v e . p o r e p r e s s u r e s a r e p r e s e n t i n many p a r t i a l l y s a r u r a ~ c u
soils. S o i l s u c t i o n may be destroyed by s u r f a c e i n f i l t r a t i o n
o r s e e p a g e , m d , - k t i l more i n f o r m a t i o n o n i t s m a g n i t u d e , d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d
behaviour becomes a v a i l a b l e , i t s e f f e c t on t h e s h e a r r e s i s t a n c e o f tlic s o i l
should n o t be used i n r e t a i n i n g w a l l d e s i g n .

2.5 SHEAR STRENGTIf

I n a l l e a r t h p r e s s u r e prohlems t h e magni r u d e of e a r t h p r e s s u r e on
a p a r t i c u l a r s t r u c t u r e is a f u n c t i o n of t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h of t h e s o i l .
The s h e a r s t r e n g t h i s not a u n i q u e p r o p e r t y of t h e m a t e r i a l but d e p e n d s upon
t h e c o n d i t i o n s t o which t h e s o i l i s s u b j e c t e d when i t is s h e a r e d . Where a
r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s u p p o r t s a s a t u r a t e d c l a y s o i 1 aE low p e r m e a b i l i t y , t h e
undrained s h e a r s t r e n g t h can be used t o c a l c u l a t e t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r
short-term stability, because the s h e a r s t r e n g t h o E such s o i l does n o t c h a n g e
a s i t i s s h e a r e d quickly ( i . e . t h e excess pore w a t e r pressures cannot
d i s s i p a t e during shear). However, Hong Kong r e s i d u a l s o i l s a r e n o t s a t u r a t e d .
and they have r e l a t i v e l y high p e r m e a b i l i t i e s . The w a t e r c o n t e n t , t h e r e f o r e ,
can change q u i t e r a p i d l y , w i t h a consequent c h a n g e i n pore p r e s s u r e a n d , h e n c e ,
w i t h a change i n s h e a r s t r e n g t h . I t is n e c e s s a r y , t h e r e f o r e , f o r e a r t h
p r e s s u r e s i n Hong Kong s o i l s t o be c a l c u l a t e d from s h e a r s t r e n g t h s e x p r e s s e d
i n terms of effective stresses.

.-
The s h e a r s t r e n g t h of a s o i l i s p r o p o i ~ i o n a l t o t h e e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s
which a c t s on t h e f a i l u r e p l a n e . Laboratory t e s t s c a n . b e carrLed o u t t o
e s t a b l i s h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s t r e n g t h , S, e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s , a ' , and t h i s
i s commonly termed t h e strength envelope. The e n v e l o p e w i l l g e n e r a l l y b e
c u r v e d , b u t p o r t i o n s of t h e c u r v e c a n b e a p p r o x i m a t e d by t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p :

- s = C' + o'tan 0' ....-( 2 )

where c t and 0' a r e termed t h e effective strength parameters. These parameters

s h o u l d b e u s e d f o r e a r t h p r e s s u r e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n Hong Kong s o i l s .
It is

i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e d e s i g n s t r e n g t h p a r a m e t e r s must b e t h o s e d e t e r m i n e d
i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y f o r t h e r a n g e o f e f f e c t i v e stress which i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o the
field situation.

L a b o r a t o r y t r i a x i a l t e s t s o r s h e a r b o x tests a r e conononly u s e d to
 d e t e r m i n e t h e s t r e n g t h e n v e l o p e of a s o i l . G u i d a n c e on r h e s e met'hods of.
s - t r e n g t h measurement and on t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t e s t r e s u l t s c a n b e - o b t a i n e d
f r o m Lambe & W h i t s n ( 1 9 6 9 ) a n d from t h e C e o t e c h n i c a l Manual f o r S l o p e s
( G e o t e c h n i c a l Conzrol O f f i c e , 1979).

The f o l i o w i n g two t y p e s o f t r i a x i a l t e s t s c a n b e u s e d :

(a) Consolidated-undrained t e s t s w i t h p o r e p r e s s u r e measurement

(CG t e s t s ) c a r r i e d o u t on s p e c i m e n s s a t u r a t e d u s i n g b a c k
pressure.

(b) Drzined t e s t s (CD t e s t s ) on s a t u r a t e d s p e c i m e n s . .

S h e a r bcx t e s t s a r e s i m p l e r t o c a r r y o u t t h a n t r i a x i a l t e s t s b u t
o n l y d r a i n e d t e s t s can b e c o n d u c t e d on Hong Kong r e s i d u a l s o i l s . Care should
b e t a k e n t o eristjre c h a t t e s t . s p e c i m e n s a r e s o a k e d f o r a s u f f i c i e n t p e r i o d p r i o r
t o t e s t i n g a n d t h z t s u b m e r g e n c e is m a i n t a i n e d d u r i n g s h e a r .

The s h e a r s t r e n g t h , o f a b a c k f i l l m a t e r i a l d e p e n d s on i t s d e n s i t y ,
. a n d l a b o r a t o r y s t r e n g t h t e s t s s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t on s p e c i m e n s c o m p a c t e d
t o t h e density thaz w i l l e x i s t i n s i t u . Where i n a d e q u a t e s h e a r , s t r e n g t h
i n f o r m a t i o n is a v a i l a b l e a t t h e t i m e o f p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n , t h e f o l l o w i n g
v a l u e s may b e t a k e s a s g u i d a n c e t o t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f c o m p a c t e d llong Kong
-
soils :
- -

F o r deconposed v o l c a n i c s , 'c ' = 0 , 0 ' = .'53 ~d = 1 750kg/m3

0
F o r decocposed g r a n i t e , c' = 0 , 0 ' = 39 ,y d = 1850kg/m3

2.6 BASE SHEAR RESISTANCE

The amount o f s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e a v a i l a b l e b e t w e e n t h e b a s e o f
t h e w a l l and t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o i l will d e p e n d on t h e n a t u r e o f m a t e r i a l s u s e d
t o c o n s t r u c t t h e bzse and o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e .

The b a s e f r i c t i o n t o b e u s e d f o r w a l l s w i t h o u t a k e y i s 26'/3.
When i t can b e e n s u r e d t h a t t h e e x c a v a t i o n o f t h e b a s e w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t
in t h e d r y s e a s o n and t h a t d i s t u r b a n c e a n d d e t e -r.i o r a t i o n o f t h e s u b s o i l is
p r e v e n t e d b y c o n s t r k t i o n of a n a d e q u a t e b l i n d i n g l a y e r inmediately a f t e r
f o u n d a t i o n e x p o s u r e , and w h e r e t h e r e is p r o f e s s i o n a l s i t e s u p e r d i s i o n i t may
b e p o s s i b l e t o j u s t i f y a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of 0'. Values of base adhesion,
 c b , used i n c a l c u l ' a t i o n s s h o u l d b e t a k e n a s z e r o u n l c s s ,specific d a t a p r o v i n g
otherwise a r e available.

I f a s h a l l o w b a s e key i s u s e d , t h e f a i l u r e p l a n e w i l l g e n e r a l l y be- -

through t h e foundation s o i l ( s e e Figure 1) and, t h e r e f o r e , the shearing

r e s i s t a n c e may be t a k e n a s t h a t of t h e s o i l (6b = 0 ' and c b = c'). Further'
comment on t h i s is g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 6 . 2 .

2.7 W A L L FRICTION
The magnitude and d i r e c t i o n of t h e developed w a l l f r i c t i o n depends
on t h e r e l a t i v e movement between t h e w a l l and t h e s o i l . En t h e active c a s e ,
t h e maximum v a l u e o f w a l l f r i c t i o n d e v e l o p s o n l y when the s o i l wed,o e moves
s i g n i f i c a n t l y downwards r e l a t i v e t o t h e r e a r f a c e o f t h e w a l l . Ln some c a s e s ,
w a l l f r i c t i o n cannot develop. T h e s e i n c l u d e c a s e s where t h e w a l l moves d o n
w i t h t h e s o i l , s u c h a s a g r a v i t y w a l l on a y i e l d i n g f o u n d a t i o n o r a s h e e ~p i l e
w a l l w i t h i n c l i n e d a n c h o r s , and c a s e s where t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e forms away

from t h e w a l l , s u c h a s i n c a n t i l e v e r and c o u n t e r f o r t w a l l s ( F i g u r e 9 ) .

T h e maximum v a l u e s of w a l l f r i c t i o n may b e t a k e n a s f o l l o w s :

Timber, s t e e l , p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e , 6 rnax. =
0'
-
2

Cast i n - s i t u concrete, 6 max. =

20'
-3

I n g e n e r a l , t h e e f f e c t of w a l l f r i c t i o n i s t o r e d u c e a c t i v e p r e s s u r e .
The e f f e c t i s s m a l l and o f t e n d i s r e g a r d e d .

The e f f e c t of w a l l f r i c t i o n on passzve pressures is l a r g e ( s e e

Section 3 ) .

C o n s i d e r a b l e s t r u c t u r a l movements may be n e c e s s a r y , however, to

m o b i l f s e maximum w a l l f r i c t i o n , f o r w h i c h , t h e s o i l i n t h e p a s s i v e zone needs
t o move u p w a r d s r e l a t i v e t o t h e s t r u c t u r e . G e n e r a l l y , maximum w a l l E r i c r i o n
i s o n l y m o b i l i s e d where t h e w a l l t e n d s t o move downwards, f o r examplc, i d a
w a l l is founded on c o m p r e s s i b l e s o i l , o r f o r s h e e t p i l e d w a l l s w i t h i n c l i n e d
t e n s i o n e d members. Some g u i d a n c e on t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f maximum w a l l f r i c ~ i o n
which may d e v e l o p i n v a r i o u s c a s e s is g i v e n i n Table 1 .
 T a b l e 1 . . I n d i c a t i v e P r o p o r t i o n s oE Maximum Wall
Fri.c t i o n Developed
4 C r a n u l a r S o i l s - P a s s i v e Case)
(Roue 6 P e a k e r , 1965)

Developed P r o p o r t i o n
o f Maximum Wall .
S t r u c t u r e Type Friction
Loose Dense

Cravity o r f r e e s t a n d i n g w a l l s with
h o r i z o n t a l movement. Sheet p i l e w a l l s 0 0.5
b e a r i n g on hard s t r a t u m

S h e e t w a l l s w i t h freedom t o move down-

wards u n d e r a c t i v e f o r c e s o r i n c l i n e d
anchor l o a d s

W a l l s where p a s s i v e s o i l may s e t t l e
under e x t e r n a l l o a d s 0 0
I I
Anchorage b l o c k s , e t c . which have
freedom t o move upwards on m o b i l i z a t i o n 0 0
of p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e .
i

Where a w a l l w i l l b e s u b j e c t e d t o s i g n i f i c a n t . v i b r a t i o n , w a l l
f r i c t i o n s h o u l d n o t be i n c l u d e d .

2.8 COEFFICIENT OF SUBGRADE KEACTION

I n t h e d e s i g n of F o o t i n g s and w a l l f o u n d a t i o n s , . t h e s i m p l i f i e d
c o n c e p t o f s u b g r a d e c a n be used t o d e t e r m i n e w a l l r o t a t i o n s . T h i s concept
i s based on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e s e t t l e m e n t , A , of any e l e m e n t o f a
l o a d e d a r e a i s e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e l o a d on t h e a d j o i n i n g e l e m e n t s .
I t is f u r t h e r assumed t h a t t h e r e i s a c o n s t a n t r a t i o , K s , between t h e
i n t e n s i t y , 4, o f t h e Eoundation p r e s s u r e on t h e e l e m e n t and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
s e t t l e m e n t , A , g i v e n by :

-
The f o u n d a t i o n p r e s s u r e , q , i s called t h e subgrade reaction, and t h e r a t i o ,
K,,
--
i s known as t h e coefficient of subgrade reaction.
- -. -
 EARTH PRESSURES

3.1 STATES OF STRESS

The s t r e s s e s a t any p o i n t w i t h i n a s o i l mass may be r e p r e s e n t e d on
t h e Mohr c o - o r d i n a t e system i n terms of s h e a r s t r e s s , T , and e f f e c t i v e normal
s t r e s s , u'. I n t h i s system, t h e s h e a r i n g s t r e n g t h o f t h e s o i l a t v a r i o u s
e f f e c t i v e normal s t r e s s e s g i v e s an envelope o f t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s of s h e a r .?nd
normal s t r e s s . When t h e maximum s h e a r i n 5 s t r e n g t h i s f u l l y m o b i l i s e d a l o n g
a s u r f a c e w i t h i n a s o i l mass, a F a i l u r e - c o n d i t i o n k n o w a s a state of pZa.?tic
equi libriurn i s reached.

Where t h e combinations of s h e a r and normal s t r e s s w i t h i n a s o i l mass

a l l l i e below t h e l i m i t i n g e n v e l o p e , t h e s o i l i s i n a state of elastic
equilibrium ( ~ e r z a ~ h& iPeck, 1 9 6 7 ) . A s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n of e l a s t i c e q u i l i b r i u m
is t h e ' a t - r e s t ' s t a t e , where t h e s o i l i s p r e v e n t e d from espanding o r compress in^
l a t e r a l l y w i t h changes i n t h e v e r t i c a l s t r e s s . Any l a t e r a l s t r a i n i n t h e s o i l
a l t e r s its horizontal s t r e s s condition. Depending on t h e s t r a i n i n v o l v e d , t h e
f i n a l h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s can l i e anywhere between two l i m i t i n g ( f a i l u r e )
c o n d i t i o n s , known a s t h e active and passive f a i l u r e s t a t e s .

3.2 AML)UNT AND 'TYPE OF WALL MOVEMENT

The e a r t h p r e s s u r e which a c t s on a n e a r t h r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e is
s t r o n g l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e l a t e r a l d e f o r m a t i o n s which o c c u r i n t h e s o i l -
Hence, u n l e s s t h e d e f o r m a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s c a n be e s t i m a t e d w i t h r e a s o n a b l e
a c c u r a c y , r a t i o n a l p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e magnitude and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e a r t h
p r e s s u r e i n t h e structure i s n o t p o s s i b l e .

The minimum active p r e s s u r e which c a n b e e x e r t e d a g a i n s t a w a l l

o c c u r s when t h e w a l l moves s u f f i c i e n t l y E a r o u t w a r d s f o r t h e s o i l b e h i n d t h e
wall t o e x p a n d l a t e r a l l y and r e a c h a s t a t e o f p l a s t i c e q u i l i b r i u m . S f r n i l a r l y ,
t h e maximum passive p r e s s u r e o c c u r s when t h e w a l l movement i s towards t h e
soil. T h e amount of movement n e c e s s a r y t o r e a c h t h e s e f a i l u r e c o n d i t i o a s is
d e p e n d e n t p r i m a r i l y on t h e t y p e of b a c k f i l l m a t e r i a l . Some guidance on t h e s e
mWementS i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 3.

10
 Table 3 Wall Displacements Required t o
Develop A c t i v e and P a s s i v e E a r t h
Pressures (Wu, 1 9 7 5 ) .

Necessary
S o i 1- i t a t e of S t r e s s Type of Movement Displacement
--
Sand Ac t i v e Parallel t o wall 0.001H
Active R o t a t i o n about b a s e 0.001H
Passive Parallel t o wall 0 . 0 5 11
Passive Rotation about base

Clay Active Parallel t o wall

Active Roration about base
Passive

For w a l l d i s p l a c e m e n t s l e s s t h a n t h o s e n e c e s s a r y t o p r o d u c e t h e
f a i l u r e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e magnitude o f the p r e s s u r e on t h e w a l l l i e s between
the e x t r e m e v a l u e s . F i g u r e 2 shows t h e t y p i c a l v a r i a t i o n i n w a l l p r e s s u r e
w i t h movement.

For a r i g i d w a l l Eree t o t r a n s l a t e o r r o t a t e about its b a s e , t h e

a c t i v e o r p a s s i v e c o n d i t i o n o c c u r s i f s u f f i c i e n t movement can t a k e p l a c e , and
the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n remains a p p r o x i m a t e l y t r i a n g u l a r f o r u n i f o r m ~ l o p j - n g
ground ( F i g u r e 3 ( a ) ) .

I n some c a s e s , r o t a t i o n about t h e b a s e o r t r a n s l a t i o g o f a f r e e
s t a n d i n g w a l l may b e l i m i t e d by a s t r o n g f o u n d a t i o n o r by some o t h e r r e s t r a i n t
such a s o c c u r s i n b r i d g e a b u t m e n t s o r w a l l s f r a m e d - i n . w i t h the s u p e r s t r u c t u r e .
S t r u c t u r a l d e f o r m a t i o n s f o r w a l l s a r e not u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t a l o n e t o a l l o w
development o f a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s , and hence t h e w a l l is s u b j e c t t o p r e s s u r e s
n e a r t h o s e f o r a t - r e s t c o n d i t i o n s ( F i g u r e 3 ( b ) ) o r t h o s e caused b y c o m p a c t i o n
(Section 3.10). Thermal e x p a n s i o n of - t h e s t r u c t u r e may f o r c e t h e r e t a i n i n g
w a l l s n t o t h e s o i l p r o d u c i n g h i g h e r e a r t h p r e s s u r e s (Broms & I n g e l s o n 1 9 7 1 ) -

When t h e t o p o f t h e w a l l i s r e s t r a i n e d w h i l e t h e b a s e c a n r o t a t e , n o t
a l l of t h e retained s o i l passes i n t o the a c t i v e s t a t e . Limited movement n e a r
t h e t o p of t h e w a l l , t o g e t h e r w i t h a r c h i n g , leads t o an a p p r o x i m a t e l y p a r a b o l i c
p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r c e on t h e w a l l 10 t o 15% h i g h e r
than t h e f o r c e f o r t h e a c t i v e c o n d - i t i o n ( F i g u r e 3 ( c ) ) . .
 An a p p r o x i m a t e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e t i l t i n g movement
.- i
kj t h a t r e s u l t s from t h e b a c k f i l l i n g o f a r e t a i n i n g w a l l may-be o b t a i n e d - b y
s i m u l a t i n g t h e Eoundation s o i f a s a s e r i e s o f s p r i n g s w i t h a n a p p r o p r i a t e .
c o e f f i c i e n t of subgrade reaction ( s e e S e c t i o n 2 . 8 ) . The b a s e r o t a t i o n , Ob,
-
. ( r a d i a n s ) i s t h e n g i v e n by :

0
( Eor eb S -
6 )

L'
:
1.2where V i s t h e v e r t i c a l component o f t h e f o u n d a i i o n b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e ,

p
1-
eb is t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y o f t h e l o a d on t h e b a s e

-J
L , 0 a r e l e n g t h and b r e a d t h of t h e b a s e s r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
"
and K s i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f s u b g r a d e r e a c t i o n (Eqn. 3 ) .

F l e x i b l e w a l l s a l l o w complex d e f o r m a t i o n s a n d r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l o a d s .
Loads v a r y on i n d i v i d u a l s u p p o r t s d e p e n d i n g l s r g e l y o n t h e s t i f f n e s s
'': c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the supports themselves.
..
tr,:-
,L:--
7-
S t r u t t e d w a l l s have a p p r o x i m a t e f i n a l d e f o r m a t i o n p a t t e r n s a s shown

!.:. i n F i g u r e 3 ( d ) . T h i s p r o f i l e is s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by c o n s t r u c t i o n d e t a i l s
,
. .
[:-.and p r o c e d u r e s , and s o p r e s s u r e e n v e l o p e s c o v e r i n g p o s s i b l e a c t u a l p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e used f o r r e t a i n e d h e i g h t s of g r e a t e r t h a n 6 m e t r e s . ' ( F i g u r e
- (- 24) *
- i:.
.. Compaction of t h e b a c k f i l l c a n p r o d u c e p r e s s u r e s h i g h e r t h a n a c t i v e .
L :(2,
T h i s i s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n s 3.10 & 3.11. -

.* 3 . 3
ii
... RANKINE EARTH PRESSURE THEORY
,.-,
iz R a n k i n e ' s e q u a t i o n s g i v e t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e o n a v e r t i c a l p l a n e which
.:i... 1s s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e virtual back o f t h e w a l l . The e a r t h p r e s s u r e o n the
.
:I.
..
& . v e r t i c a l p l a n e a c t s i n a d i r e c t i o n p a r a l l e l t o t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e and is
-
d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e below t h e ground surface.
-x.
{:;The pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n is t r i a n g u l a r -
%

7.--
;2.
-
.;L-. R a n k i n e ' s c o n d i t i o n s are t h e o r e t i c a l l y o n l y a p p l i c a b l e t o r e r a i n i n g
walls when t h e w a l l does n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n y p a r t o f t h e
r.if a i l u r e wedges t h a t form on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e , as s h o r n i n
1::
-*&Figures 1 & 9 o; -
v h e r e . a n imposed b o u n d a r y p r o d u c e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f stress
1.' -:t h a t would e x i s t i n t h e u & t e r r u p t e d s o i l wedges. These k o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t
. :- I . .

the a n g l e of w a l l f r i c t i o n is e q u a l t o t h e b a c k f i l l s l o p e ( 6 = m)
 P a s s i v e c a l c u l a t i o n s u s i n g Rankine a r e n o t recommended, s i n c e t h e
d i r e c t i o n o f w a l l f r i c t i o n w i l l b e i n c o r r e c t and an u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n o f
passive resistance w i l l r e s u l t .
--

3.4 COULOMB EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

Coulomb t h e o r y assumes t h a t a wedge o f s o i l bounded by a p l a n a r
f a i l u r e s u r f a c e s l i d e s on t h e b a c k of t h e w a l l . Hence s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e is
m o b i l i s e d on b o t h back of t h e c a l l and t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e . The r e s u l t a n t
p r e s s u r e c a n be c a l c u l a t e d d i r e c t l y f o r a r a n g e of w a l l f r i c t i o n s , s l o p e s -

o f w a l l and b a c k f i l l s l o p e s .

Where t h e w a l l f r i c t i o n i s a t a n g l e s o t h e r t h a n t h e b a c k f i l l s l o p e
' a n g l e t h e e q u a t i o n s a r e an a p p r o x i m a t i o n due t o t h e c u r v e d n a t u r e oE t h e
a c t u a l f a i l u r e s u r f a c e a n d t h e f a c t t h a t s t a t i c e q u i l i b r i u m i s n o t always
satisfied. The e r r o r is s l i g h t l y on t h e u n s a f e s i d e f o r t h e a c t i v e c a s e , and
more s e r i o u s f o r t h e p a s s i v e c a s e . For s i m p l e g e o m e t r i e s , t h e c h a r t e d v a l u e s
o f K, g i v e n i n F i g u r e s 4 & 5 (Caquot & K e r i s e l , 1948) may be u s e d ; t h e s e were
o b t a i n e d f o r t h e more a c c u r a t e E a i l u r e mechanism i n v o l v i n g c u r v e d f a i l u r e
surfaces.

3.5 TRl A t WEDGE METHOD

D i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e i n t h e u s e o f c h a r t s o r e q u a t i o n s where t h e
, ground s u r f a c e is i r r e g u l a r , where t h e b a c k f i l l p o s s e s s e s some ccohesion,
where w a t e r p r e s s u r e s e x i s t i n t h e b a c k f i l l o r where t h e b a c k f i l l - c o k p r i s e s
more t h a n one s o i l type.

The s i m p l e s t a p p r o a c h f o r e a r t h p r e s s u r e d e t e r m i n a t i o n i n t h e s e
c a s e s is t o u s e a g r a p h i c a l p r o c e d u r e making t h e a s s u m p t i o n of p l a n a r f a i l u r e
s u r f a c e s based on Coulomb t h e o r y . The method i s v e r y p o w e r f u l i n t h a t
s o l u t i o n s t o most a c t i v e p r e s s u r e problems a r e p o s s i b l e and i t a l s o h a s t h e
a d v a n t a g e t h a t t h e d e s i g n e r c a n s e e t h e s o l u t i o n d e v e l o p i n g and g a i n s an
a p p r e c i a t i o n of the s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e c o n t r i b u t o r y f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d .
. There a r e , however, c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n s in t h e u s e o f t h e method for t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of passive p r e s s u r e s . The p r o c e d u r e i s knpcm a s t h e T r i a l Wedge
Method o r t h e Coulomb Wedge Method.
 -- .
-The method -is o u t l i n e d i n F i g u r e s 6 , 7 & 8. The b a c k f i l l i s
- -.
d i v i d e d i n t o w e d g e s by s e l e c t i n g p l a n e s through the h e e l of t h e w a l l . The .
f o r c e s a c t i n g - on e a c h of t h e s e wedges a r e combined i n a f o r c e polygon s o c h a t
.--
t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e r e s u l t a n t e a r t h p r e s s u r e can be o b t a i n e d . A ~ o r c ' epolygon

is c o n s t r u c t e d , a l t h o u g h t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g o n - t h e wedge a r e i n g e n e r a l n o t i n
moment e q u i l i b r i u m . T h i s method i s t h e r e f o r e an a p p r o x i m a t i o n w i t h the same
a s s u m p t i o n s a s t h e e q u a t i o n s For Coulomb's c o n d i t i o n s , a n d , f o r a ' g r o u n d
s u r f a c e w i t h a u n i f o r m s l o p e , g i v e s t h e same r e s u l t . When t h e v a l l f r i c t i o n '

c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h a t i m p l i e d by t h e Rankine c a s e , t h e v a l u e of e a r t h p r e s s u r e
o b t a i n e d Erorn t h e T r i a l Wedge Method i s e q u a l t o :hat o b t a i n e d from ank kine's
equation.

F i g u r e 8 shows t h e . g e n e r a 1 method of d e a l i n g w i t h a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s
i n more complex ground . c o n d i t i o n s u s i n g t h e T r i a l Wedge Method. I t should
b e n o t e d t h a t t h e method can b e r a t h e r l a b o r i o u s i n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s .

The a d h e s i o n of t h e s o i l t o t h e back or' t h e w a l l i n c o h e s i v e s o i l s

i s u s u a l l y n e g l e c t e d , s i n c e i t s v a l u e i s d i f f i c u i t t o d e t e r m i n e and t h e
sicaplification is conservative. For t h e a c t i v e c a s e , t h e maximum value o f t h e
e a r t h p r e s s u r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e v a r i o u s wedges is r e q u i r e d . T h i s is abtained
by i n t e r p o l a t i n g between t h e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s ( s e e F i g u r e 6 ) . For the p a s s i v e
case, t h e r e q u i r e d minimum v a l u e is s i m i l a r l y ob:ained. The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e
r e s u l t a n t e a r t h p r e s s u r e i n t h e f o r c e ~ o l y g o n ss h o u l d b e o b t a f n e d b y c o n s i d e r i n g
t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e movement between iiie w a l l and s o i l . Forcases
where t h i s force a c t s p a r a l l e l t o t h e ground s u r f a c e , a s u b s t i t u t e c o n s f a n t
s l o p e s h o u l d be used f o r s o i l b o t h w i t h and without c o h e s i o n ( F i g u r e 10) -

T h e o r e t i c a l l y , i n c o h e s i v e s o i l s , t e n s i o n exists t o a depth To b e l o w
b o t h h o r i z o n t a l and s l o p i n g ground s u r f a c e s . .

-
Yo = -
Zc t a n (45'
Y
+- d- .....( 5 )

where c is t h e cohesion of t h e s o i l i n terms of t o t a l s t r e s s ,

Y is the bulk u n i t w e i g h t o f t h e soil, arrd
B is. the a n g l e of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e of the s o i l i n te&s of t o t a l stress.
Shear s t r e n g t h p a r a m e t e r s i n t e r m s of e r ' f e c t i v e stress (c' 6 9') be
used i n equation ( 5 ) .
-
 +

V e r t i c a l t e n s i o n c r a c k s w i l l d e v e l o p i n t h i s zone s i n c e s o i l c a n n o t
s u s t a i n t e n s i o n and w i l l become w a t e r f i l l e d . One o f t h e s e c r a c k s w i l l e x t e n d
down t o t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e and s o r e d u c e t h e l e n g t h on which c o h e s i o n a c t s .
The e f f e c t of t h i s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s l i g h t l y s m a l l e r wedge w e i g h t , i s t h e
same a s n e g l e c t i n g t h e r e d u c t i o n i n t o t a l p r e s s u r e p r o v i d e d by t h e t e n s i o n
zone a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Rankine and Coulomb e q u a t i o n s . F i g u r e 7 shows t h e wedge
a n a l y s i s Eor t h i s c a s e .

For a n i r r e g u l a r g r o u n d s u r f a c e t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a g a i n s t t h e
wall is not t r i a n g u l a r . However, i f t h e ground d o e s n o t d e p a r t s i g n i f i c a n t l y
from a p l a n e s u r f a c e , a l i n e a r p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n may be assumed, and t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n g i v e n i n ' F i g u r e 1 1 used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n o f
the a c t i v e force. A more a c c u r a t e method i s g i v e n i n F i g u r e 1 2 . The L a t t e r
s h o u l d b e u s e d when t h e r e a r e a b r u p t c h a n g e s i n t h e ground s u r f a c e , o r t h e r e
a r e non-uniform s u r c h a r g e s i n v o l v e d .

3.6 PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURES

The shape o. t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e f o r p a s s i v e f a i l u r e i s c u r v e d , more
s t r o n g l y when w a l l f r i c t i o n i s p r e s e n t . Both Coulomb and t h e T r i a l Wedge
t h e o r i e s assume plane f a i l u r e s u r f a c e s and l e a d t o s u b s t a n t i a l e r r o r s i n
c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s of p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e .

Methods u s i n g c u r v e d f a i l u r e s u r f a c e s , s u c h a s l o g - s p i r a l- and
c i r c u l a r , may be used w i t h o u t i n t r o d u c t i o n of s i g n i f i c a n t e r r o r . Caquot &
K e r i s e l ( 1 9 4 8 ) have p r e s e n t e d c h a r t s f o r s i m p l e g e o m e t r i e s ( F i g u r e s 4 5)
based on a combination of l o g - s p i r a l and a p l a n e . F o r more complex g e o m e t r i e s
p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e may b e c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e c i r c u l a r a r c method o u t l i n e d i n
F i g u r e 13. T h i s method i s q u i t e l a b o r i o u s f o r e v e n r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e
conditions.

The t r i a l wedge method may b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e .

However, s e r i o u s o v e r e s t i m a t i o n of t h e p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e r e s u l t s when t h e a n g l e
of w a l l f r i c t i o n 6 i s g r e a t e r t h a n 2 0 ' 1 3 ( M o r g e n s t e r n & E i s e n s t e i n , 1970).
Care s h o u l d b e t a k e n t h e n t o e n s u r e t h a t 6 i s not o v e r e s t i m a t e d , a s t h e e r r o r
i s on t h e u n s a f e s i d e , and the trial wedge .method s h o u l d n o t be used' f o r t h e
d e t e r m i n 2 t i o n of p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e s when 6 > 0 ' / 3 . -
-
3'. 7 EARTH PRESSURES FOR SMALL WALL DEFLECTIONS
F o r c e r t a i n w a l l t y p e s , such- a s propped c a n l i l e v e r s and anchored
diaphragm w a l l s , o n l y - s m a l l w a l l movements o c c u r and e l a s t i c c o n d i t i o n s a p p l y .
--
Where no l a t e r a l movement t a k e s p l a c e from t h e i n s i t u c o n d i t i o n ,
-
the 'at-rest' earth pressure applies. For t h e c a s e of a v e r t i c a l wall and
a h o r i z o n t a l ground s u r f a c e , i t h a s been shown e m p i r i c a l l y by J a k y ( 1 9 4 4 ) t h a t

the c o e f f i c i e n t of ' a t - r e s t ' e a r t h p r e s s u r e , KO, f o r normally consolidated

m a t e r i a l s may b e t a k e n a s :

KO = 1 - s i n 0 ' . ....( 6 )

where 0' is t h e a n g l e of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e s o i l i n t e r n s of e f f e c t i v e
stress.

Because of t h e l a c k of d a t a on t h e v a l u e s o f K O ,
v a l u e s a d o p t e d f o r d e s i g n s h o u l d n o t b e l e s s t h a n 0 . 5 even f o r s o i l s w i t h h i g h
Eriction angles. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t , i n some s i t u a t i o n s , v a l u e s much
h i g h e r t h a n KO = 0 . 5 may be found.

For a s l o p i n g ground s u r f a c e , KO v a r i e s from t h a t g i v e n by e q u a t i o n

(6). The Danish Code (Danish C e o t e c h n i c a l I n s t i t u t e , 1978) s u g g e s t s f o r a
v e r t i c a l w a l l and ground s l o p i n g a t a n a n g l e , w, t h a t t h e ' a t - r e s t ' earth .
p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t i s KO ( 1 + s i n w). F o r o t h e r w a l l a n g l e s and b a c k f i l l
s l o p e s , i t may assumed t h a t t h e a t - r e s t p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t v a r i e s p r o p o r t i o n -
a l l y t o the 'active' e a r t h p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t , Ka. ' ~ t - r e s t ' earth pressures,
except f o r over-consolidated s o i l s , may b e assumed t o i n c r e a s e l i n e a r l y w i t h
d e p t h from z e r o a t t h e ground s u r f a c e . The t o t a l a t - r e s t e a r t h pressure force
is g i v e n by Po = UoY.'H T h i s a c t s a t H / 3 from c h e b a s e o f t h e w a i l o r from
t h e b o t t o m o f t h e key f o r w a l l s w i t h k e y s .

I n cohesionless s o i l s , f u l l 'at-rest' e a r t h p r e s s u r e s occur o n l y w i t h

t h e most r i g i d l y s u p p o r t e d w a l l s ( s e e S e c t i o n 3 . 1 0 ) . I n highly plastic clays,
P r e s s u r e s a p p r o a c h i n g a t - r e s t may d e v e l o p u n l e s s w a l l movement can c o n t i n u e
w i t h time.
3.8 INFLUENCE O F GEOMETiZfCAL S f l A P E OF R E T A I N I N G STRUCTURE ON WALL F R T C T I O N
When r e l a t i v e movement c a n o c c u r between a w a l l and t h e s u p p o r t e d
s o i l , che e f f e c t o f w a l l f r i c t i o n must be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . I n some c a s e s
--
t h e w a l l is f r e e t o move w i t h t h e s o i l , s u c h a s i n t h e c a s e of l a g g i n g
between s o l d i e r p i l e s . I n t h e s e c a s e s l i t t l e o r no w a l l f r i c t i o n i s n w b i l i s c a .

When t h e o u t e r f a i l u r e s u r f a c e from t h e h e e l of t h e w a l l i n t e r s e c t : s
o r l i e s w i t h i n t h e w a l l Coulomb's c o n d i t i o n s a p p l y . Rankine's c o n d i t i o n s o n l y
a p p l y t o c a s e s w h e r e t h i s f a i l u r e s u r f a c e d o e s n o t i n t e r s e c t t h e w a l l , a s shown
i n F i g u r e 9.

3.9 INFLUENCE OF L I M I T E D BACKFl LL

The m e t h o d s given a b o v e assume t h a t t h e s o i l is homogeneous f o r a
s u f f i c i e n t d i s t a n c e b e h i n d t h e w a l l t o e n a b l e an inner . f a i l u r e s u r f a c e t o
f o r m i n t h e p o s i t i o n w h e r e s t a t i c e q u i l i b r i u m is s i t i s f i e d ( F i g u r e 1 2 ) . Where
a n e x c a v a t i o n i s made t o accommodate t h e w a l l , t h e u n d i s t u r b e d i n s i t u m a t e r i a l
may h a v e a s t r e n g t h d i f f e r i n g from t h e b a c k f i l l . If equations a r e used, t h e .
p o s i t i o n o f t w o . f a i l u r e p l a n e s s h o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d , one u s i n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s
of t h e b a c k f i l l m a t e r i a l a n d o n e u s i n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e u n d i s t u r b e d m a t e r i a l -
IE b o t h f a l l w i t h i n t h e p h y s i c a l l i m i t o f t h e b a c k f i l l , t h e c r i t i c a l E a i l u r e
p l a n e is obviously the one c a l c u l a t e d using the backfill properties.
S i m i l a r l y , i f t h e y b o t h come w i t h i n t h e u n d i s t u r b e d m a t e r i a l , t h e c r i t i c a l o n e
is t h a t f o r t h e undisturbed m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s . -
. .

Two o t h e r p o s s i b l e s i t u a t i o n s may a r i s e : f i r s t l y where c r i t i c a l f a i l u r e

p l a n e s o c c u r i n b o t h m a t e r i a l s , i n which c a s e t h e one g i v i n g t h e maximum e a r t h
p r e s s u r e i s u s e d , and s e c o n d l y where t h e f a i l u r e plane c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e
b a c k f i l l p r o p e r t i e s would f a l l w i t h i n t h e u n d i s t u r b e d m a t e r i a 1 , a n d t h e f a i l u r e
p l a n e f o r u n d i s t u r b e d m a t e r i a l would f a l l w i t h i n t h e b a c k f i l l . In the latter
c a s e , w h i c h o c c u r s when t h e u n d i s t u r b e d m a t e r i a l h a s -
a high s t r e n g t h , t h e
b a c k f i l l may b e assumed t o s l i d e on t h e p h y s i c a l boundary b e t w e e n t h e t w o
materials. The e a r t h p r e s s u r e e q u a t i o n s d o n o t a p p l y i n t h i s c a s e , b u t t h e
wedge method may b e u s e d w i t h t h e a l r e a d y s e l e c t e d f a i l u r e p l a n e a n d t h e
backfill s o i l properties. The t o t a l p r e s s u r e t h u s c a l c u l a t e d i s less than
the a c t i v e v a l u e a s s u m i n g u n i f o r m m a t e r i a l b e h i n d t h e w a l l . The v a r i a t i o n o f
p r e s s u r e w i t h d e p t h i s not l i n e a r , a n d s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e p r o c e d u r e
g i v e n i n F i g u r e 12-. .
 T h e d e p t h , h c , b e l o w w h i c h a c t i v e p r e s s u r e d u e t o t h e weight
of t h e o v e r l y i n g s o i l exceeds t h e compaction induced pressure is obtained
from :

The e E E e c t o f c o m p a c t i o n o n l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e i s s h o w i n F i g u r e
1 4 ( i i ) ( a ) & ( b ) and t h e r e s u l t i n g p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n For u s e i n d e s i g n ,
b a s e d o n t h i s s i m p l i f i e d t h e o r y , i s shown i n F i g u r e i 4 ( i i ) ( c ) . Ingold's design
p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n c a n b e s e e n t o b e v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h a t oE Brons shown i n
F i g u r e 14 ( i ) .

3.11 EFFECTS OF COMPACTION ON CONVENTIONAL WALL DESIGN

T h e l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e s i n d u c e d by c o m p a c t i o n ( F i g u r e 1 4 ) c a n b e up
to twice t h e a c t i v e p r e s s u E e s o b t a i n e d by c o n v e n t i o n a l a n a l y s i s . These
c o m p a c t i o n p r e s s u r e s l e a d t o h i g h e r s t r u c t u r a l l o a d s , which nay c a u s e d i s t r e s s
o r r e s u l t i n s e r v i c e a b i l i t y problems with a w a l l .
-
I f movement oE t h e w a l l i s a l l o w e d t o t a k e p l a c e t h e s e compaction-
induced p r e s s u r e s are. reduced. T r a n s l a t i o n s o r r o t a t i o n s of t h e o r d e r o f
H/500 a r e s u f f i c i e n t t o r e d u c e t h e p r e s s u r e s t o n e a r t h e a c t i v e s t a t e . The
f i n a l p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s p a r a b o l i c r a t h e r t h a n t r i a n g u l a r , and t h u s t h e
l i n e o f t h r u s t is r a i s e d .

It i s s a t i s f a c t o r y t o u s e t h e a c t i v e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n when
determining t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y a g a i n s t s l i d i n g . T h e b e n d i n g moments a f t e r
s l i d i n g h a s t a k e n p l a c e . may s t i l l b e u p t o 50X h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e p r e d i c t e d
using a triangular active pressure distribution. C a l c u l a t i o n s of b e a r i n g
p r e s s u r e s a n d o v e r t u r n i n g moments s h o u l d t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e h i g h e r p o s i t i o n
o f t h e l i n e of t h r u s t .
 m 4
EFFEGTS OF SURCHARGES
4.1 UNIFORM SURCHARGES
Loads imposed on t h e s o i l b e h i n d t h e w a l l s h o u l d b e a l l o w e d f o r i n
design.

Uniform s u r c h a r g e l o a d s may be c o n v e r t e d t o a n e q u i v a l e n t h e i g h t O F
f i l l and t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y g r e a t e r h e i g h t
I n t h i s case t h e d e p t h of t h e t e n s i o n z o n e s i n c o h e s i v e m a t e r i a l is c a l c u l a t e d
from t h e t o p of t h e e q u i v a l e n t a d d i t i o n a l f i l l . The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p r e s s u r e
f o r t h e g r e a t e r h e i g h t ' i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e p r o c e d u r e s g i v e n i n C h a p t e r 3 . The
t o t a l l a t e r a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e i s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e p r e s s u r e diagram, n e g l e c t i n g
the p a r t i n tension and/or t h e p a r t i n t h e h e i g h t of f i l l equivalent t o t h e
s u r c h a r g e , a s shown i n F i g u r e 1 2 .

B u i l d i n g s w i t h s h a l l o w f o u n d a t i o n may b e t a k e n a s a u n i f o r m
s u r c h a r g e of lOkPa p e r s t o r e y .

The s t a n d a r d l o a d i n g s f o r highway s t r u c t u r e s i n a r e
e x p r e s s e d i n terms o f HA and HB l o a d i n g a s d e f i n e d i n BS 5400 : P a r t 2 : 1978.
In the absence of-more exact c a i c u l a t i o n s , t h e nominal load due t o l i v e load-
s u r c h a r g e may be t a k e n from T a b l e 4 .

The two l o a d i n g c a s e s shown i n F i g u r e 16 n e e d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d .

Table 4 S u g g e s t e d S u r c h a r g e Loads t o b e Used in. t h e D e s i g n o f

R e t a i n i n g ~ t r u c t u r e s ( P u b l i c Works D e p a r t m e n t , ' l 9 7 7 )
r YeMC U N t )
t
Equivalent
Road c l a s s Type of l i v e loading
Surcharge

Urban t r u n k HA + 4 5 u n i t s of HB 20kPa
Rural trunk
(Road l i k e l y t o b e - r e g u l a r l y
u s e d by h e a v y i n d u s t r i a l
traffic)

Primry d i s t r i b u t o r HA + 37% u n i t s o f HB 1SkPa

R u r a l main r o a d

District a n d l o c a l d i s t r i b u t o r s HA 1OkPa
Other r u r a l roads
Access Roads, C a r p a r k s
1 -
Footpaths, i s o l a t e d from r o a d s 5kPa
Play a r e a s
Note : 1. It i s recommended t h a t t h e s e s u r c h a r g e s b e a p p l i e d . t o t h e
1 i n 10 y e a r s t o r m c o n d i t i o n .
2 . For f o o t p a t h s n o t i s o l a t e d from roadways, t h e s u r c h a r g e
applying f o r t h a t - r o a d class should be used-
4.2 t 1 N E LOADS -
- , - -
Where t h e r e i s a superimposed l i n e load r u n n i n g f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e
l e n g t h p a r a l l e l t o t h e w a l l , t h e Wedge Method of d e s i g n may b e u s e d , and t h e
weight p e r u n i t Length of t h i s l o a d can be added t o t h e weight of t h e
p a r t i c u l a r t r i a l wedge t o which i t i s a p p l i e d . A s t e p thus a p p e a r s i n t h e
a c t i v e f o r c e l o c u s , a s t h e w e i g h t of t h e t r i a l wedge s u d d e n l y i n c r e a s e s when
t h e l i n e load i s included. The i n c r e a s e d t o t a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e w i l l b e g i v e n
from t h e t r i a l wedge p r o c e d u r e , b u t t h e l i n e load w i l l a l s o change t h e p o i n t
oE a p p l i c a t i o n oE t h i s t o t a l p r e s s u r e . The method g i v e n i n F i g u r e 15 may be
u s e d t o g i v e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r e s s u r e .

When t h e l i n e l o a d is s m a l l compared t o t h e a c t i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e ,
the e E f e c t o f t h e l i n e load 0:: i t s own should b e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e mechod g i v e n
I n F i g u r e 15. T h i s is based on s t r e s s e s i n an e l a s t i c medium modiEied by
experimenr. The p r e s s u r e s t h u s determined a r e superimposed on t h o s e d u e t o
a c t i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e and o t h e r p r e s s u r e s a s a p p r o p r i a t e .

4.3 P07NTLOAVS .

P o i n t l o a d s cannot b e taken i n t o a c c o u n t b y t r i a l wedge p r o c e d u r e s .

The method b a s e d on B o u s s i n e s q ' s e q u a t i o n s g i v e n i n F i g u r e 15 may b e u s e d ,
b u t i t s h o u l d be noted t h a t t h e method is o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e a s t h e s t i f - E n e s s
o f the w a l l i s not taken i n t o a c c o u n t .
 c m 5

EFFECTS OF WATER

5.1 GENERAL
The p r e s e n c e of w a t e r b e h i n d a w a l l h a s a marked e f f e c t on t h e
pressures applied t o the wall. When t h e p h r e a t i c s u r f a c e i n t e r s e c t s t h e w a l l ,
a hydrostatic pressure is exerted against the w a l l , together with u p l i f t
pressures along the base of the wall. Even when t h e r e is no w a t e r i n d i r e c t
c o n t a c t w i t h t h e wall., s u c h a s w h e n a d e q u a t e d r a i n a g e i s p r o v i d e d , t h e r e is a n
i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e on t h e w a l l d u e t o t h e i n c r e a s e d e a r t h p r e s s u r e ( S e c t i o n
5.2). T h e e f f e c t of w a t e r b e h i n d t h e w a l l i s s i g n i f i c a n t ; t h e t o t a l f o r c e
may b e more t h a n d o u b l e t h a t a p p l i e d For d r y b a c k f i l l . Many r e c o r d e d w a l l
f a i l u r e s c a n be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f w a t e r .

The h e i g h t t o w h i c h w a t e r can r i s e i n t h e b a c k f i l l , and t h e volume .

of f l o w , a r e b o t h of p r i m e c o n c e r n . To d e t e r m i n e t h e s e t h e g r o u n d w a t e r
c o n d i t i o n s must be e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e s e may b e b e s t d e r i v e d from t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n of g r o u n d w a t e r c o n d i t i o n s p r i o r t o c o n s t r u c t i o n u s i n g p i e z o m e t e r s
and by a p p l y i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e s o u t l i n e d i n t h i s S e c t i o n . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e
r e s u l t s o f g r o u n d w a t e r m o n i t o r i n g , t h e g r o u n d w a t e r l e v e l assumed f o r d e s i g n
should b e n o t lower t h a n o n e - t h i r d of t h e r e t a i n e d h e i g h t . .-

The e f f e c t of l e a k a g e f r o m s e r v i c e s c a n b e s i g n i f i c a n t . There is
e v i d e n c e f r o m f i e l d m e a s u r e m e n t s and f a i l u r e s i n Hong ~ o n gt h a t t h i s l e a k a g e
c o n t r i b u t e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o b o t h p e r c h e d and m a i n g r o u n d w a t e r t a b l e s .

Where i n a d e q u a t e d r a i n a g e i s p r o v i d e d b e h i n d a r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e ,
t h e r e may b e a d a r n i n g effect w h i c h would r e s u l t i n r a i s i n g g r o u n d w a t e r l e v e l s
l o c a l l y a n d i n t h e g e n e r a l area. Such a rise may a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h e
s t a b i l i t y o f s l o p e s and r e t a i n i n g w a l l s . E f f e c t i v e drainage measures should
a l w a y s be p r o v i d e d i n s u c h cases.

5.2 EFFECT OF WATER ON EARTH PRESSURES

When a s o i l i s s u b m e r g e d , i t s e f f e c t i v e u n i t w e i g h t is r e d u c e d t o
Y' = Y sat 'YW. The l a t e r a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e s h o u l d , i n t h i s case, be
calculated using Y ' i n equations o r charts. Alternatively, i n graphical
 .- - - - -
-

p r o c e d u r e s such a s t h e t r i a l wedge method, a l l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e s o i l .

wedge, i n c l u d i n g t h e h y d r o s t a t i c normal u p l i f t p r e s s u r e on t h e f a i l u r e p l a n e
and t h e l a t e r a l h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , may be i n c l u d e d i n t h e t r i a l wedge
procedure. his i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 6 t o 8.

In low p e r m e a b i l i t y c o h e s i v e s o i l s , t h e p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e s s e t up
d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n may b e i n e x c e s s o f any h y d r o s t a t i c p o r e p r e s s u r e , s o an
u n d r a i n e d a n a l y s i s may b e more a p p r o p r i a t e .

When t e n s i o n c r a c k s o c c u r , l a t e r a l h y d r o s t a t i c w a t e r p r e s s u r e s h o u l d
b e i n c l u d e d For t h e f u l l d e p t h o f t h e t r a c k , a s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 3 . 5 o r f o r
H/2, whichever'is less. F u l l l a t e r a l ' w a t e r p r e s s u r e must be allowed f o r
below t h e i n v e r t of t h e l o w e s t weep h o l e s o r o t h e r d r a i n a g e o u t l e t s .

I F t h e water i n t h e s o i l v o i d s ' i s f l o w i n g , t h e p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e s ,

a r e changed from t h e h y d r o s t a t i c v a l u e s t o values d e t e m i n e d by the s e e p a g e p a t t e r n .

T h e s e v a l u e s have t o be used i n a t r i a l wedge s o l u t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e a r t h
pressure.

The a c t u a l f l o w p a t t e r n developed i s v e r y dependent on t h e

u n i f o r m i t y and homogeneity o f . t h e ground, and on t h e p o s i t i o n of any d r a i n s .
*
F i g u r e 1 7 ( a ) shows t h e f l o w n e t produced by s t e a d y s e e p a g e i n t o a v e r t i c a l
. .
d r a i n when t h e p h r e a t i c s u r f a c e i s below ground l e v e l and t h e b a c k f i l l
u n i f o r m and i s o t r o p i c . R a i n f a l l of i n t e n s i t y e q u a l t o o r g r e a t e r t h a n t h e
p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e b a c k f i l l w i l l change t h i s f l o w n e t t o t h a t s h o w i?
F i g u r e 1 7 ( b ) if t h e r e i s n o s u r f a c e p r o t e c t i o n t o p r e v e n t i n f i l t r a t i o n .
T h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n . w a t e r p r e s s u r e on t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e f o r t h i s
l a t t e r case. It is thus d e s i r a b l e , f o r t h i s d r a i n a g e arrangement, t o p r e v e n t
-
w a t e r e n t e r i n g t h e b a c k f i l l from the s u r f a c e . F i g u r e 1 7 ( c ) shows t h e f l o w
n e t d u e t o heavy r a i n f a l l i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o a n i n c l i n e d d r a i n . The e f f e c t
o f t h i s d r a i n a g e arrangement i s t o reduce t h e w a t e r p r e s s i r e i n t h e b a c k f i l l
t-o z e r o ; t h i s i s t h e r e f o r e a v e r y e f f e c t i v e d r a i n a g e measure.

The p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e s normal t o t h e a c t i v e o r p a s s i v e wedge

f a i l u r e s u r f a c e a f f e c t t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on a w a l l . The r e s u l t a n t t h r u s t o n
t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e , determined from a flow n e t , i s a p p l i e d in t h e f o r c e
 polygon f o r t h e s o i l wedge t o g e t h e r with any l a t e r a l w a t e r p r e s s u r e a t t h e
w a l l a s shown i n Fdgures 6 t o 8. The method o f d e t e r m i n i n g w a t e r p r e s s u r e s
from t h e f l o w n e t , and h e n c e t h e w a t e r Eorce, i s shown i n F i g u r e 1 7 . -

~0.rmethods o f d e a l i n g w i t h s e e p a g e t h r o u g h a n i s o t r o p i c and
non-homogeneous b a c k f i l l s , r e f e r e n c e may be made t o Cedergren ( 1 9 7 7 ) .

5.3 DRAINAGE PROVISIONS

Water p r e s s u r e s must b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e w a l l
k n l e s s s u i t a b l e drainage i s provided. Good p r a c t i c e r e q u i r e s t h a t d r a i n a g e
is always p r o v i d e d .

For w a l l s l e s s t h a n 2 m e t r e s h i g h , d r a i n a g e m a t e r i a l i s u s u a l l y
o n l y p r o v i d e d on t h e back f a c e of t h e v a l l , w i t h weep h o l e s t o r e l i e v e w a t e r
Pressure. I n some low r i s k s i t u a t i o n s , i t may b e g e o t e c h n i c a l l y t o l e r a b l e
and e c o n o m i c a l l y advantageous t o omit t h e d r a i n and d e s i g n f o r t h e h y d r o s t a t i c
water p r e s s u r e .

With c o r r e c t l y d e s i g n e d i n c l i n ~ dd r a i n a g e s y s t e m s , s u c h a s t h o s e
shown i n F i g u r e s 18(a) & ( c ) , w a t e r p r e s s u r e s may be n e g l e c t e d b o t h on t h e w a l l
i t s e l f and on t h e s o i l f a i l u r e p l a n e . A l t e r n a t i v e d r a i n a g e d e t a i l s a s shown
i n F i g u r e s 18(b) & (d) may b e u s e d . In t h e s e c a s e s , the appropri-ate w a t e r
Pressure should be considered i n design. H y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e w i f l act on
t h e w a l l b e l o w t h e lowest d r a i n a g e o u t l e t .

F o r a d r a i n t o b e e f f e c t i v e i t must b e a b l e t o c a r r y t h e d e s i g n l o $
'of w a t e r w i t h o u t backing up o r b l o c k i n g . T h i s d e s i g n flow s h o u l d i n c l u d e t h e
. f l o w s from l e a k i n g o r b u r s t s e r v i c e c o n d u i t s where a p p r o p r i a t e .

To p r e v e n t b l o c k a g e , t h e d r a i n must b e p r o t e c t e d by a n a d e q u a t e
! filter, d e s i g n e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 5 . 4 .

The r a t e of s e e p a g e i n t o t h e d r a i n from t h e s o i l c a n b e !

determined f r o m a flow n e t t o g e t h e r w i t h a knowledge of t h e p e r m e a b i l i t i e s

' o f t h e s o i l s i n v o l v e d and a flow-net.
-
n e w a t e r f l o w r a t e t h a t t h e d r a i n a g e l a y e r can accommodate depends
. o n t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e d r a i n a g e medium, t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e d r a i n and t h e
 -
- -
hydraulic gradient-in the drain. In some c a s e s , i t may b e i n t e n d e d t h a t t h e
f i l t e r i t s e l f shou-ld a c t a s a d r a i n ; i f so, i t s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d t o have
,
a d e q u a t e c a p a c i t y . --
-
By t h e u s e of a c o n v e n t i o n a l f l o w n e t s k e t c h , t h e approximate r a t e
o f Elow i n t o t h e d r a i n may be e s t i m a t e d . Using an a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e O F
h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t , i , and t h e v a l u e o f p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r t h e d r a i n a g e m a t e r i a l ,
ki, t h e r e q u i r e d a r e a of d r a i n a g e m a t e r i a l , A , normal t o t h e d i r e c t i o n - o f
Flow can be d e t e r m i n e d by a p p l i c a t i o n o f ~ a r c y ' sl a w :

where 'Q i s t h e flow r a t e t h r o u g h t h e d r a i n .

A s a v e r y g e n e r a l g u i d e d r a i n a g e m a t e r i a l s h o u l d have a p e r m e a b i l i t y
a t l e a s t 100 t i m e s t h a t of t h e m a t e r i a l i t is meant t o d r a i n . If t h i s is
a c h i e v e d , p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e s due t o s e e p a g e w i l l b e minimised a t t h e
boundary, and t h e s o i l mass w i l l d r a i n a s though i t had a f r e e boundary.
P e r m e a b i l i t i e s of g r a n u l a r ( d r a i n a g e ) m a t e r i a l s a r e g i v e n i n F i g u r e 20.

I n s o m e - c a s e s , F i g u r e 19 ( C e d e r g r e n 1 9 7 7 ) nay be u s e f u l i n
d e t e r n i n i n g t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e f i l t e r o r d r a i n , b u t i t s h o u l d be nored t h a t
c o n s t r u c t i o n considerations o f t e n govern t h i c k n e s s . A

he maximum a l l o w a b l e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n r i n t h e d r a i n depends on
t h e l a r g e s t h y d r o s t a t i c head t h a t c a n s a f e l y d e v e l o p w i t h o u t c a u s i n g
undesirable hydrostatic pressures o r i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o the backfill.

I t should be noted t h a t a c l e a n well-graded rock b a c k f i l l p r o t e c t e d

by a n a p p r o p r i a t e F i l t e r would b e a n e x c e l l e n t s o l u t i o n i n any l o c a t i o n where
seepage f r o m t h e s o i l o r l e a k a g e from s e r v i c e c o n d u i t s may b e a problem.

5.4 FILTER RE(LU2REMENTS

5.4 - 1 Grraded F i B m
All drainage t h a t i s p r o v i d e d s h o u l d b e a d e q u a t e l y p r o t e c t e d by
p r o p e r l y d e s i g n e d f i l t e r l a y e r s a g a i n s t b l o c k a g e - d u e t o t h e movement of the
f i n e r s o i l particLes. ~ i l t e r ss h o u l d b e more p e r m e a b l e than t h e p r o t e c t e d
s o i l , and f i l t e r m a t e r i a l s s h o u l d be t r a n s p o r t e d a n d p l a c e d c a r e f u l l y s o t h a t
. s e g r e g a t i o n , and c o n t a m i n a t i o n by f i n e s , d o e s n o t o c c u r .
 Where f i l t e r m a t e r i a l s a r e used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a c o a r s e r free-
drainage m a t e r i t l s u c h a s c r u s h e d r o c k , the g r a d i n g o f t h e c o a r s e r m a t e r i a l
should c o n f o m t o t h e f i l t e r d e s i g n c r i t e r i a given i n Table 5 , t o p r o t e c t
the f i l t e r fro= e r o s i o n .

Table 5 Filter Criteria

( G e o t e c h n i c a l Nanual f o r S l o p e s , 1 9 7 9 )

Rule tiumber F i l t e r D e s i g n Rule .

D15F, < 5 Da5Sf

D15F, < 20 x D15Sf

D15Ff > 5 x D15S,

D50Fc < 25 x U50Sf

1JniEormity c o e f f i c i e n t 4 < D60F

D 1OF
Should n o t b e g a p g r a d e d

Maximllm p a r t i c l e s i z e : 7 5 m m

Not more t h a n 5 % tro p a s s 63um s i e v e , and

t h i s fraction t o be cohesionless

* For well-graded b a s e s o i l t h i s c r i t e r i o n c a n b e extended t o

I n t h i s t a b l e , DI5F is used t o d e s i g n a t e t h e 15% s i z e of t h e f i l t e r

m a t e r i a l ( i - e . the s i z e o f t h e s i e v e t h a t a l l o w s 15% by w e i g h t of t h e f i l t e r
m a t e r i a l t o pass tlirough i t ) . S i m i l a r l y , Da5S d e s i g n a t e s t h e s i z e o f s i e v e
that a l l o w s 65X by w e i g h t of the b a s e s o i l t o p a s s t h r o u g h i t . D60Fc
i n d i c a t e s t h e D s i z e on t h e c o a r s e s i d e o f t h e f i l t e r e n v e l o p e . D~oFE
i n d i c a t e s t h e Dl0 s i z e on t h e f i n e s i d e o f the f i l t e r e n v e l o p e .

When c e r t a i n g r a d i n g s o f decomposed v o l c a n i c . m a t e r i a l s w i t h a n
a p p r e c i a b l e f i n e s c o n t e n t a r e b e i n g used a s b a c k f i l l , the f i l t e r d e s i g n may
r e q u i r e s p e c i a l care.

- -
I n some c a s e s , it may b e p o s s i b l e t o u s e man-made f i b r o u s woven
and non-woven f a b r i c s , known as p o t e z t i l e s , t o p r o t e c t t h e d r a i n a g e
facilities.
 T h e r e are o b j e c t i o n s t o 2 t h &u s e of Some of these m a t e r i a l s , such - -

a s s e r i o u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n on e x p o s u r e t o s u n l i g h t and u l t r a - v i o l e t l i g h t ,
c l o g g i n g d u e t o movement o f f i n e s , . r e d u c t i o n i n p e r m e n h i l i t y d u e t o compression,
c o n s t r u c t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s and m a t-
e r i a l s Forming p l a n e s of weakness ifl t h e
works. IF t h e s e o b j e c t i o n s a r e overcome by a t t e n t i o n t o d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n .
and q u a l i t y c o n t r o l , t h e n t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of g e o t e x t i l e s p r o v i d e s new
o p p o r t u n i t i e s Eor i n n o v a t i v e f i l t e r l d r a i n d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n .

F a b r i c f i l t e r s s h o u l d be p r o p e r l y d e s i g n e d t o be i n f i l t e r
relationship with the surrounding s o i l . Care must b e taken t o s e l e c t n
g e o t e x t i l e which is a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e g r a d i n g of t h e s o i l i t i s i n t e n d e d t o
p r o t e c t and h a s a d e q u a t e d r a i n a g e c a p a c i t y Eor t h e p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n .
A summary o f d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r f a b r i c f i l t e r s i s g i v e n i n t h e book by
Rankilor (1981).

A v a i l a b l e l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s t s t h a t E a b r i c s w i t h an e q u i v a l e n t
opening s i z e oE l e s s t h a n 15Opm ( o r a n open a r e a of l e s s than 4 % ) and t h e
t h i c k e r non-woven f a b r i c s , may b e more prone t o c l o g g i n g than o t h e r v a r i e t i e s .
The u s e of t h e s e t y p e s ' s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be a v o i d e d u n l e s s t h e s a t i s f a c t o r y
performance o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r soil/fabric/drainage-medium system h a s been
d e m o n s t r a t e d by p e r m e a b i l i t y t e s t . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , some o f t h e v e r y . t h i n
f a b r i c v a r i e t i e s e x h i b i t q u i t e l a r g e v i s i b l e - g a p s c a u s e d by uneven
d i s t r i b u t i o n oE f i b r e s , a n d , t h e u s e of such d e f e c t i v e m a t e r i a l s s h o u l d a l s o
be a v o i d e d .
-
During c o n s t r u c t i o n , s t r i n g e n t measures a r e r e q u i r e d t o erisure t h a t
t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g s t o r a g e and h a n d l i n g a r e s t r i c t l y
f o l l o w e d , and t h a t s t o r a g e , p l a c e m e n t and b a c k f i l l i n g of f a b r i c s a r e
c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d t o a v o i d e x c e s s i v e exposure t o u l t r a - v i o l e t light,
m e c h a n i c a l damage and i n e f f e c t i v e o v e r l a p p i n g . It i s p r u d e n t t o use t w o
l a y e r s of f a b r i c as a p r e c a u t i o n a g a i n s t i m p a i r m e n t of t h e f i l t e r f u n c t i o n by
m e c h a n i c a l damage d u r i n g p l a c e m e n t .
6.1 GENERAL
The s t a b i l i t y of a f r e e s t a n d i n g r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u ~ eand t h e s o i l
c o n t a i n e d by i t i s d e t e r m i n e d by computing f a c t o r s of s a f e t y ( o r s t a b i l i t y
factors), which may be d e f i n e d i n g e n e r a l t e r m s a s :

Moments o r f o r c e s a i d i n g s t a b i l i t y
F, =
.Moments o r f o r c e s c a u s i n g i n s t a b i l i t y
. ... . ( 1 1 )

Factors of s a f e t y should be c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e folloving s e p a r a t e

modes of f a i l u r e and s h o u l d a p p l y t o t h e 1 i n 10 y e a r groundwater c o n d i t i o n :

(a) s l i d i n g of t h e w a l l o u t w a r d s from t h e r e t a i n i n g s o i l ,

(b) o v e r t u r n i n g of t h e r e t a i n i n g w a l l about i t s t o e ,

(c> f o u n d a t i o n b e a r i n g f a i l u r e , and

(d) l a r g e r s c a l e s l o p e o r o t h e r f a i l u r e in t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o i l .

The f o r c e s t h a t p r o d u c e o v e r t u r n i n g and s l i d i n g a l s o produce t h e

f o u n d a t i o n b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e s a n d , t h e r e f o r e , ( a ) and ( b ) above a r e i n t e r - r e l a t
with ( c ) i n most s o i l s . -
I n c a s e s where t h e f o u n d a t i o n material is s o i l , o v e r t u r n i n g s t a b i l i t
is u s u a l l y s a t i s f i e d i f b e a r i n g c r i t e r i a a r e s a t i s f i e d . However, o v e r t u r n i n g
s t a b i l i t y may b e c r i t i c a l - f o r s t r o n g f o u n d a t i o n m a t e r i a l s such a s r o c k , o r whc
t h e b a s e of t h e w a l l i s propped, o r when t h e b a s e o f t h e w a l l i s small, f o r
instance with c r i b walls.
-
I n g e n e r a l , t o l i m i t s e t t l e m e n t and t i l t i n g of w a l l s on s o i l m a t e r i a l s ,
t h e r e s u l t a n t of t h e l o a d i n g on t h e b a s e s h o u l d b e w i t h i n t h e middle t h i r d .
For r o c k f o u n d a t i o n m a t e r i a l , t h e r e s u l t a n t s h o u l d b e w i t h i n t h e m i d d l e h a l f
of t h e b a s e .

men c a l c u l a t i n g o v d r a l l s t a b i l 2 t y o f a w a l l , t h e l a t e r a l ' e a r t h-
P r e s s u r e i s c a l c u l a t e d t o t h e b o t t o m of t h e b l i n d i n g Layer, o r i n t h e c a s e o f
a base w i t h a key, t o the b o t t o m o f t h e k e y where t h e a c t u a l ' f a i l u r e mechanism
e x t e n d s Co t h a t pcint.
- . . - - -
 If t h e p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s o i l i n f r o n t of a w a l l is i n c l u d e d
i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s for s l i d i n g s t a b i l i t y , o n l y 502 of t h e c a l c u l a t e d p a s s i v e
r e s i s t a n c e should b e u s e d , because oE t h e l a r g e d e f o r m a t i o n s r e q u i r e d t o
m o b i l i s e t h e Eull p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e . . .

S t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i a For Erec s t a n d i n g r e t a i n i n g w a l l s a r e summarised

i n F i g u r e 22.

SLIDING STABT LITY

6.2.1 gane wdhuUR a Key

S l i d i n g o c c u r s along the u n d e r s i d e of t h e base ( s e e S e c t i o n 2 . 6
Eor f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n ) .

The f a c t o r of s a f e t y , Fs, a g a i n s t s l i d i n g should not be less than

Fs ( s l i d i n g ) =
(Wt + P,)tan 6b + ctB + O . W D
H

where Wt is t h e weight of t h e w a l l
P, i s t h e v e r t i c a l component of e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e

PH is t h e h o r i z o n t a l component of e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e
6b i s t h e angle of b a s e Eriction
-
cb i s t h e adhesion a t t h e base of t h e w a l l
B i s t h e base width, and
Pp i s t h e p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e f o r c e .

The e f f e c t s of water f o r c e s s h o u l d be taken i n t o a c c o u n t i n chis

e q u a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g u p l i f t p r e s s u r e s below t h e w a l l b a s e , u n l e s s d r a i n s t h a t
permanently and e f f e c t i v e l y e l i m i n a t e u p l i f t water p r e s s u r e s a r e p r o v i d e d -
-

6 . 2 . 2 4ade utith a Key -- -.

Huntington (1961) s u g g e s t s t h a t w a l l s with shal-low key& s h o u l d b e

a n a l y s e d assuming t h a t s l i d i n g o c c u r s o n a h o r i z o n t a P p l a n e through t h e s o i l
a t t h e bottom of t h e key-. Both active and p a s s i q e forces should-. be- a d j u s t e d
t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e depth of t h e key. The weight of s o i l i n f r o n t of t h e
key and b e l o w - t h e b a s e , d o n t o the f a i l u r e s u r f a c e , s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d i n the
 t o t a l w e i g h t , Wc. F i g u r e 1 shows t h e f o r c e s i n v o l v e d . The f a c t o r o f s a f e t y
a g a i n s t s l i d i n g s h o u l d be as g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 , w i t h t h e a n g l e of b a s e
[ r i c t i o n , 6t,, r e p l a c e d by t h e a n g l e of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e , 0', of t h e
foundation s o i l .

6.2.3 S f i c f i n g on a Rock Foundat;con

I t i s p o s s i b l e t o a n a l y s e t h e s l i d i n g of a r e t a i n i n g w a l l on a
rock f o u n d a t i o n i n a s i m i l a r manner t o s l i d i n g of r o c k a l o n g a r o c k joint.-
The b a s i c f r i c t i o n a n g l e may be i n c r e a s e d by a w a v i n e s s a n g l e , i,, based on
t h e m e a s u r e d w a v i n e s s of t h e exposed r o c k s u r f a c e .

The w a v i n e s s must be of a s u f f i c i e n t s i z e s o tha: shearing ~hrough

the a s p e r i t y does not occur. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e must be a s i g n i f i c a n t
component of t h e r o c k s u r f a c e i n c l i n e d a t ,i i n t h e d i r e c r i o n of s l i d i n g .

, 6.3 OVERTURNING STAB1 LlTY

6.3.1 G~~Ju!
Moments c a l c c l a t e d a b o u t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e f r o n t o f t h e t o e s h o u l d
g i v e a f a c t o r of s a f e t y , F,, a g a i n s t o v e r t u r n i n g of n o t l e s s t h a n 2 .

Fs ( o v e r t u r n i n g ) = .. . . . (13)
M, -
vhere.Mr i s t h e a l g e b r a i c sum of moments r e s i s t i n g o v e r t u r n i n g and
Pi i s t h e a l g e b r a i c sum o f moments c a u s i n g o v e r t u r n i n g .
--

F o r s e m i g r a v i t y c a n t i l e v e r and c o u n t e r f o r t / a l l s , only the .

o v e r t x n i n g f a c t o r o f s a f e t y f o r t h e ~ w a l las a w h o l e i s s i g n i f i c a n t . For

-crib w a l l s a n d s o l i d g r a v i t y w a l l s f o r which t h e b a s e a n d t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n
of t h e w a l l a r e u s u a l l y s e p a r a t e u n i t s , t h e f a c t o r o f s a f e t y o f t h e u p p e r
Portion a g a i n s t o v e r t u r n i n g about its t o e should b e checked.

P a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e s h o u l d n o t b e i n c l u d e d i n c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r Fs
( o v e r t u r n i n g ) for c o n v e n t i o n a l walls.
 There a r e number o f ways i n w h i c h a f a c t o r o f s a f e t y a g a i n s t
o v e r t u r n i n g may b e d e t e r m i n e d , and t h e s e l e a d t o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n
t h e computed v a l u e of F,. --

I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d . w h y some of t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r , t h e
f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e s i m p l e r e t a i n i n g w a l l i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 2 2 ( a ) w i l l
b e examined. Dry b a c k E i l l o n l y i s c o n s i d e r e d , and t e r m s a r e d e f i n e d on t h e
diagram.

A p p l i c a t i o n o f e q u a t i o n (13) g i v e s ( F i g u r e 2 2 ) :

Fs ( o v e r t u r n i n g ) = -.
W .a
PA-m

It may b e n o t e d t h a t , f o r t h e u s u a l p r o p o r t i o n s of s o l i d g r a v i t y
r e t a i n f n g w a l l s , t h e b a t t e r o f t h e b a c k i s u s u a l l y s u c h t h a t t h e f i n e of a c t i o n
of PA p a s s e s below t h e t o e . he lever-arm, m, i s t h u s n e g a t i v e and PA
c o n t r i b u t e s t o the s t a b i l i t y of t h e w a l l . A n e g a t i v e value o f . F s t h u s indicates
t h a t the wall cannot overturn.

I t i s u s u a l i n retaining wall d e s i g n t o work i n terms of - t h e

h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e o v e r t u r n i n g f o r c e P A . These Eorces,
m u l t i p l i e d by t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e l e v e r a r m s a n d s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o e q u a t i o n - ( 1 4 )
f o r t h e simple case a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 22(a). -
give

It i s commonly assumed however t h a t t h e component Pv c o n t r i b u t e s t o

resisting o v e r t u r n i n g and o n t h i s basis, the f a c t o r o f s a f e t y becomes
-
. ....(16)

E q u a t i o n s ( 1 5 ) and ( 1 6 ) d o n o t , o f c o u r s e , g i v e t h e same value of

factor of safety.
 I t c a n b e seen t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o e q u a t i o n ( 1 6 ) , the overturning
f a c t o r of s a f e t y i s t h a t number by which t h e h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e e a r t h
p r e s s u r e would n e e d .to b e m u 1 ~ ; i p l i e d t o c a u s e o v e r t u r n i n g , t h e v e r t i c a l
component of t h i s p r e s s u r e remaining u n c h a n g e d . I t i s un l i k e l y , howcvcr , 1hnL

t h e h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e r e s u l t a n t e a r t h p r e s s u r e would i n c r e a s e and

t h e v e r t i c a l component remain unchanged. On t h i s b a s i s , i t would a p p e a r c h a t
t h e procedure r e p r e s e n t e d by e q u a t i o n ( 1 6 ) i s n o t l o g i c a l .

Although e q u a t i o n (16) l e a d s t o a more c o n s e r v a t i v e r e s u l t t h a n t h e

p r o c e d u r e based on e q u a t i o n ( 1 5 ) , i t is n o t recommended and t h e d e s i g n c h t a
g i v e n i n Figure 22 i s based on the more l o g i c a l p r o c e d u r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y
equation (15)- Huntington (1961) d i s c u s s e s t h i s t o p i c .
. .

6.3.3 W& 14~Lth Oeep Keg4

A p p l i c a t i o n of a n a n a l y s i s o f r o t a t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y of w a l l s w i t h
d e e p keys t o t h e r e a l s i t u a t i o n i s found t o b e v e r y u n c e r t a i n , a s t h e f o r c e s
a c t i n g a r e dependent on t h e r e l a t i v e s t i f f n e s s o f t h e w a l l and the supporting
s o i l , and on t h e d e f o r m a t i o n t h a t t a k e s p l a c e . I n view o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a l
d i f f i c u l t i e s a n c ! l i k e l y l a r g e deformations, w a l l s w i t h deep keys should i n
g e n e r a l be avoided (see S e c t i o n 1 1 . 7 ) .

6.4 FOUtdIATlON BEARING PRESSURE

The u l t i n a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o i l on which a n
e a r t h r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e r e s t s should g e n e r a l l y be de t t nnined.[rcm a t h e o r e t i c a l
a n a l y s i s of t h e f o u n d a t i o n , u s i n g t h e s o i l p r o p e r t i e s o b t a i n e d from l a b o r a t o r y
tests. Where a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e s e s h e a r s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s s h o u l d be r e v i e w e d
a s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n proceeds. The a p p l i e d l o a d i n g s h o u l d p r o v i d e a f a c t o r o f
s a f e t y of 3.0 a g a i n s t u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g f a i l u r e .

F o u n d a t i o n s of r e t n i n i n g w a l l s a r e u s u a l l y s u b j e c t e d t o i n c l i n e d and
e c c e n t r i c l o a d s , t h e f o u n d a t i o n i t s e l f may b e t i l t e d a t a n a n g l e t o t h e
h o r i z o n t a l and sometimes t h e w a l l i s founded on s l o p i n g g r o u n d . A general
e x p r e s s i o n for t h e u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f s h a l l o w f o u n d a t i o n s w h i c h c a n
deal with t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s h a s been g i v e n b y Vesic (19751, and t h i s is p r e s e n t e d
in S e c t i o n 6 -4-2.
 . -

Other f a c t o r s which may i n l l u e n c e t h e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y a r e t h e

f o u n d a t i o n d e p t h , - s o i l c o m p r c s s j b i l i c y , s c a l e e f f e c t s and non-homogeneous soil
conditions. These a r e d i s c u s s e d by Vesic ( 1 9 7 5 ) . -

6.4.2 8e&q Capaccty F c r c t o a

The u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y of a s h a l l o w (DSD) s t r i p f o u n d a t i o n
is g i v e n by :

- term r e l a t i n g t o e f f e c t s
oE c o h e s i o n )
1
+ !2 v 8, N Y S Y i, t, gy - oterm
f u nri et l w
a teiinggh t t o
of i ns foliul e n c e ) .... ( t i )
1
- term r e l a t i n g t o s u r c h a r g e )
effects
- . - - .. . -

The b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y f a c t o r s , N c , Ny, Nq .are f u n c t i o n s of t h e a n g l e

of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e , 0, of t h e s o i l and a r e modified a s a p p r o p r i a t e u s i n g .

f a c t o r s f o r t h e s h a p e o f f o o t i n g , S,, S y , S S , i n c l i n a t i o n o f l o a d , i c , iy, i (1 '

t i l t of f o o t i n g b a s e , t,, t y , t q , and s l o p e of ground, g c , g y , g q - Values
f o r t h e s e f a c t o r s a r e g i v e n i n F i g u r e 23.

The above b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y F a c t o r s have been d e t e r m i n e d on t h e

a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n m a t e r i a l is r e a s o n a b l y i n c o m p r e s s i b l e , s o t h a t
f a i l u r e would o c c u r by g e n e r a l s h e a r i n g . For c o m p r e s s i b l e m a t e r i a l s , f a i l u r e
o c c u r s by l o c a l o r punching f a i l u r e . For t h e s e m a t e r i a l s T e r z a g h i (1943)
recommended t h a t t h e v a l u e of c o h e s i o n u s e d should be reduced t o 2 ~ 7 3 ,and t h e
-1
a n g l e of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e t o t a n ( ( 2 t a n 0')/3). A more a c c u r a t e s o l u t i o n

c o n s i d e r i n g b o t h c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y and' s i z e e f f e c t s is g i v e n by Vesic ( 1975).

F o r f o u n d a t i o n s c o n s t r u c t e d on s a t u r a t e d c l a y e y s o i l s of low
p e r m e a b i l i t y , t h e s h o r t - t e r m s t a b i l i t y i s c r i t i c a l , and t h e y a r e u s u a l l y
a n a l y s e d i n - t e r n s of u n d r a i n e d s t r e n g t h (0' _= 0 analysis) - --

Where a w a l l i s founded on compacted f i l l o v e r l y i n g e i t h e r s o f t

c l a y o r l o o s e f i l l , p a r t i c u l a r c a r e must b e t a k e n . R e f e r e n c e should b e made
t o Vesic ( 1 9 7 5 ) .
-

6.4.3 E66ect 06 G~owtdwcLtmLev&

Equation (17) a p p l i e s when t h e groundwater t a b l e i s a t a d i s t a n c e
of a t l e a s t B below t h e b a s e of t h e f o u n d a t i o n . When t h e water t a b l e is a t
 t h e same Level a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n , t h e submerged u n i t weight of t h e s o i l b e l o w '
the f o u n d a t i o n s h o u l d be u s e d . For i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s of thc..r;ntcr t a b l e ,
t h e u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y s h o u l d be i n t e r p o l a t e d between ~ h abov'c
c
limiting values.

6.5 ECCEMRZC LOADS

- .
- When t h e l o a d on the f o u n d a t i o n i s e c c e n t k i c , t h i s s n b s t a n c i a l l y
reduces t h e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y . To a l l o w f o r t h i s , t h e b a s e w i d t h , B , is
reduced t o an e f f e c t i v e width B ' g i v e n by :

where eb i s t h e l o a d e c c e n t r i c i t y ( e b 5 B 1.

For a f o o t i n g e c c e n t r i c a l l y loaded i n two d i r e c t i o n s , t h e e f f e c t i v e

dimensions of t h e b a s e become such t h a t t h e c e n t r e of an a r e a , A ' . coincides
with t h e v e r t i c a l component, V, of t h e a p p l i e d l o a d . Then :

where L ' = L - 2eI, and B' = B - 2 e l , and e l , eb a r e t h e l o a d e c c e n t r i c i t i e s

#

i n t h e two d i r e c t i o n s .
- .

L' and B ' a r e t h e n used i n p l a c e of L and B i n a l l e q i 1 a t i o n s .

-- - - -.

The f a c t o r of s a f e t y i s g i v e n by :

F, ( b e a r i n g ) = q-fi ...
4all.

Where qall. =
V
f o r a r e c t a n g u l a r f p o t i n g , and- q a l l -- - f o r a continuous
B'
strip f o o t i n g ( u n i t l e n g t h c o n s i d e r e d ) .

6.6 FOUNDATTONS COIJSTRUCTED ON SLOPING GROUND A M ) NEAR SLOPE CRESTS

The u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y of f o u n d a t i o n s c o n s t r u c t e d -on s l o p e s

i s lower t h a n t h a t f o r f o u n d a t i o n s c o n s t r u c t e d on l e v e l ground. The g r o u n d

s l o p e f a c t o r s of Vesic (l975), g i v e n i n F i g u r e 2 3 , a r e d e v i s e d t o t a k e t h i s
i n t o account. .- -
 Where a Eoundation i s c o n s t r u c t e d on the. c r e s t of a s l o p e , t h e
b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y i n c r e a s e s with d i s t a n c e from t h e c r e s t t o a maximum v a l u e a t
--
d i s t a n c e s from t h e c r e s t g r e a t e r than a p p r o x i m a t e l y f o u r t i m e s t h e f o u n d a t i a n
width. No e x a c t s o l u t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s c a s e . The p r o c e d u r e o u t l i n e d
by Bowles (1977) could be a p p l i e d ' t o t h e v a l u e s g i v e n by V e s i c i n Figure 23.
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , a s a c o n s e r v a t i v e a s s u m p t i o n , a l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n between t h e
two e x t r e m e v a l u e s may be used.

The b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y c a l c u l a t i o n s d o n o t c o n s i d e r the f a c t t h a t t h e
s o i l on t h e s l o p e i s a l r e a d y under s t r e s s . This is p a r t i c u l a r l y important w h e r e
t h e i n c l i n a t i o n of the s l o p e is g r e a t e r t h a n 0 ' / 2 . The o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y of
t h e s l o p e under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e loaded f o o t i n g must t h e r e f o r e be c h e c k e d ,
in a d d i t i o n t o t h e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y c a l c u l a t i o n .

6.7 FOUNDATIONS ON ROCK

Foundations on c o n t i n u o u s sound rock seldom p r e s e n i ptoblems s i n c e
t h e r o c k i s s t r o n g e r t h a n most f o u n d a t i o n m a t e r i a l s . S t r u c t u r a l d e f e c t s and
d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s , o r t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of t h e r o c k mass below t h e f o u n d a t i o n ,
u s u a l l y c o n t r o l the allowable bearing pressure.

Where d i s c o n t i n u i t y - c o n t r o l l e d f a i l u r e mechanisms a r e p o s s i b l e , j o i n t
s u r v e y s should b e c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e e x c a v a t i o n and a d j a c e n t s l o p e s . -

The c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of t h e rock mass below Eoundation l e v e l d e p e n d s

on t h e f r e q u e n c y of j o i n t s and on t h e amount and t y p e of i n f i l l i n g ~f t h e s e
j o i n t s i n t h e zone of i n f l u e n c e of t h e f o u n d a t i o n . RQD (Rock Q u a l i t y D e s i g n a t i o n
i s d e f i n e d as :

RQD (X) = 100 x Length of unweathered c o r e . 2 1OOm.m

Length of b o r e h o l e

I n unweathered r o c k s , RQD i n d i c a t e s t h e j o i n t i n t e n s i t y , whereas

i n w e a t h e r e d r o c k i t g i v e s a measure o f t h e amount of c o m p r e s s i b l e m a t e r i a l
- b u t no i n d i c a t i o n of t h e i n f i l l c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y .
 Where o n l y t i g h t c l e a n j o i n t s a r c p r e s e n t , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between
RQD a n d a l l o v a b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e p r o p o s e d by Peck et a l ( I 9 7 4 ) , g i v e n i n
T a b l e b , aay b e u s e d .

Table G.- A l l o w a b l e B e a r i n g P r e s s u r e o n J o i n t e d Rock

( P e c k , l l a n s o n & T h o r n b u r n , 1974 )

A1lovable Pressure
(kPa)

Note :
( 1 ) Use a l l o w a b l e p r e s s u r e or
unconfined compressive s t r e n y r t OF
i n t a c t r o c k , whichever is l e s s .
( 2 ) ROD i s f o r r o c k i n t h e zone
of i n f l u e n c e of t h e f o u n d a t i o n .

For i n f i l l e d j o i n t s d e f o r m a t i o n w i l l b e l a r g e r , and e s t i m a t e s o f
t h e j o i n t i n f i l l c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y may b e r e q u i r e d . The e f f e c t of j o i n t i n f i l l i n g
On a l l o w a b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e f o r a l i m i t e d r a n g e o f j o i n t s p a c i n g and t h i c k n e s s
is g i v e n i n t h e C a n a d i a n F o u n d a t i o n Manual ( C a n a d i a n G e o t e c h n i c a l S o c i e t y , 1 9 7 8 ) .

6. & SLOPE FA7 LURE I N SURROUNDING SO7 L

The o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y oE t h e g r o u n d ' s u r r o u n d i n g t h e r e t a i n i n g w a l l
s h o u l d b e i n v e s t i g a t e d , and c a l c u l a t i o n s s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t on t h e f u l l
range of p o t e n t i a l f a i l u r e s u r f a c e s t o e n s u r e t h a t an adequate factor-of safety
,against o v e r a l l s l o p e f a i l u r e is maintained. The c a l c u l a t i o n s should i n c l u d e
t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s u r c h a r g e f r o m t h e w a l l on t h e s l o p e . ' The minimum f a c t o r
of s a f e t y r e q u i r e d a t a s i t e i s d e p e n d e n t o n i t s h a z a r d p o t e n t i a l .
 SHEET RETA I N I NG STRUCTURES

7, I GENERAL
Walls w h i c h h a v e u n i f o r m c r o s s - s e c t i o n w i t h d e p t h a r e c o n s i d c r c d i n
this chapter. These i n c l u d e f l e x i b l e s h e e t s t r u c t u r e s , such a s s h e e t - p i l e d and
s o l d i e r - p i l e d w a l l s , a n d more r i g i d w a l l s , i n c l u d i n g d i a p h r a g m and c a i s s o n
walls.

The e a r t h p r e s s u r e which a c t s on a n e a r t h s u p p o r t i n g s t r u c t u r e is
s t r o n g l y d e p e n d e n t o n t h e amount o f l a t e r a l d e f o r m a t i o n which o c c u r s i n t h e
soil. F o r f l e x i b l e s h e e t w a l l s , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f d e f o r m a t i o n s , and h e n c e
t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e s , i s n o t s i m p l e , b e c a u s e t h e y i e l d of o n e p a r t o f a f l e x i b l e
. --
w a l l t h r o w s p r e s s u r e - on t o t h e more r i g i d p a r t s . Hence, t h e p r e s s u r e s i n - t h e
v i c i n i t y of the supports a r e h i g h e r t h a n i n t h e u n s u p p o r t e d a r e a s , and t h e
l o a d s o n i n d i v i d u a l s u p p o r t s v a r y d e p e n d i n g on t h e s t i f f n e s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of t h e s u p p o r t s t h e m s e l v e s .

D e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e g r o u n d a d j a c e n t to e x c a v a t i o n s may c a u s e b r e a k a g e
of w a t e r - c a r r y i n g services. I n s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e l a r g e f l o w s may r e s u l t , t h e
p r u d e n t d e s i g n e r w i l l a l l o w f o r t h e wacer t a b l e b e i n g a t :he g r o u n d s u r f a c e
when c a l c u l a t i n g l o a d s t o b e r e t a i n e d . M

7.2 STRW7EV EXCAVATTONS

S t r u t t e d s h e e t p i l i n g is o f t e n used t o p r o v i d e temporary s u p p o r t f o r
t h e s i d e s of deep e x c a v a t i o n s . The s h e e t p i l e s a r e u s u a l l y d r i v e n f i r s t w i t h
support s t r u t s being i n s t a l l e d a s t h e excavation proceeds. The f i n a l
d e f o r m a t i o n s of t h e w a l l are h i g h l y dependent on t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n sequence a n d
. detailing. This is d e p i c t e d i n a s i m p l i f i e d manner i n F i g u r e 28.
- - .. -

F a i l u r e o f a s t r u t t e d w a l l o f t e n r e s u l t s from t h e i n i t i a l f a i l u r e
of o n e o f t h e s t r u t s , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e p r o g r e s s i v e f a i l u r e o f t h e w h o l e . s y s t e m *
- .-
The f o r c e s i n i d e n t i c a l s t r u t s i n a n y p a r t i c u l a r s u p p o r t s y s t e m may d i f f e r
W i d e l y b e c a u s e t h e y d e p e n d on s u c h f a c t o r s a s t h e way i n w h i c h t h e s t r u t s are
P t e l o a d e d a n d t h e time. b e t w e e n e x c a v a t i o n and i n s t a l l a t i o n o f s t r u t s . Loads
i n S i m i l a r struts i n a n y set o f o b s e r v a t i o n s h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o v a r y from t h e
a v e r a g e value b y up t o 5 60 p e r c e n t (Lambe e t al. 1970).
 S i n c e f a i l u r e of strutted c u c s o f t e n o c c u r s b y s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e ,
p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be p a i d t o thc s t ~ ~ ~ c t u dr en tla i l i n g o f he
i n c e r n a l s t r u t t inp,. Cu i d a n c c on r.lic s t r r ~ c t i i r a l d c s i . g n o f srrcli w:tl l s , t o g e t h e r
w i t h t y p i c a l d e t a i l s o f c o n n c c t i o n s and s t r u t t i n g s y s t e m s , n r e g j v c n b y
Goldberg e t a 1 (1975). S t r u t s mrlst bc s u f f i c i c ? n c f o r 3 1 1 s t o g c s o f
- . . ._ -- --
construction.

The d i s t f i b u t i o n of p r e s s u r e on a- a t r u l~e d e x c a v a t i o n i s c o m p l e x ,
and i t i s normal t o u s e a p r e s s u r e e n v e l o p e c o v e r i n g t h e normal r a n g e p r e s s u r e
distributions. The e n v e l c p e s (F-igure 2 4 ) p,jven b y P e c k ( 1 9 6 9 ) , and t h e .Japan
S o c i e t y o f C i v i 1 E n g i n e e r s ( 1 9 7 7 ) , t o q e c t i e r w i t h l o a d i n g s from g r o u n d w a t e r a n d
s u r c h a r g e , s h o u l d . b e used t o d e t e r m r n c s t r u t l o a d s f o r a l l i n t e r n a l l y s t r u t t e d
excavations. In a s s e s s i n g l o a d i n g from g r o u n d w a t e r , t h e e f f e c t of a c c i d e n ~ a l .
b r e a k a g e of w a t e r c a r r y i n g s e r v i c e s s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d .

The ioad c a r r i e d b y each i n t e r n a l s t r u t i s e s t i m a t e d by a s s u m i n g

t h a t t h e s h e e t p i l e is s i m p l y s u p p o r r e d between s t r u t s , and t h a t a r e a c t i o n
below t h e b a s e o f t h e e x c a v a t i o i i e x i s t s . T h i s reac:tion is p r o v i d e d by t h e
p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s o i l b e n e a t h the c u t .

The d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e w a l l below the b a s e o f t h e e x c a v a t i o n

s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t t o p r o v i d e c h i s r e a c t i o n .
-. -

S i n c e t h e w a l l moves t o w a r d s t h e e x c a v a t i o n , i t may be assumed t h a t

a c t i v e and p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e s d e v e l o p a g a i n s t t h e w a l l below t h e e x c a v a t i o n
l e v e l , - a n d h o r i z o n t a l e q u i l i b r i u m nay be used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d e p t h o f
penetration. The p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e s h o u l d be f a c t o r e d by 2.0.

For s o f t c l a y s * n e g l i b l e p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e s d e v e l o p , and t h e l o w e r
s e c t i o n o f t h e w a l r must be d e s i g n e d a s a c a n t i l e v e r , and t h e bending moment
and d e f l e c t i o n must be checked.

The maximum bending movement a t , o r b e l o w , t h e l o w e s t s t r u t s h o u l d be

checked against o v e r s t r e s s i n g of t h e w a l l .

I n s t a b i l i t y of t h e base of a n - e x c a v a t i o n c a n o c c u r d u e t o s h e a r
f a i l u r e i n s o f t t o f i r m c l a y s (known a s base heave). I n granular materials,
p i p i n g o r heave a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w c a n o c c u r .
 T h e F a c t o r - o f s a f e t y w-ith r e s p e c t t o s h e a r f a i l u r e is g i v e n b y :

where t h e t e r m s a r e d e f i n e d i n F i g u r e 25. Where Fs i s less t h a n 2 s u b s t a n t i a l

d e f o r m a t i o n s may o c c u r w i t h c o n s e q u e n t l o s s o f g r o u n d , a n d t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f
failure exists. Where s o f t c l a y e x t e n d s t o c o n s i d e r a b l e d e p t h b e l o w t h e
e x c a v a t i o n , t h e e f f e c t of i n c r e a s e d s h e e t i n g s t i f E n e s s , o r d e p t h , i s minimal.
However d r i v i n g t h e s h e e t i n g i n t o a h a r d s t r a t u m b e f o r e commencing t h e
excavation can appreciably reduce t h e deformations.

C o n t r o l of t h e groundwater a a y be necessary t o prevent piping o r

heave a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w . Methods t o a c h i e v e t h i s a r e discussed
in S e c t i o n 5.5.

7.3 ANCWRED FLEXIBLE WALLS

7.3.1 W& Anchurred ncmt {he Top

The d e f o r m a t i o n o f a n a n c h o r e d s h e e t p i l e d e p e n d s on t h e r e l a t i v e
stiffness of the p i l e l s o i l system. For a r e l a t i v e l y r i g i d system, such a s a
heavy s e c t i o n i n a loose sand, t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n corresponds
c l o s e l y t o t h e t r i a n g u l a r a c t i v e and p a s s i v e c o n d i t i o n s . The t o e o f t h e p i l e
is assumed p i n n e d , and t h e F r e e E a r t h S u p p o r t d e s i g n method a s o u t l i n s d by
Teng (1962) is a p p r o p r i a t e .

AS t h e s t i f f n e s s o f t h e s y s t e m d e c r e a s e s t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
a l t e r s I n s u c h a way a s t o r e d u c e t h e b e n d i n g moment i n t h e p i l e . AS a
c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e s h e e t p i l e s e c t i o n u s e d may b e r e d u c e d a s compared w i t h a n
infinitely s t i f f wall. R o w e ' s T h e o r y o f Moment R e d u c t i o n (1952, 1 9 5 5 , 1957)
t a k e s t h i s e f f e c t i n t o a c c o u n t ; i t is s u m m a r i s e d by T e n g (1962) a n d i n XIRIA
R e p o r t NO. 54 ( 1 9 7 4 ) .

When c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t o e p e n e t r a t i o n , i t i s recommended t h a t no
f a c t o r o f s a f e t y s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o t h e a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s . The p a s s i v e
may b e f a c t o r e d b y 2.0, o r , a s recommended i n t h e C I R I A r e p o r t , t h e
following f a c t o r e d v a l u e s of 0' and 6 , i .e. Q r F and 6F, may be u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e
-
t h e p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e :-
 and
-

For s a n d s , F, = 1 . 5 s h o u l d be u s e d , w h i c h g i v e s a n a p p r o x i m a t e f a c t o r
o f 2.0 on t h e d e r i v e d Kp v a l u e s . I f , h o w e v e r , t h e v a l u e s o f 0 ' and 6 a r e
u n c e r t a i n , t h e n F, = 2.0 s h o u l d b e u s e d .

For t h e s h o r t t e r m s t a b i l i t y o f w a l l s i n c l a y s , a f a c t o r 2 . 0 5 Fs 5 3.0
s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o the v a l u e o f u n d r a i n e d c o h e s i o n , c , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e parameters. For l o n g t e r m s t a b i l i t y , t h e f a c t o r on t a n @ '
c a n b e taken a s I . 2 . S FS 5 1 . 5 .

P a s s i v e and a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s s h o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e m e t h o d s
g i v e n in Chapter 3 .

The m u l t i p l e - a n c h o r e d system of w a l l s u p p o r t r e s u l t s in t h e - r e t a i n i n g
structure b e i n g p r o g r e s s i v e l y f i x e d . Consequently, t h e l a t e r a l deformations
a r e l i m i t e d t o s u c h ail e x t e n t t h a t f a i l u r e w i t h i n t h e r e t a i n e d s o i l is u n l i k e l y .
The e a r t h p r e s s u r e which f i n a l l y a c t s on t h e w a l l d e p e n d s on t h e r e l a t i v e
s t i f f n e s s of t h e w a l l t o t h e s o i l , t h e a n c h o r s p a c i n g , t h e a n c h o r y i e l d and
t h e p r e s t r e s s locked i n t o t h e anchors a t i n s t a l l a t i o n .

The e a r t h p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n h a s b e e n shown t o h e s i m i l a r t o t h a t
obtained f o r i n t e r n a l l y braced excavations.- A rectangular pressure envelope
. .
s i m i l a r t o t h a t a d o p t e d by P e c k ( F i g u r e 2 4 ) is a p p r o p r i a t e . The e a r t h p r e s s u r e
8
c o e f f i c i e n t may b e taken a s Ka. However, i t i s common t o use a v a l u e b e t w e e n
Ka a n d KO, s u c h a s (K, + K 0 ) / 2 , i n a n a t t e m p t t o c o n t r o l s u r f a c e movements.

S u c c e s s f u l d e s i g n s h a v e b e e n made u s i n g t r i a n g u l a r p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s w i t h e a r t h p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s v a r y i n g between K a a n d KO.
However, b e c a u s e o f t h e mechanism i n v o l v e d , t h e r e c t a n g u l a r d i s t r i b u t i o n i s
c o n s i d e r e d more a p p r o p r i a t e (Hanna, 1980). Anchor l o a d s may b e c h e c k e d u s i n g
b o t h d i s t r i b u t i o n s , and t h e w o r s t c a s e t a k e n .

- The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l s p a c i n g o f a n c h o r s u s i n g
- -
t h e procedure f o r i n t e r n a l s t r u t spacing g i v e s a c c e p t a b l e r e s u l t s . -Another
a p p r o a c h is t h e s e m i - e m p i r i c a l d e s i g n m e t h o d o f James 6 J a c k (1974) w h i c h
simulates t h e f i e l d c o n s t r u c t i o n procedure using t r i a n g u l a r pressure
distributions. T h i s . method a l l o w s d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e d e p t h o f p e n e t r a t i o n
r e q u i r e d , and r e s u l t s c o r r e s p o n d w e l l t o f i e l d and l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s .

Anchors a r e u s u a l l y i n c l i n e d downwards, t r a n s m i t t i n g t h e v e r t i c a l
component of t h e a n c h o r f o r c e i n t o t h e anchored member. T h i s Eorce s h o u l d . b e
c o n s i d e r e d i n d e s i g n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e weight of t h e member i t s e l f ( W h i t e ,
1974).

A number of c a s e s have been r e c o r d e d where s o l d i e r p i l e s have f a i l e d

i n end b e a r i n g due t o t h e v e r t i c a l component of t h e anchor f o r c e .

7.4 C W l L E V E R E D WALLS . .-

These r e l y e n t i r e l y on t h e development of p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e i n f r o n t of t h e
-
wall f o r t h e i r s t a b i l i t y . A s a consequence, c o n s i d e r a b l e movement must o c c u r
b e f o r e e q u i l i b r i u m i s r e a c h e d , and deep p e n e t r a t i o n is r e q u i r e d . The d e f l e c t i o n
a t the t o p of t h e w a l l may be t h e g o v e r n i n g c r i t e r i o n . Such w a l l s s h o u l d n o t
normally b e used a s permanent s t r u c t u r e s t o r e t a i n a h e i g h t of more t h a n 5m
u n l e s s c a n t i l e v e r e d from r o c k .

The p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n . a t f a i l u r e approximates t h e c l a s s i c a l
triangular pattern. F u l l a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s h o u l d be used and t h e p a s s i v e
p r e s s u r e s h o u l d b e f a c t o r e d w i t h Fs = 3 on t a n 0' and t a n 6 ( r e f e r t o S e c t i o n
2-7 f o r a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e s o f 6). T h i s h i g h e r f a c t o r of s a f e t y i s r e q u i r e d
because o f t h e l a r g e d e f o r m a t i o n s needed t o develop f u l l p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e .
?owever, i f i t c a n b e shown t h a t w a l l d e f o r m a t i o n s w i l l n o t c a u s e d i s t r e s s
t.0 n e i g h b o u r i n g s t r u c t u r e s o r s e r v i c e s , t h e n a lower f a c t o r may be
?PPPopriate.
-

fke* - The d e p t h o f p e n e t r a t i o n i s o b t a i n e d by t a k i n g moments a b o u t t h e

The maximum b e n d i n g moment may b e o b t a i n e d by t a k i n g moments of t h e
e s s u r e ~ , above v a r i o u s c u t s , u n t i l t h e maximum v a l u e is d e t e r m i n e d

I n s t a l l a t i o n o f a d r a i n a g e and f i l t e r medium b e h i n d t h e w a l l may b e

f i c u l t and s o f u l l h y d r a s t a t i c p r e s s u r e may have t o be c o n s i d e r e d f o r the
 RE1NFORCED EARTH RETAIN I NG WAUS

I t is recommended, a t p r e s e n t , t h a t d e s i g n s s h o u l d b e i n a c c o r d a n c e
w i t h t h e T e c h n i c a l Mernorandurrl ( B r i d g e s ) B E 3/78 (Department of T r a n s p o r t , UK,
- . - .-

19781. It fi a l s o recommended t h i t f o r t h e b a c k f i l l , t h e g r a d i n g and p l a s t i c i t y

i n d e x r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e F e d e r a l Highways A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( 1 9 7 8 ) , o u t l i n e d i n
T a b l e 7 , s h o u l d a l s o b e m e t , b e c a u s e o f t h e l i m i t e d documented e x p e r i e n c e o f
reinforced earth retaining walls constructed using materials with a high f i n e s
c o n t e n t and p l a s t i c i t y i n d e x .

Close s u p e r v i s i o n i s required t o ensure t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n proceeds

a c c o r d i n g t o s p e c i f i c a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y a l l a s p e c t s of t h e b a c k f i l l
specification. D i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h l a t e r p r o v i s i o n of s e r v i c e s and t h e -

s t e r i l i z a t i o n o f l a n d above f o r b u i l d i n g development may p r e c l u d e t h e u s e of

reinforced e a r t h i n c e r t a i n circumstances.

Table 7 Minimum S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r S e l e c t B a c k f i l l For

R e i n f o r c e d E a r t h R e t a i n i n g Walls
( a f t e r F e d e r a l Highway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , 1978)

Sieve Size Percentago Passing

and P1 < 6

-
OR
and
I f p e r c e n t a g e p a s s i n g 75urn i s g r e a t e r t h a n 2 5 % ,
p e r c e n t a g e f i n e r t h a n 15pm i s less t h a n t 5 % ,
m a t e r i a l i s a c c e p t a b l e i f 0 5 30' as
d e t e r m i n e d by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t e s t and P . I . < 6 .
 I. I GENERAL

A c r i b wall s t r u c t u r e i s made by p l a c i n g a number o f c r i b l i k e c e l l s

o g e t h e r and f i l l i n g them w i t h s o i l o r r o c k f i l l t o g i v e them s ~ r e n g t hand
reight. The w a l l e s s e n t i a l l y a c t s a s a g r a v i t y r e t a i n i n g w a l l . Crib wall
i n i t s may b e b u i l t of p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e , s t e e l o r of t r e a t e d t i m b e r . The
j a n u f a c t u r e r s of c r i b w a l l u n i t s produce design d a t a f o r c r i b w a l l s , but i n
g e n e r a l c a r e must be exercised i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s
data.

The f r o n t f a c e of a c r i b w a l l u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s of a g r i d of c o n c r e t e
members s o s p a c e d t h a t t h e s o i l ' i n f i l l a t i t s angle o f r e p c s e d o e s n o t s p i L l
through t h e s p a c e r s . H o r i z o n t a l members o f such a grid a r e t e m e d stretckers.
The f a c e members a r e c o n n e c t e d by t r a n s v e r s e members termed h e ~ d a r st o a s f m i l a r
g r i d of s t r e t c h e r s , p a r a l l e l t o t h e f a c e , f o r m i n g :he back f a c e o f t h e wall
(Figure 2 6 ) . The minimum t h i c k n e s s o f w a l l s s h o u l d be o n e n e t r e , e x c e p t c h e r e
t h e w a l l i s non-suppor&ing f o r l a n d s c a p i n g . A 1.2 n t h i c k n e s s is u s u a l l y a
better ezgineering solution. Additional spacers between t h e s t r e t c h e r s within -
t h e f r o n t and back grids may be u s e d i f t h e s y s t e n r e q u i r e s i t , a n d t h e s e a r e
termed false headers o r piZlow bZocks. Headers s h o u l d i n g e n e r a l be
P r e p e n d i ' c u l a r t o t h e face of t h e w a l l , a l t h o u g h s o m e a v a i l a b l e systems have
variations t o this.

The s y s t e m u s u a l l y a l l o w f o r t h e a d d i t i o n o f one o r m o r e g r i d s of
p a r a l l e l t o the f a c e and s i t u a t e d b e h i n d the s t r u c t u r e d e s c r i b e d above,
-
B0 forming m u l t i p l e d e p t h w a l l s of g r e a t e r h e i g h t , Such a d d i t i o n a l g r i d s are-
P
- c o n n e c t e d t o t h e grid i n the f r o n t by a h e a d e r s y s t m .

9.2 DESIGN
The g e n e r a l d e s i g n c r i t e r i s f o r g r a v i t y valls a p p l y co c r i b w a l l s .
T h e p r e s s u r e s a c t i n g on a c r i b w a l l s h o u l d b e d e t e r a i n e d by the m e t h o d s given
- i n C h a p t e r 3. The r e s u l t a n t s h o u l d a l w a y s l i e i n the m i d d l e t h i r d o f t h e -&ill
cross-section. F i g u r e 26 shows t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a c t i n g on a
t y p i c a l w a l l and some t y p i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n d e t a i l s - F i g u r e 27 gives desigzt
curves which may b e used f o r p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n o n l y .
 TO a g r e a t e x t e n t , t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a c r i b w a l l d e p e n d s o n t h e
a b i l i t y of t h e c r i b m e m b e r s t o c o n t a i n t h e e n c l o s e d s o i l . A n a l y s i s of t h e
stresses and l o a d i n g s i n t h e c r i b members and c o n n e c t i o n s i s b a s e d on t h e
e a r t h pressure i n s i d e the c r i b . The i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s f o r c r i b w a l l s s h o u l d b e
d e s i g n e d t o w i t h s t a n d t h e . t o r s i o n , b e n d i n g moments, s h e a r f o r c e s a n d t e n s i l e
f o r c e s e x e r t e d on t h e m . The t h e o r e t i c z l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e ~ o r c e son c r i b
u n i t s and t h e a c t u a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e u n i t s i s d i f f i c u l t a n d is u s u a l l y b a s e d
o n e a r t h p r e s s u r e s f r o m b i n p r e s s u r e t h e o r i e s ( S c h u s t e r e t a l , 1975;
T s c h e b o t a r i o f f , 1951), t h e s t r u c t u r a l form o f t h e c r i b u n i t s and t h e e a r t h
p r e s s u r e from t h e b a c k f i l l . However, i t h a s b e e n found by S c h u s t e r e t a 1 ( 1 9 7 5 )
t h a t s t r e s s e s m e a s u r e d ' i n c r i b w a l l u n i t s a r e much h i g h e r chan t h o s e p r e d i c t e d
u s i n g l o a d s on t h e u n i t s f r o m b i n p r e s s u r e t h e o r i e s . S p e c i f i c a t i o n CD209 -
C r i b w a l l i n g and Notes ( M i n i s t r y o f Works and Development N . 2 . , 1980) s p e c i f i e s
t h a t c r i b u n i t s b e a b l e t o w i t h s t a n d l o a d i n g s which imply e a r t h p r e s s u r e s t w i c e
t h o s e g i v e n by b i n p r e s s u r e s . T h i s requirement f o l l o w e d an e x a m i n a t i o n o f
s a t i s f a c t o r y and u n s a t i s f a c t o r y c r i b w a l l u n i t s . Good d e t a i l i n g and d e s i g n i s
r e q u i r e d a t the c o n n e c t i o n between u n i t s t o e n s u r e t h e s a t i s f a c t o r y t r a n s f e r o f
forces. Crib w a l l f a i l u r e s have occurred because o f poor s t e e l r e i n f o r c e m e n t
detailing.

The S p e c i f i c a t i o n CD209 a l s o g i v e s u s e f u l a d v i c e on r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r
t h e s t r e n g t h and t e s t i n g of c r i b u n i t s and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of c r i b w a l l s .
C a r e f u l q u a l i t y c o n t r o l d u r i n g manufacture of t h e c r i b u n i t s is r e q u i r e d .

. e s p e c i a l l y with r e g a r d t o c o n c r e t e cover, the placement of s t e e l r e i n f o r c e m e n t ,

c o n c r e t e n i x d e s i g n , and t h e d i m e n s i o n a l t o l e r a n c e s o f i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s -

Many c r i b w a l l s h a v e f a i l e d b e c a u s e o f d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e
w a l l structure. Because of t h i s , a l l c r i b w a l l s s h o u l d b e founded a t l e a s t 3 0 0 ~
b e l o w ground l e v e l o n a c a s t i n - s i t u r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e b a s e s l a b o f 150nm
minimum t h i c k n e s s o v e r t h e whole p l a n a r e a o f t h e w a l l . -

9.3 BACKFILL
The c r i b w a l l u n i t s s h o u l d a l w a y s b e i n f i l l e d w i t h a f r e e - d r a i n i n g
m a t e r i a l placed and w e l l compacted i n l a y e r s i n a way t h a t does n o t d i s t u r b
the c r i b units. Where s o i l i s u s e d , a r e l a t i v e c o m p a c t i o n o f at l e a s t 98%- t o .
' 8 5 1377 : 1975 Test 12 s h o u l d b e o b t a i h e d . Where r o c k f i l l i s u s e d , t h e
-
r e l a r i v e d e n s i t y t o be o b t a i n e d s h o u l d b e s p e c i f i e d .
The s t r e n g t h o f t h e
completed vall d e p e n d s o n the s t a n d a r d o f t h i s b a c k f i l l i n g .
9.4 PROVISION OF 'DRAINAGE
A d e q u a t e d r a i n a g e o f t h e whole c r i b s t r u c t u r e is e s s e n t i a l . - M a n y o f
the. F a i l u r e s i n c r i b w a l l s h a v e o c c u r r e d because m a t e r i a l o f low p e r m e a b i l i t y
.

was u s e d a s b a c k f i l l , t h u s d e v e l o p i n g h i g h s t a t i c o r seepage w a t e r p r e s s u r e s .
h s u b s o i l d r a i n s h o u l d b e i n s t a l l e d a t t h e h e e l of t h e w a l l k h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e ,
o t h e r w i s e p o n d i n g may o c c u r .

9.5 MULTIPLE DEPTH WALLS

The s t a b i x i t y o f w a l l s o f more than s i n g l e d e p t h s h o u l d be checked
a t t h e c h a n g e s f r o m s i n g l e t o d o u b l e and d o u b l e t o t r i p l e , e t c . , to ensure
t h a t t h e r e s u l t a n t f o r c e l i e s w i t h i n t h e middle t h i r d o f each s e c t i o n
c o n s i d e r e d , a n d t h a.t -t h e o v e r t u r n i n g c r i t e r i o n s t a t e d i n F i g u r e 22 i s m e t .

- -

9.6 WALLS CURVED IN PLAN

C r i b walls w i t h a convex f r o n t f a c e a r e much more s u s c e p t i b l e t o
damage b y transverse d e f o r m a t i o n s t h a n a r e concave w a l l s .
Gabion wall are aesthetically appealing For the purpose of design, the lateral earth
and many configurations are possible a s pressure coeff~cientK a is derived from the
shown below: -- equations a s follows:
I I /

I:
i = backfill inclination
a = wall inclination
4 = internal friction - -
angle of soil
6 = wail friction angle.

a. Embankment
sin2(a + qD )

s m (@ + 61s ~ n 1
stn ( a - 6 ) s m ln +r I

For vertical wall with horizontal backfill,

(i = 6 = 0 and a = 90")

For cohesionless soil with a sloping surface

ci
behind a smooth vertical retaining wall,
b. Wall with footing (a = 90. 6 = 0)

COS I + -J COS I -COS 51,

)COS r
I

Typical safe soil bearing capacities (Ref.

B.S. code CPI 01. 1963)

-
kN/m2
Soft clay & silts 50-1 00
Stiff G sandy clay 200-400
Loose sand dry 1 00-200
Loose s a n d submerged 50-100
c. Tilted Compacted sand or loose
graded s a n d dry 200400
In terms of design..the external stability of Compacted sand or loose
gabion wall is treated a s with any other graded s a n d submerged i 00-200
gravity structures. Compacted gravel-sand
Active earth pressure conditions a r e mixture dry 400600
assumed in the design. Adequate safety Compacted gravel-sand mixture
factor must b e provided against sliding and submerged 200-300
overturning of the gabion structure. Shale G soft sandstone 1000-2000
- - Limestone G hard
The foundation soil must be checked sedimentary rock 3004000
against bearing failure. Sound igneous rock -1 0000
Example: Horrizontal backfill with 2 Check against Overturning
surcharge. By taking moments about pt.A: '

For the purpose of the following Disturbing moment.

design, the wall friction is
neglected. M, = 23.76(1) + 14 85(1.5) --
= 46.04 kN.m
Given : H = 3 m
Soil
Parameters : 'y, = 16 kN/mJ Restoring moment
4, = 30"
= 18 kN/mJ M, = 6(18) (1.5) + jl(i6) (2.5) + 0.5 (16)
7, (2.75))
gabion = 224 kN.m
structure = l ~ k ~ / ~ "
t

Safety Factor.

Safety factor against overturning with

respect to the toe should be at least 2.0.

3.Bearing Capacity
The vertical componeni R acting on the .
1 Check against sliding base is equal to the s u n of the forces
aciing downward. and x i i l have an
eccentricity e with resperi to !he
g e ~ ~ n e t r i c acenter
f of i h l base. By
taking moments about ~ t A. (toe)
I
Lateral earth force. P a = -Ka-yH 2
2 3 - 224 -46.04 = 0 . ,5
eccentricity. e = -
2 122

Surcharge force, P, = 1.5 x K , qH

= 1.5(0. !3)(10)(3)
= 14.85.kN/m Hence eccentricity i s within middle third.

Disturbing forces = 23.76 t 14.85

= 38-61k N / m
maximum R 6e
pressure. 6 max = i(l + T)
Restoring force, F, = ( W, i- W,)tan d,
=[6(18) + 1.5( 16)]ran.30
= 132 tan 30"
=76.21 kN/m

76.21
Thus, safety Factor S = -
38.61 The safety factor against bearing failure
= 1.97 > 1.5 must be at least 2.0. Hence :he ultimate
bearing capacity of the foundation soil - -
Safety factor against s!iding should be at must exceed;
least 1.5 for cohesionless backfill and 2.0
for cohesive backfill. 57.2 x 2 = 114.4 kN/m2
 WE ASPECTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN AN[> DETAILING -

11.1 IMRODUCTION
T h i s c h a p t e r d o e s n o t aim t o c o v e r a l l a s p e c t s of r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
design a s i t a p p l i e s t o r e t a i n i n g w a l l s . T h e r e a r e , however, s e v e r a l a s p e c t s
of t h e d e s i g n and d e t a i l i n g which a r e n o t a d e q u a t e l y c o v e r e d i n t h e commonly
a v a i l a b l e l i t e r a t u r e o r p r e s e n t Codes and R e g u l a t i o n s , and some g u i d a n c e i s
given h e r e on t h e s e . . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e j u n c t i o n s between members a r e o f t e n
poorly d e t a i l e d and s u g g e s t i o n s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n S e c t i o n 1 1 . 9 f o r improvements

R e f e r e n c e s h o u l d b e made t o c o m p r e h e n s i v e p u b l i c a t i o n s on r e i n f o r c e d
concrete (e.g. S c o t t e t a l , 1965; Park & Paulay, 1975) f o r c o m p l e t e d e t a i l s o f
c o n c r e t e r e t a i n i n g w a l l d e s i g n and d e t a i l i n g .

.11.2 GENERAL NOTES

11.2.1 Coda
R e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n s h o u l d be i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s t a n d a r d c u r r e n t l y used.

The Code b e i n g u s e d w i l l s p e c i f y t h e l o a d f a c t o r s o r p a r t i a l f a c t o r s
t o be u s e d .

11.2.3 Cova .to Reivl~o/rcment

P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n should be g i v e n t o the cover of r e i n f o r c e m e n t ,
both i n t h e d e t a i l i n k a n d d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n . B l i n d i n g concreGe s h o u l d a l w a y s
-
Se used on s o i l - l i k e materials.

13.3 TOE DESIGN

S h e a r i n a t o e is u s u a l l y t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d i n g c a s e . The c r i t i c a l
s e c t i o n o f t h e t o e may b e t a k e n a t d i s ~ a n c e ' d ' o u t from t h e f a c e o f t h e
s u p p o r t a s shown i n F i g u r e 3 2 . The d e t a i l i n g of t h e c u r t a i l m e n t a n d a n c h o r a g e
of r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s i m p o r t a n t ( s e e S e c t i o n 1 1 . 8 ) .
-
 11.4.1 SZof tondirq . -
For t h e stem d e s i g n c a n t i l e v e r and c o u n t e r f o r t w a l l s , i t is norn~al
p r a c t i c e t o t a k e t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e a c t i n g on t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e chrough the
r e a r of t h e h e e l a s being p r o j e c t e d o n t o t h e stem ( s e e Figure I ) . tiowever, i n
n e a r l y a l l w a l l s , t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e a c t i n g on t h e s t r u c t u r a l s e c t i o n o f the
w a l l i s d i f f e r e n t From t h i s , b e c a u s e of t h e l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e s c h a t d e v c l n p
d u r i n g t h e compacting of t h e b a c k f i l l . Such l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e s a r c u s u a i l y m u c h
h i g h e r t h a n a c t i v e and can be h i g h e r t h a n a t - r e s t p r e s s u r e s . . T h e magnitude o f
such l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e s is d i s c u s s e d i n- S e c t i o n s 3.10 & 3 . 1 1 .

T h e r e f o r e , i n d e s i g n i n g s t e m of a w a l l th-e e a r t h pressi1rc.s from

compaction s h o u l d always be c a l c u l a t e d . In many c a s e s , t h i s w i l l be t h e
c r i t i c a l loading. There i s L i t t l e e v i d e n c e t o show t h a t t h e d e f l e c t i o n o f
c a n t i l e v e r w a l l s w i l l reduce t h e compaction p r e s s u r e s . (See S e c t i o n 3.11).
- .

1 1.4.2 B i n d i n g Mamenb and Sheaa F a a c u in Xlze SXern~ oh CounXe/r~on-tWaled

The bottom of a stem, where i t j o i n s t h e h e e l , s h o u l d be r e i n f o r c e d
f o r v e r t i c a l spanning a c t i o n i n a d d i t i o n t o h o r i z o n t a l s p a n n i n g a c t i o n .
H o r i z o n t a l s t e e l should be c o n t i n u o u s in b o t h faces-. H o r i z o n t a l b e n d i n g moment
v a r i a t i o n s w i t h h e i g h t s h o u l d be c a t e r e d f o r by v a r y i n g t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t
s p a c i n g i n p r e f e r e n c e t o changing t h e b a r s i z e s . -
* .

S h e a r f o r c e s s h o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d a t t h e Face oE. t h e c o u n t e r f o r t s .
S h e a r s t r e s s e s w i l l u s u a l l y govern t h e stem t h i c k n e s s .

The bending moments and s h e a r f o r c e s i n s t e m s s h o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d

by methods which p r o p e r l y t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e f i x i t y of each= e d g e of t h e
stem s l a b and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r e s s u r e s on t h e s l-
ab. H u n t i n g t o n (1961)
g i v e s u s e f u l g u i d a n c e on t h i s based on work done by t h e US P o r t l a n d Cement
Association. B o w l e s (1977) g i v e s similar i n f o r m a t i o n .
- - - - - - -

17.5 HEEL SLAB DESIGN

-- .- - -- --
- 1 7 -5.1 LO&~
The design loading on t h e h e e l s l a b is shown i n F i g u r e SO. The
- --.
b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e s f o r u s e i n s r r u c r u r a l d e s i g n are n o t t h e same as t h o s e - u s e d
t o check t h e F a c t o r of s a f e t y a g a i n s t u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g f a i l u r e (Section 6 . 4 ) .
They a r e n o r m a l l y t a k e n a s t h e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e s a t working Loads, a s Eollows:
 I f t h e r e s u l t a n t p a s s e s through t h e base w i t h i n t h e r ~ i t l t i l c
t h i r d , t h e t o e and h e e l p r e s s u r e s f o r s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n nwy
be c a l c u l a t e d from

where V i s t h e normal component of the r e s u l t i i n t l o a d i n g on

- . -
t h e b a s e , B i s t h e b a s e w i d t h , and L i s t h e l e n g t h o f w a l l
f o r which t h e r e s u l t a n t e a r t h p r e s s u r e i s c a l c u l a t e d ( u s u a l l y
u n i t y ) , and eb i s t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y of t h e l o a d . -

I f the r e s u l t a n t Lies o u t s i d e t h e middle t h i r d :

71.5.2 H e d SLabn 60h Courztw~boatO d L s

The h e e l s l a b f o r c o u n t e r f o r t w a l l s s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d a s a s l a b
s p a n n i n g i n two d i r e c t i o n s , The r e f e r e n c e s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 1 1 . 4 . 2 may be
consulted f o r t h i s purpose.

A s i n S e c t i o n 11.4..2, the c r i t i c a l s e c t i o n f o r shear i s a t the face

of t h e c o u n t e r f o r t s . Again, s h e a r stresses u s u a l l y govern t h e h e e l t h i c k n e s s .
-

17.6 COUNTERFORT DESIGN - -

. . V e r t i c a l s t e e l i n t h e c o u n t e r f o r t is r e q u i r e d t o ca-rry t h e n e t t e n s i l e
l o a d from e a c h s t r i p of t h e h e e l s l a b i n t o t h e c o u r l t e r f o r t . The main moment
r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r t h e w a l l is. u s u a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d a t t h e b a c k o f t h e c o u n t e r f o r t
H o r i z o n t a l s t e e l i n t h e c o u n t e r f o r t i s r e q u i r e d t o c a r r y t h e n e t l o a d on each
h o r i z o n t a l s t r i p of s t e m . The d e t a i l i n g of t h i s steel s h o u l d b e done So a s t o
p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e a n c h o r a g e between t h e s t e m s l a b a n d t h e c o u n t e r f o r t ( F i g a r e
31). C o n s i d e r a t i o n should b e given t o s t a g g e r i n g t h e l a p s i n t h e s e anchorage
bars.

Cut-off p o s i t i o n s f o r t h e main t e n s i l e s t s e l i n t h e c o u n t e r f o r t s
a r e shown i n F i g u r e 3 1 .
11.7 KEY DESIGN
I n g e n e r a l t h e r a t i o o f d e p t h t o t h i c k n e s s oE r h c k c y s l i o * ~ l dbt.
less t h a n 2 . 0 . I t is d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t w h a t ' t h e force a c t i n g on the key
w i l l be. Approximately :

Design h o r i z o n t a l
l o a d on key
horizontal loads
- t o t a l vertical loads
- tendiqg t o cause - 0.4 x
above b l i n d i n g layer
sliding

I t may be assumed t h a t t h i s load a c t s a c o n e - t h i r d of t h e k e y h e i g h t

from t h e b o t t o m o f key. The key s h o u l d be d e t a i l e d i n a c c o r d a q c e wich S e c t i o n
11.8 & 11.9. Note t h a t t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s a r e c a r r i e d from t h e k e y i n t c t h e
bottom of t h e h e e l s l a b , and t h e r e f o r e some r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s c a l l e d f o r i n t h a t
area.

Il.8 CURTAILMENT AND ANCHORAGE OF RETNFORCEMEM

The c u r t a i l m e n t of r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n r e t a i n i n g w a l l s i s c r i t i c a l . A
b a r must ext-end beyond t h e p o i n t where i t i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y no l o n g e r r ~ q u i r e d
. .
t o a l l o w f o r i n a c c u r a c i e s i n l o a d i n g and a n a l y s i s , t o a l l o w f o r i n a c c u r a c i e s
. .
i p p l a c i n g b a r s , and t o a v o i d l a r g e c r a c k s a t t h e c u r t a i l m e n t s e c t i o n . Such
c r a c k s r e d u c e t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o s h e a r f o r c e s and i n t r o d u c e h i g h peak s c r e s s c s
i n t h e t e n s i o n reinforcement.

11.9 VETAT L1NG OF' REZNFORCED CONCRETE CORNERS A I W J O I N S

Many r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e w a l l s i n v o l v e c a n t i l e v e r s t h a t meet at
right angles. A t t h i s junction, t h e r e i s - ' t h e - c o m b i r i a t i m of peak bending
moments and p e a k $ h e a r f o r c e s . Such c a n t i l e v e r s a n d c o v e r s G u s t b e c a r e f u l l y
l e t a i l e d t o a v o i d wide c r a c k width,, and s o e n s u r e t h e . s t r e n g t h and s e n i c e a b i l i t y
)f t h e s t r u c t u r e s . Some g u i d a n c e o n s u i t a b l e d e t a i l i n g is g i v e n i n t h i s Chapter-

. . .-
R e s e a r c h work by N i l s s o n 6 Losberg (1976) h a s shown t h a t r e i n i o r c e m i n t
jetails commonly used i n c a n t i l e v e r w a l l s have ultimate c a p a c i t i e s s i g n i f i c a n t l ~
Less t h a n a r e u s u a l l y assumed i n c a l c u l a t i o n s , a n d t h e y r e s u l t i n e x c e s s i v e l y
l i d e c o r n e r c r a c k w i d t h s a t what would normally b e working l o a d s . For
 u l t i m a t e c a p a c i t y , and a t a l o a d o f 5 5 % o f t h e c a l c t l l a t e d u l t i r n a t c r.:lp;ici t y ,
t h e r e was a c o r n e r c r a c k 2.51nm w i d e . . The d e t a i 1 shown i n F i g u r e 33b. w h i It.

_ h a v i n g s u f f i c i e n t u l t i m a t e monlenc c a p a c i t y . h a d 3 c o r n e r c r a c k 5.3mn1 widc st

a l o a d o f 5 5 % o f t h e c a l c u l a t e d u l t i n i a t e 'caplc i c y . O t h e r conunonly u s e d
d e t a i l s h a d a n even w o r s e p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e s e t e s t s were a t r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l
s t e e l p e r c e n t a g e s of 0 . 5 t o 0.8;;. Swann ( 1 4 6 9 ) c.21-ricd t ~ u t a slnlj l n r srric:s
o f tests a t t h e h i g h e r s t e e l p e r c e n t a g e of 3.i a n d significantly worsc nion~cnt
c a p a c i t i e s were obtained. Such j o i n t s s h o u l d b e c a p a b l e o f r e s i s t i n g a moment
a t l e a s t a s l a r g e a s t h e c a l c u l a t e d f a i l u r e moment i n a d j a c e n t c r o s s section:;.

The c r a c k s t h a t form i n t h e i n s i d e o f c o r n e r s s h o u l d h a v e a c c e p t a b l e c r a c k
widths f o r l o a d s in t h e working range. Also the reinforcement in corners
s h o u l d b e e a s y t o f a b r i c a t e and p o s i t i o n , a n d t h i s s h o u l d n o r m a l l y a v o i d t h e
need f o r s r i r r u p s or t i e s .

For t h e reinforcement of c o r n e r s s u b j e c t e d t o an opening bending - -

rncment, N i l s s o n & L o s b e r g ( 1 9 7 6 ) recommended t h a t t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t l o o p f r m
e a c h a d j a c e n t p a r t of t h e s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d b e t a k e n o u t i n t o t h e c o r n e r
.
r e g i o n , a s f a r as c o v e r r e s t r i c t i o r ~ sa l l o w , a n d s h o u l d t h e n b e b r o u g h t b a c k
i n t o t h e same c r o s s - s e c t i o n a d j a c e n t co the i r - i c l i n c d r e i n f o r c e m e n t ( s e c
F i g u r e s 32(c) and 3 2 ( d ) ) . T h e main r e i n f o r ~ c m e n r s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d on t h e
b a s i s o f the moments i n c h c , d j , i c c n t s e c t i o n s (PI1 6 F:2), ignoring the
e f f e c t o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t l o o p c u r t a i l m e n t i n t h e c o m p r e s s i o n z o n e and t h e
inclined reinforcement. The c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of t h 2 i n c l i n e d
reinforcement should b e approximately one-half t h e a r e a o f t h e l a r g e s t main
reinforcement. Bars s h o u l d n e v e r be s p l i c e d i n t h e c o r n e r r e g i o n .

11-9.2 R eirzdmung S Z e d DetaiLcng R@culnrnc?~~dc&o~~,.

B a s e d ' o n the recommendations i n S e c t i o n 11.9.1, &he c o r n e r s i n
r e t a i n i n g w a l l s should b e r e i n f o r c e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n s given
i n t h e following paragraphs.

\ h e n t h e l e n g t h o f t h e t o e is Less t h a n t h e s t e m t h i c k n e s s , the joint

s h o u l d b e r e i n f o r c e d a s a c o r n e r s u b j e c t e d t o a n o p e n i n g moment. The
reinforcement i n the .base s l a b should be taken o u t i n t o t h e toe a s f a r a s t h e
c o v e r r e q u i r e m e n t p e r m i t s (see F i g u r e 3 2 ( c ) ) .

When t h e l e n g t h o f t h e t o e i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s t e r n t h i c k n e s s , and
I
the length of the t o e is s u f f i c i e n t t o provide adequate anchorage length,
reinforcement can be a s i n Figure 3 2 ( d ) . The c o n c r e c e Code o r R e g u l a t i o n
r e q u i r e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g b e n d i n g r a d i u s , s p a c i n g o f b e n r b a r s and c o v e r s h o u l d
hc b o r n e i n mind. To l i m i t c o r n e r c r a c k widths, i n c l i n e d r e i n f o r c e m e n t
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e h a l f t h e a r e a o f t h e l a r g e s t main
r e i n f o r c e m e n t s h o u l d be u s e d . T h e L i m i t a t i o n s on s t e e l p e r c e n t a g e g i v e n i n
S e c t i o n 1 1 . 9 . 1 a p p l y o n l y t o t h e main r e i n f o r c e m e n t , a n d t h e d i a g o n a l b a r s
should not be included i n t h i s percentage.

Haunches i n t h e r e - e n t r a n t c o r n e r , accommodating s u b s t a n t i a l d i a g o n a l
f l e x u r a l b a r s , f o r c e t h e p l a s t i c h i n g e away from t h e f a c e o f t h e j o i n t . This
. - .
improves t h e a n c h o r a g e o f t h e main t e n s i l e s t e e l w h e r e i t e n t e r s t h e j o i n t .
The i n c r e a s e d i n t e r n a l l e v e r - a r m w i t h i n t h e j o i n t , i n t u r n , reduces the
internal t e n s i l e force. [ l a u n c h i n g would a l l o w t h e u s e o f h i g h e r s t e e l
- - -
P e r c e n t a g e s , b u t N i l s s o n & - L a s b e r g (1976) make no s p e c i f i c recommendations o n
allowable steel percentages f o r haunched r i g h t angled c o r n e r s . C

F o r l a r g e j o i n t s w i t h u p t o 0.5% s t e e l , - P a r k & P a u l a y (1975)

recommended t h e u s e o f d i a g o n a l b a r s a c r o s s t h e c o r n e r e q u a l i n a r e a t o 50%
of t h e main r e i n f o r c e m e n t .

Above 0.54 o f s t e e l , t h e y p r o p o s e d t h a t r a d i a l h o o p s ( F i g u r e 3 2 ( e ) )
b e p r o v i d e d , t h e a r e a o f o n e r a d i a l hoop b e i n g g i v e n by :

where D = h-
b . d,
in t h e c r i t i c a l member,

n = no. o f ' l e e s .

A,1 = area o f s t e e l l i m i t i n g t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e moment t h a t c a n

be applied t o the joint,

fyj = y i e l d stress o f r a d i a l h o o p s .
- -- -.

I t s h o u l d b e e m p h a s i s e d t h a t p r o b l e m s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n may a r i s e
b e c a u s e of s t e e l c o n g e s t i o n a t s u c h c o r n e r s , and i t i s u s u a l l y a b e t t e r
-- .. - - -

s o l u t i o n t o thicken t h e c o n c r e t e s e c t i o n s involved.
 Where t h e b a c l t f i l . l c d f a c e s o f a r e t a i n i n g w a l l meet a t an a c u t e
angle i n plan, t h e n s i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t o t l ~ o s e above
. s h o u l d be g i v e n to
t h e d e t a i l i n g of the r e i n f o r c i n g s t e e l . Additional h o r i z o n t a l rcinforcirig
s t e e l w i l l b e r e q u i r e d i n tile c u c s i d c f a c e of t h e w a l l .

V e r t i c a l j o i n t s a r e r e q u i r e d i n r e t a i n i n g w a l l s t o rninirnise t h e
e f f e c t s o f t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s and s h r i n k a g e , and b e c a u s e of c o n s t r u c t i o n
stages. I n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e w a l l s , v e r t i c a l .construe t i o n j o i n t s w i t h
V-notches a t t h e f a c e s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d a t s e c t i o n s p r e f e r a b l y n o t o v e r lorn
a p a r t , t o g e t h e r with reinforcement through t h e j o i n t s . Expansion j o i n t s
w i t h g r o o v e d s h e a r keys s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d n o t more t h a n 3 0 m a p a r t , t h e
reinforcement n o t being c a r r i e d through such j o i n t s . In gravity concrete
w a l l s , s i m i l a r e x p a n s i o n j o i n t s s h o t ~ l db e p r o v i d e d , p r e f e r a b l y n o t more
t h a n lorn a p a r t . Where t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s h i g h , w a t e r s t o p s s h o u l d b e
p r o v i d e d a t a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n and e x p a n s i o n j o i n t s .

Where t h e r e are l a r g e t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n s , e x p a n s i o n j o i n t s may

r e q u i r e r e s i l i e n t j o i n t i n g m a t e r i a l t o a l l o w movement.

-
S e c t i o n s where t h e r e i s a s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e i n w a l l s t i f f n e s s or
w a l l t y p e ( e - g . c o u n t e r f o r t t o c a n t i l e v e r ) , o r w h e r e t h e n a t u r e of t h e
f o u n d a t i o n changes (e.g. from f i l l t o r o c k ) , r e q u i r e c a r e f u l d e t a i l i n g . At
s u c h l o c a t i o n s , i t i s u s u a l i y p o s s i b l e t o work o u t t h e d i r ~ c t i o no f movemcr
t h a t may o c c u r a n d t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e c l e a r a n c e t o accommodate t h e movements.
It is u s u a l l y b e s t t o provide a s t r u c t u r a l s e p a r a c i o n , ' r a t h e r t h a n t o a t t e m p t
t o r e i n f o r c e t h e j u n c t i o n t o t a k e t h e b e n d i n g r n o c e n t s and s h e a r s i n v o l v e d .

The s t a n d a r d o f r o u g h n e s s and c l e a n - u p on h o r i z o n t a l construction

-
j o i n t s s h o u l d b e c l e a r l y s p e c i f i e d and c o n t r o l l e d . Keys i n s u c h j o i n t s should
b e a v o i d e d , and w a t e r s t o p s s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d in j o i n t s b e l o w t h e w a t e r t a b l e ,

The c o n s t r q c t i o n j o i n t a t t h e b a s e o f a c a n t i l e v e r s t e m s h o u l d
a l w a y s b e d e t a i l e d a s b e i n g a t l e a s t 1OOm.m a b o v e t h e h e e l s l a b , ' t o e n a b l e t h e
. . >

c o n c r e t e formwork t o be h e l d ' d u r i n g construction.

 1i t h e stem of a w a l l , t h e p o s i t i o n of all c o n s t r u c t i o n j o i n t s s h o u l d
be c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d from t h e p o i n t of view o f a p p e a r a n c e a s w e l l a s
s t r u c t u r a l performance ( s e e S e c t i o n 1 1 . 1 2 ) .

t l .l f CONTRO t O F CRACK7NG
TO p r e v e n t u n a c c e p t a b l e c r a c k i n g o f r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s t h e f o l l o w i n g
s t e p s s h o u l d b e t a k e n , i n a d d i t i o n t o normal good q u a l i t y c o n c r e t e p r a c t i c e :

(a) Provide s h r i n k a g e and t e m p e r a t u r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t . This s t e e l

should be i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h C h a p t e r 4 of t h e PWD C i v i l
Engineering ~ a n u a it o e n s u r e t h a t t h e c.r--a c k w i d t h s g i v e n i n
t h a t c h a p t e r a r e n o t exceeded: Note t h a t t h e r e i s a
r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s i z e , s t e e l p e r c e n t a g e
and c r a c k width i n v o l v e d . In no case should the s t e e l
p e r c e n t a g e used be l e s s 0.3% o f t h e g r p s s c o n c r e t e a r e a o f t h e
w a l l both h o r i z o n t a l l y and v e r t i c a l l y . I n t h e stem of t h e
w a l l exposed t o t h e a i r two t h i r d s of t h i s s t e e l should be

face.

(b) S p e c i f y t h a t t h e c o n c r e t e p l a c i n g and t e m p e r a t u r e i s t o b e
- .
kept a s low a s practical, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e summer p e r i o d . .

(c) S p e c i f y s u c c e s s i v e bay, not a l t e r n a t e b a y , c o n s t r u c t i o n .

(dl Specify e a r l y c u r i n g f o r the purpose of cobling, so a s t o

minimise the h e a t r i s e .

(el S p e c i f y good q u a l i t y c o n c r e r e a n d , where a p p r o p r i a t e , l i m i t

t h e cement c o n t e n t .

(f ) Additional a g a i n s t c r a c k i n g can be given by p a i n t i n !

the e a r t h face of a w a l l with, f o r i n s t a n c e , two c o a t s o f
asbestos f i l l e d bituminous o r - a s p h a l t i c p a i n t . -
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 APPENDIX A
SYMBOL

a r e a of d r a i n a g e m a t e r i a l

e f f e c t i v e a r e a of b a s e

a r e a o f c r o s s - s e c t i o n of r e i n f o r c i n g s t e e l

base width of w a l l

e f f e c t i v e base width

d i s t a n c e from c r e s t of s l o p e t o f o u n d a t i o n

cohesion of s o i l i n terms of t o t a l s t r e s s

adhesion a t b a s e

cohesion of s o i l i n terms of e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s

e f f e c t i v e d e p t h of w a l l s t e m

depth of f o u n d a t i o n

e c c e n t r i c i t y of l o a d on b a s e . i n t h e d i r e c t i o n s
of l e n g t h and b r e a d t h r e s p e c t i v e l y

f a c t o r of s a f e t y

moment arm of v e r t i c a l component of e a r t h

pressure force

Y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h of r e i n f o r c e m e n t

g a c c e l e r a t i o n duc t o g r a v i t y

gcs gq* gy f o u n d a t i o n ground s l o p e f a c t o r s

H , HI, etc. h e i g h t o f p l a n e on which e a r t h p r e s s u r e i s

c a l c u l a t e d (from u n d e r s i d e of base- o r bottom
of key t o ground s u r f a c e )

t a n g e n t i a l component o f f o u n d a t i o n 1,oading

d i s t a n c e of r e s u l t a n t f o r c e . f r o m w a l l t o e

c r i t i c a l d e p t h of f i l l where compaction
pressures equal. a c t i v e .pressure. . -

hydraulic g r a d i e n t

waviness of r o c k - j o i n t

bearing capacity inclination factors

. -
coefficient of earth pressure a t r e s t
I
 c o e f f i c i e n t of a c t i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e

c o e f f i c i e n t of p a s s i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e

c o e f f i c i e n t of s u b g r a d e r e a c t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t of p e r m e a b i l i t y

l e n g t h of b a s e . . . . ~- .. .

e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h of b a s e

l e n g t h of w a l l h e e l -

c l e a r span.between c o u n t e r f o r t s

l e n g t h of w a l l t o e

b e n d i n g moments f o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t d e s i g n

sum of moments c a u s i n g o v e r t u r n i n g

sum o f moments r e s i s t i n g o v e r t u r n i n g

s t a b i l i t y f a c t o r r e l a t i n g t o excavation base E a i l u r ~

bearing capacity f a c t o r s

moment arm of r e s u l t a n t w a t e r f o r c e - on back o f w a l l

e q u i v a l e n t l i n e l o a d due t o r o l l e r

active earth pressure force

'at r e s t ' e a r t h pressure f o r c e

h o r i z o n t a l component o f a c t i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e

normal component o f e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e

passive earth pressure force

t a n g e n t i a l component o f e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e

l a t e r a l earth pressure d u e - t o l i n P o r point surchar

( p e r u n i t l e n g t h of w a l l ) -
v e r t i c a l component o f e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e

w a t e r f o r c e due t o w a t e r i n t e n s i o n c r a c k

P, Pmax, Pt p r e s s u r e for s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n

t o t a l load

line l o a d
 Q~ p o i n t load

- - - - a i n t e n s i t y i f l o i d - o n base o r surcharge load

qa11 allowable b e a r i n g capacity

9d flow r a t e through d r a i n

quit ultimate bearing capacity

R s R,, R p s RW resultant forces

6 s h e a r s t r e n g t h of s o i l

t o t a l s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e a t u n d e r s i d e of b a s e

SC, sqt s foundation s h a p e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s

t h i c k n e s s of w a l l stem .

tc, tqyt foundation t i l t f a c t o r s

UY u p u2 r e s u l t a n t f o r c e due t o w a t e r p r e s s u r e s

U l ~ y U~~ h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l components o f r e s u l t a n t w a t e r f o r c e

pore water p r e s s u r e

normal cornponen t of f o u n d a t i o n b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e

V s h e a r f o r c e f o r reinforcement d e s i g n

w, wb weight of b a c k f i l l

Wt weight of w a l l

X resultant horizontal reaction

Y l a t e r a l d e f o r m a t i o n of r e t a i n i n g w a l l

Yo v e r t i c a l d e p t h o f ' t e n s i o n crack i n c o h e s i v e s o i l

Z depth below f i n a l f i l l l e v e l

zc depth below f i n a l f i l l l e v e l of maximum r e s i d u a l compaciibn.

-
ptessure

a , a n g l e of i n c l i n a t i o n of f o u n d a t i o n b a s e

6 a n g l e of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e back of t h e ; e t a i n i n g vall
. .
Y b u l k u n i t w e i g h t of s o i l .

Y' e f f e c t i v e u n i t w e i g h t of submerged s o i l

u n i t weight o f w a t e r

s a t u r a t e d u n i t w e i g h t of s o i l
settlement of wall

angle of wall friction

angle of base friction

location angles for failure plane

angular rotation of foundation base

total and effective normal stress

angle of shearing resistance in terms of. t o t a l and

effective stress

angle of ground slope

shear stress
 DENSE SAND

PRINCETON TESTS

DENSE SAND

0.06 0.OL 0.02 0 0 -0au.

Y
WALL ROTAT ION -)I WALL ROTATION ~ ; i
H

PASSIVE CASE ACTIVE CASE

f after Canadian Ceotechnicai Society, 1978 1

EFFECT OF WALL MOVEMENT'ON.

whir PRESSURE .
ACTIVE STATE I'I fix : ..

STATE

WALL FREE TO TRANSLATE OR ROTATE ABOUT ITS BASE

NO DISPLACEMENT

RESTRAINED RIGID WALL

EXPANSION

BOTTOM OF WALL
DISPLACED OUTWARD
MORE T H A N TOP
OF WALL

TOP QF WALL RESTRAINED

EXPANSION

STRUTTED FLEXIBLE WALL

ANGLE OF SHEARING RESISTANCE, 8, DEGREES (Caguot b ~ e r i s e l , 1 9 4 8 )
1
NOTES

1. The l a t e r a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e i s o b t a i n e d b y s e l e c t i n g a number o f t r i a l f a i l u r e
p l a n e s and d e t e r m i n i n g c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e s o f P A ( o r Pp) b y d r a b t i n 9 a
f o r c e polygon- see ( a ) . F o r t h e a c t i v e p r e s s u r e c a s e , t h e maxinlum va icle o f

7 i s r e q u i r e d and f o r t h e p a s s i v e c a s e , t h e minimum Pp i s r e q u i r e d . These

4~ r n i t i n gv a l u e s a r e o b t a i n e d b y i n t e r p o l a t i n g b e t w e e n t h e v a l u e s f o r t h e
wedges s e l e c t e d - see ( b ) .
-
2. L a t e r a l . e a r t h p r e s s u r e may b e c a l c u l a t e d o n a n y s u r f a c e o r p l a n e through the
soi I .

3. See F i g u r e s 1 1 a n d 12 f o ' r t h e p o i n t o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f PA.

4. T h e t r i a l wedge m e t h o d may a l s o b e u s e d f o r a l e v e l o r c o n s t a n t l y s l o p i n g
g r o u n d s u r f a c e , i n w h i c h c a s e i t s h o u l d y i e l d t h e same r e s u l t a s t h a t g i v e n
b y Rankine's o r Coviomb's e q uat ions (whichever is a p p i i c a b l e ) .

T R I A L W E D G E METHOD - COHESIONLESS SOIL'

 SURFACE ON WHICH-PRESSURE --

IS CALCULATED \

TENSION ZONE

-
LEVEL
L

. -

ACTIVE PRESSURE
-T

FORCE POLYGON FOR TYPICAL WEDGE COMBINATION OF

FORCE POLYGONS .TO OBTAIN

MAX. PA
The above example shows ank kine' s c o n d i t i o n s b u t the, same ' p r i n c i p l e
Cou lomb ' s c o n d i t i o n s . ( A d h e s i o n on t h e back o f t h e wa 1 1 i s i g n o r e d ) .

2. F o r d i r e c t i o n PA see F i g u r e 10 anki kine's c o n d i ti.ons) o r f i g u r e 6 ( ~ o u l o m b ' s -

conditions).

3. See F i g u r e s 1 1 and 12 f o r p o i n t o f a p p l i c a t i o n .

4. See F i g u r e 12 f o r r e s u l t a n t p r e s s u r e diagram.

5. The t r i a l wedge method may be used f o r a l e v e l o r c o n s t a n t l y s l o p i n g g r o u n d

surface.

TRIAL WEDGE METHOD- C O H E S ~ V ESOIL FIGURE 7

PROCEDURE

I . ' Draw t r i a l wedge I i n l a y e r ( I ) (as shown) a n d o b r a i n P A , ,,, b y varying [tic

f a i l u r e p l a n e and d r a w i n g t h e f o r c e p o l y g o n ( a ) .

2- Draw t r i a l wedge 11 (as shown) b y c h o o s i n g f a i l u r e p l a n e AB i n l a y e r ( 2 ) .

3. F i n d X max b y v a r y i n g t h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f p l a n e BC f r o m 8 a n d d r a w i n g ! h e
f o r c e polygon (b) .
I. Using X m a x d r a w f o r c e p o l y g o n ( c ) a n d f i n d PA2. ,

5, R e p e a t s t e p s 2. to 5. using other t r i a l fai-hre planes AB', e t c . u n t i l PA2 lllar

i s determined.

NOTE , ..

Where l a y e r 2 i s r o c k - l i k e m a t e r i a l , s u c h t h a t no e a r t h p r e s s u r e s a r e e x e r t e d
i g a i n s t t h e w a l l , due a c c o u n t s h o u l d h o w e v e r be t a k e n o f w a t e r p r e s s u r e s a n d j o i n t
o n t r o l l e d f a i l u r e modes.

TRIAL W E D G E METHOD - L A Y E R E D SOIL -

AHD POREWATER PRESSURE ( ACTIY E CASE 1
 MOJES WITH

VIRTUAL BACK

( a ) RANKIE
6 =IJ

SLOPING VIRTUAL BACK

MOVES WITH

NOTE

(1) I f 1 ine AB does not intersect the wal!, Rankine's

conditions apply.

If line AB does intersect the wall, Coulomb's

conditions apply. ,

I (2) 6 = +(YO - 6') - f ( -~ W) where ;in&=--

sin w
s i n 0'
 PROCEDURE

Draw a line from the point 'where

the ground surface intersects the
back o f the w a l l (B) to a point o n
the ground surface located at a
distance equal to 2H' from B.

T h e pressure on A-A' may be

assumed to act para1 lel 'with this I ine.

APPRtlKlMBTf: METHOD FOR DETERMIHATIOH OF D l R E C T l O H

BF R A N K I N E ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE F I G U R E 10
 F'
TENSION CRACK IN
, S O L WI TH COHESION
#--
F---
--- I

FAILURE PLANE
I

I
I

C . G. OF WEDGE CENTRE OF GRAVITY ( C.G. ) OF

WEDGE A A"CDEF

SURFACE ON
WHICH PRESSURE
I

I. Draw a line through the c.g, o f wedge AA" CDEF parallel with the
previously obtained Failure plane, to intersect A - A ' at point.)(.!
(For constant backf i l l slope, A - X = -f- A-A") . For cohes ionless soi Is
the total wedge between the failure plane and the ground surface is
A used.

2. Draw a I ine through point X paral lel to B G ' (see f iqure 10) and a
vertical line through the c.g. of wedge A B A 1 to intersect at poinr'~.
I ,*
3. P A acts through point Z at an angle o f 6" to the normal t o the surface
o n which the pressure is calculated.

NOTE : a) If the pressure is calculated o n a vertical plane steps 2

and 3 a r e unnecessary as P A acts through point X .
b) Llater' forces rilust be 'considrred separately.
 SURCHARGE

TRIAL WEDGES PRESSURE ON A-6

U s e when t t ~ cg r o u n d s u r f a c e i s v e r y i r r e g u l a r o r when a n o n - u n i f o r m s u r c h a r g e
is carried.

-
PROCEDURE

1. S u b d i v i d e t h e l i n e A-6 i n t o about 4 equal p a r t s hl ( b e l o w the depth y o of

t e n s i o n c r a c k ),

2. ' Compute t h e a c t i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e s P I , P2, P3, 'etc.. , a s i f cach o f r l w

p o i n t s 1 , 2 , 3 , e t c . , w e r e t h e b a s e of t h e w a l l . T h e [ r i a l h e d g e method i s
used f o r each computation.

3. D e l e r m i n e t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n by w o r k i n g d o w n f r o m point 4 . A
l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n of p r e s s u r e m a y b e assumed b e t w e e n the p o i n t s w h e r e
p r e s s u r e h a s been calculated.

4. D e t e r m i n e t h e e l e v a t i o n o f t h e c e n t r o i d of t h e p r e s s u r e di.agram, 7 . T t i i s .
is t h e a p p r o x i m a t e e l e v a t i o n o f t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of the r e s u l t a n t
e a r t h p r e s s u r e , PA.

NOTE : Water f o r c e s must b e c o n s i d e r e d separately.

POINT OF APPLICATION OF RESULTANT FORCE

AND PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION F I G U R E 12
 1. D e t e r m i n e t h e d i r e c t i o n s o f s u r f a c e o f s l i d i n g B A ' 3nd t h e p l a n e p o r t i o n A I M o f
t h e s u r f a c e o f r u p t u r e from t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a e :

6 , = f(90a + 0) - !(E + UJ) where, w = mean g r o u n d s l o p e

0, = $(SO" + )
0 $(E + ld) and s i n = sinw/sin 0
12. S e l e c t a r e a s o n a b l e p o s i t i o n f o r A ' and j o i n A ' H w i t h a s t r a i g h t I ine.

I3. C o n s t r u c t A'C p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o A I M a t A ' .

c u t t i n g A'C a t 0, draw a r c A A ' w i t h 0 as c e n t r e .
Produce a p e r p e n d i c u l a r b i s e c t o r OP
-

I
4. Determine U j & U2, r e s u l t a n t o f w a t e r p r e s s u r e o n each p o r t i o n o f wedge.
5. Compute W 1 , W2 & W 3 and c o n s t r u c t f o r c e p o l y g o n s b , c t, d i n o r d e i t o o b t a i n P p
6. Draw t h e p r e s s u r e l o c u s o f Pp i n ( a ) for various t r i a l p o s i t i o n s of 8 ' .
7. Repeat s t e p s 2-6 w i t h d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s o f A ' u n t i l t h e m i n . v a l u e o f Pp i s
found.

PASSIVE F O R C E BY C I R C U L A R ARC METHOD

I A Y F R E D S O I LAND POREWATER PRESSURE IF I G U R E 13
 CRITICAL DEPTHS AH0 EARTH PRESSURE VALUES
I

K 3.3 t VIBRATORY ROLLER . I 0 52 1 19.0

% 1.L i VIBRATORY ROLLER I. 0.35 I 12.5

LOO k g VIBRATORYPLATE 16.0

COMPACTOR

--
:
,
.
u h o ~ ~ ~ . = l ~ k ~ -r n ? ,
I EARTH PRESSURE
W E TO WEIGHT OF
BACKFILL
1 2 0 kg VIBRATORY PLATE
COHPACTQR
0.32 11.5

NOTE. DIAGRAM DRAWN FOR 10.2 1 SMOOTH WHEEL ROLLER

ON FILL,@ r 3;. = 18kNIm3
X EFFECTIVE WEIGHT OF VIBRATORY ROLLERS ASSUMED TO B E
TWICE TOTAL STATIC WEIGHT.

Ii ) COMPACTION AGAINST UNYIELDING W A L L S ( BROMS, 1971 1.

COMPACTED LAYERS

RESULTANT PRESSURl
DISTRIBUTlON

HORIZONTAL EARTH PRESSURE HOmZOHTAL EARTH PRESSURE

(bj SHOWS IHFLUEHCE OF SUCCESSIYEU
COHPACTIHG LAYERS OF SOIL BEGlNHlHG
AT BASE OF WALL.

Q*
hrn - MAXIMUM VALUE OF HORIZONTAC STRESS
*
SUSTAINED
AFTER COMPACTION.
--

WHERE p t ECNIYALENT LINE LOAD CUE TI

ROLLER. FOR V18RATORI ROLLE
CALCULATE p USING AN
EQUIVALENT WEIGHT EQUAL T(
h, = DEADWEIGHT OF ROLLER PLUS
Ka . CENTRIFUGAL FORCE INDUCED
BY ROLLER VIBRATING
MECHANISM.

I \
HORIZONTAL WlH PRESSURE
k] SHOWS PROPOSED DESIGN PRESSURE
DIAGRAM-
( ii ) COMPACTION PRESSURES - DESIGN DATA (INGOLD, I979 I -.

'1 FIGURE 14
 For m s O.L

Q$--I H = 0.20n
QL (0.16t nZ IL
Po = 0. 5 5 tlL

For m > 0.4

Fcr m 0.11

PRESSURES FROM- LINE LOAD Q, For m > 0.C

( MOOIFIEO BOUSSINESQ

SECTION
A -A
RESULTANT
Ps = KaQL

RESULTANT FORCE FROM LINE LOAD QL 'RESSURE FROM POINT LOAO Qp

(APPROX. METHOD FOR LOW RETAINING WALL 1
- -.UNE LOAD r TERZAGHI t PECK 1967 1 POINT LOAD rt w m ~ omsmsa 1

LATERAL LOADS ON WALL DUE TO

POINT AND LINE L O A D S U R C H A R G E S F I G U R E 15
 un i f o r m
SUI-chat-qe

I
I
I
I
- virtual back o f wall

LOADING I
CRITICAL FOR BEARING PRESSURES AND
WALL REINFORCEMENT

uni f o r m
surcharge ..

LOADING 2

CRITICAL FOR STABILtTY

SURCHARGE LOAD CASES ! FIGURE -16

 Water pressure
distribution on
mtential failure
plane due t o
steady seepage.

(a1 NORMAL STEADY STATE SEEPAGE CONOiTlON (VERTICAL DRAIN 1

Infiltration

. . - - --

Note increase in
water pressure on .
potential failure
plane due t o
surface infiltration.

(bJ SURFACE INFILTRATION (VERTICAL DAAIN 1

Note water pressure

is zero on potentiat
failure piane.

( FLOW NETS ASSUME HOMOGENEOUS. ISOTROPtC 9 1 L ]

 \ l a t e r p r e s s u r e s h o u l d b e cons itfcrVed
-
Kote : F o r ease o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . ~ ~ h e r e
i n design (Section 5 . 3 )
f i l t e r layers are constructed at a
s t e e p i n c l i n e , f i l tcr m a t e r i a l may
be p l a c e d i n h e s s i a n bags.

construction
er
,rial
draiajqc ~ t a t e r i a l
c n g i t u d i naI pcrous pi PC nage
rial

b l i n d i n g layerJ
[b} CANTILEVER 1 COUNTERFORT
CANTILEVER I COUNTERFORT used when .(a).is not possible
Water p r e s s u r e s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d
i n design (Section 5 - 3 1

f i 1 t e r l a y e r d e s i gne
accordance w i t h
----
----
drainage m a t e r i a l
placed i n hessian

-
\
d e t a i 1 a s (a)
I
blinding layer

(d) GRAVITY TYPE

fc) GRAVITY TYPE used when (c) is not possible
 BASE

( a ) TYPICAL FLOW NE f' FOR SEEPAGE INTO INCLINED FILTER

Q f
INCLINATION OF FILTER C SEE ABOVE 1

( b)' CHART DEVELOPED FROM FAMILY OF FLOW-NETS

( after Cedergren , t977 I

DESIGN dF INCLINED DRAINS 1 1 FIGURE 19

 GRAIN SIZE ( m m )

COEFFICIENT OF PERI~EAEIL ITY

FOR CLEAtt C W S E - S3?AlfJf D
DRAIPi& MATERIAL

PERCENT BY WEIGHT WSSING 75 miuon

SEE
( after N A V F A C 014-7,. 1971)

'
P E R M E A B I L I T Y O F DRAINAGE MATERIALS F I G U R E 20
- I -
PENETRATION REOUlRED FOR SHEETING
-

IN SANDS OF INFiHlTE DEPTH

PEHETRATION REQUIRED FOR SHEETIUG
IN DENSE SAND OF FlNFlE DEPTH -
I

-
d

\. - - - - - - -0OSE SANO -
6 \
\
\
DENSE SAfiO H"

'FACTOR OF SAFETY A t m m n u w t FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST PtPlNti

LOOSE SAND OR PIPING IN M U S E SAND

a) SHEET PENETRATlON IN GRANULAR SOILS

.
HI < t i j i h e r e g e n e r ~ l l y i s more i l o w
than g i v e n i n graph ( a ) ( i n f i n ; te! 3 5 9 - ~ e .
If (11, - bI3) > . B u s e g r a p h ( a ) ( i n 1 i n i t e ) .
I f (HI - t i J ) < B t h e r e i s n o r e f l c w i h s r i
g i v e n i n graph ( a ) ( i n f i n i t c ) . I F C; >
10KI. f a i l u r e head [ I u i s equal t o H z .
-
I f Ill < ti s a f e l y f a c t o r s a r e i n c e c i c e d i a t c
3
b e t w e e n those f o r g r a p h ( a ) ( F i n i t e ) .
I f 11, > }I3 g r a p h ( a ) ( F i n i t c ) i s con;er-
vat ive.
Let kl = k3 If - d! > 8 use graph ( a ) ( f i n i c c )
above. . .-- -
If - d) c B p r e s s u r e r e 1 i c f r.equi r e d
so t h a t u n b a l a n c e d - h e a d o n f i n e l a y e r --
does n o t exceed w e i g h t o f Hz.
I f f i n e l a y e r i s h i g h e r than b o t t o m o f
e x c a v a t i o n t h e completed e x c a v a t i o n i s -
safe, but during construction a b l o w i n
nlay o c c u r - p r e s s u r e r e l i e f t h e n
r e q u i red.

b ) PILING PENETRATION TO PREVENT PIPINGiotter NAVFACOH-7, 1971I

-
-
V4LL
LOAD DIAGRAM STABILITY. CRITERIA
YPE
-
SLIDING

S + 0.SP
>- Fs (sliding) = > 1-5
k
- pn + U ~ H
> i.e. F.S. on any included ultimate passive > 3.0
4
IY
(3

Moments about the toe of the base

Homents resisting ovcrturninq = -fir

$5 (overturning) =
Homcnts causing ovcrtufning no
-
-
m Mr = V t a (Fassive Resi srancc
?i P p ignored)

--
0 No = PA" + U1n t U2e
-4--

6
N.B. I t is illogical to take vertical conlpo-
$ nenrs of the dist.urbing forces and use
them as restoring rrionlcnts in the
> expression for F.S. see section 6 . 3 . 2
-
I-
> Cverturning may be ignored i f R, lies within
middle third (soii), m;ddlc half (rock).
Q For gravity type walls. overturning must be
(r:
checked at selected ho;izontal plane;.the
resulrant must remain within the rriddlc
- third.
Rt;Z:E LOCATION OF RESULTANT
VERTICAL ! I=*/ Point where ,R intersects base, from t o e .
STEM U l a + P,f - P t +~ U l v c - Ul),d - U2e
(Y
h =
W W t + Pv + 81" - U2 .
> (Passive resistance Pp isnored)
u For soil foun.-?ation marcrial, Rw should lie
--1

-t
within middle third o f the base
For a rock foundation, R, should lie within
Z middle half of the base
Q
0 BEARING PRESSURE
See section 6.4 for Calcu!ation of f ~ c t o ro f
safecy for bearing Fs (bearing)> 3.0
- Ut = total weight of the wall incluPing soif

- on toe plus soil above^ heel (for

cantilever walls only)

r
V
a
R, - resultant of Wc. P A ; U I C U2

J Jt
> C
SLOPE FA1 CURE I ti SURRCL;I+DI NG SO 1 L
With shear surfaces passing under the \.(all.
LI+ the factors of safety st-~utdconply uith
-I
- the requirements of Table 5.2 of the
- L Geotechnical Hanual for Slopes.
z-2 WATERFORCES -
- - - .. -.
Q c *

2 3
- Refrrence should be made'to Chapter 5 fo;-
cases ocher than those shcwn here.
-

-
STABILITY C R I T E R I A FOR RETAINING W A L L S 1F I G U R E
3

22
 q u ~ t = c N c Sc ic\ gc +

--

SHAPE FACTORS

Sc = I + 8- a N
L Nc

S, = I-0.L- B
L

INCLINATION FACTORS

[ SECTION 6 . 4 . 3 1

2 + 7
WERE rn, -B
PROVIDED THE ~NCLINATION OF LOAD IS IN THE
DIRECTION OF B
l + T
L
TILT FACTORS NOTE : Hmox - v tan4'+ A c

LOO
300

WHERE d I S I N RADIANS

GROUND SLOPE FACTORS

q= SURCHARGE EFFECT

= $Dcosw

NOTES
1. DATA APPLES TO SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
ONLY D 4 B.

2. FOR W > &.

2
A arCK SHOULD ALSO BE MADE

FOR O V E A A U SLOPE STABILITY.

3. FOR THE EFFECTS OF NONHOXOGENEWS
SOIL AND SOlL COMPRESSIBILTTY AM) SCALE
EFFECTS REFERENCE SHOULD BE TO VESIC.
L. WHERE THE F W ~ T I O NIS KT BACX mat 0 5 10 15 20 2s 30 35 # LS 50
T H E CREST OF THE SLOPE, REFER TO
SECTION 6.6 AHGLE OF SHEARING RESISTAHCE 9' .

[ degrees )

BEARING W A C l T Y FXTORS

BEARING CAPACITY DATA ( VESIC, 1975 ) I FIGURE 23

 N.C CLAYS

. . --

&= RANKINE COEFFICIENT OF ACTIVE

EARTH PRESSURE

N3TE WATER AND SURCHARGE LOAOlt;G5

SHOULD BE CONSIDERED
0 c CLAYS

fa after Peck ,.I969

HARDCLAY(N,L) ,OGH

SOFT CLAY ( N * L 1

K = COEFFICIENT OF EARTH PRESSURE

N = STANDARD PENETRATION TEST VALUE

Ib ) af teg Japan Society of Civil Engineers ,1977

 NbC
F(, base l = -
3H.q .

c = AVERAGE UNDRAINED SHEAR

STRENGTH OF IHE SOIL FN(3-i BASE
H LEVEL TO A DEPTH Ct= 0 2SH BELOW
THE BASE

Nb= STABILITY FACTOR

L = EXCAVATIW LENGTH

-
0,INFINITE STRIP
-
a
STABILITY FACTOR FOR VARKXIS
GEOMETRIES OF CUT
-

L -
0
I I
i
I
2
I I I
3'
I
L
i 1 I
5
-
H
'8
(After h n t u et al. 1956 )

F A C T O R 0 F SAFETY WITH RESPECT TO BASE HEAVE 1 FIGURE 25

t '
1

NOTES

1. C r i b w a l l u n i t s t o b e i ~ fl li c d i - ! i l l ~I rpc.
d r ~ i n i n gm a t e r i a l , we1 1 c o m p a c i c d t n
layers. Care s h o u l d be t a k e n t o ~ v o ~ d
d i s t u r b i n g the u n i t s .

2. D e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r g r a v i ~y w.11 1 s . 2 i : i : ; y
t o c r i b walls. Wal I s e c t i o n r c \ i l . t i r ~ q
o v e r t u r n i n g i s t a k e n a s a r c c t . ~ r ~ r . l ct l f
d i m e n s i o n (ti x b ) .
.-
3. L o w wa 1 I s ( u n d e r 1 . Sm h i g h ) may I)c' ~tr.ttlc
w i t h a plumb f a c e . Higher- w a l 1s ~ I I o ~ I ~ ~ I
be b a t t e r e d a s shown.

sz24(b 4. F o r h i g h w a l i s (4m h i g h and o v e r l r h c .

b a t t e r i s i n c r e a s e d o r supp l c n l c r l l a r v
c r i b s a r e added a t t h e b a c k .

concrete base slab .

( a ) TYPICAL SECTION
( diagrammatic 1

ng ctoser

( b 1 TYPICAL FORM OF CRIB WALLING

- --

I
C R I B WALL. DETAILS FIGURE -26
 ASSUMPTIONS : Soil properties : 9: c = 0 , r=19.5krilm3
0' = LO' f8 .
Wll properties : 6 - = Ww-15.5 k ~ l 3m
- - - +'= 36 Wall slope : 0 = - IL' ( 1 in L I

CR~SWAU DESIGN CURVES FIGURE 27

 TOE MOIAENT EFFECT ON HEEL

WElGHT OF BACKFILL ABOVE H E E L

SELF WEIGHT O F HEEL

LOADING FRGht TOE iAOMENT

ASSUMED KXJNDATION BEARING

PRESSURES

RESULTANT LOADING ON HEEL

( M A Y BE FULLY POSKNE )

NOTE : PRESSURE DIAGRAMS NOT TO SCALE - . --

DESIGN 'LOADING ON HEEL SLAB 1 FIGURE 30

 a1 UNSAS!SFACTORY DETAIL b ) UNSATISFACTORY DETAIL

CRITICAL SECTION
FOR SHEAR tN TOE

M;iICHEVEc IS T H E

c ) RECDMbEFJXD DETAlL FOR L; t T

NOTES
1. R c f e r t o S e c t i o n s 11.8 C 1 1 . ' ) l o r
d i s c u s s i o n , i n c l u d i n a 1 i r n i t . ? t ior>s 4;n
steel percentase.

2. Fur c l a r i t y , n o t a i l s r r . c I i s ;!,r):rn ir:

R AOIAL t h e s e s k e t c h e s . , A J d i i i o n s i s[ct:I frlr
HOOPS t o e moment I 4 3 i s shown d c t l c d . lio
4j s h r i n k a g e , t e m p e r a t u r e o r b i s t r i I::it i o n
s t e e l i s shown.

3. I f - d e s i r e d , a f i l l e t may
. be included. ,

ef RECOMMENDED DETAIL FOR

LARGE JCINTS (As1 > 0.5%
EXAMPLE OF CANTILEVER STEEL
SHEET PILED WALL DESIGN
 Example of Cantilever Steel Sheet
Pile Wall Design

Cantilever Sheet Piles Wall in Granular soils

Dredge
Line

Earth Pressures
 Cantilever Sheet Piles Wall in Granular soils

Dredge
Line

yDKa

Earth Pressures

Cantilever Sheet Piles Wall in Granular soils

Dredge

'.LyDkp-,$ y(H+D)Ka

TDKP
, -
'y(H+D)ka
y(H+D)kp-yDKa

~(H+D)KP
bp yDKa

Simplified
Cross-section
Method

Resultant I Net
pressures
 Max. Bendin

Cross-section Net Pressures Shear c end in^ Deflection

Mom

Surcharge
10 kNlm2
Loose fine sand
Min. unplanned
y = 17.1 6 kNlm2
excavation depth =
0.5~1 or l o % of
retained ht.
\ dl=30,6=00

(BS8002) Im

1-sin 4
K~ = ----- = tan (45 - 4 1 2) = 0.33 Loose sand
Water l+sin+ = 0.27 Compact sand
pressure
1 + s i n 4 - tan t (45 + + / 2) = 3.0 Loose sand
Kp=--_---
I-sln 4 = 3.7 Compact sand
 1

Loose fine sand

Active
y= 17.1 6 kNlm2 Pressures
@=30,6=00

Compact fine san

y ,=9.8 kNlm2.
@=35,6=00

Dist fr.
.1 y = 18.6 kNlm2.
y'
C=O
=10.8 kNlm2.

Active (kNImZ)
- 1 5( 69

Top Vertical pressure Lateral pressure

(m)

Loose fine sand

y= 17.16 kNlm2
O=3O0,6=O0
passive
Pressures
1 Active
Pressures

Compact fine sand

Dist Active (kNlm2) Passive (kNlmZ) 1

".
TOP
Vertical pressure Lateral pressure Vertical
pressure
1 Lateral pressure
1
1 Surcharge b rn
10 kNlm2 T c ~ Diag.
epressures
t
Loosefinesand
y= 17.16 kNlm2
cD=30,6=00 I

C=O
25.9
-.-.- .....-.-.-.-.-...- ...-......,-....
,.,,
-+- -=- 37.7 20
.... 0 ;=
Location of
- -.I-..WT
Compact fine sand y = 18.6 kNlm2.
y ,.,=9.8 kNlm2, y' 40.8 kNlm2, L::
,--. -
,/ .+ i: zero shear i.e.
max. bending
moment
(D=35,6=00 C=O A-'212.4 c !.

Active fkNlm2) Passive (kNim2)

Vertical pressure I Lateral pressure Vertical
pressure
Lateral pressure Net
press
0 0 3.3
0 0 25.9
17.16x1=17.2 17.2x3=51.6 -20
17.16x1=17.2 17.2~3.7~63.6 -37.7
18.6x1+17.16x 35.8~3.7432.5 -101.6
1=35.8
Ix17.2+1~18.6 68.2~3.7+9.8~3=2 -212.4
+2x10.8=68.2 81.4

Surcharge - - - - * [ I
10 kNlm2, - 1 fi 3.3
,
Net Pressures
Diag.

212.4
Take moment about C 4
By Trial & Error -Assume
Lat. Forces (kN/m) Mom Arm @ Moment (kNrnlm)
C lml depth of D until Z= 0
I I - \---I I
1 13.3x4=13.2 1 5.56 1 73.4 Thus, D = 2.44m
2 1 22.6 x 4 x K = 45.2 4.893 1 221.2 I Depth of penetration

6 -53.1D x D x % ~ 2 6 . 5 5DZ Dl3

= 1.2 x 3.44 = 4.2m
Total length of SSP = 8.2m
 Surcharge A [ - 1
10 kNlm2 //// Net Pressures 1
Diag.
4n1

- 0.44m -k--. Y
.................... 0.56m Te--

max. bending
moment

I I Lat. Forces (kNirn)

I
Thus, obtain Y,
i.e. Ans. Y = 5.9m
I

Surcharge ,
10 kNlm2
- r y
//I/
i
Net Pressures fi ""'

4r i

- -
.................................
WT

u
moment
Max Moment
Take Mom (max) @ point of kero shear
Repeat previous Table for determining D except to use Y C 5.9 m t o obtain
Max Moment
M max = 182.4 kNim2
Using Allowable Yield Stress = G =180kNlm2
Sect Modulus SSP required ,
=-
M =182.4 x 1000 x 100 = 1413 cm31m, Choose LX 12, k 11208 cm3/m
o 180x100
REINFORCED CONCRETE
RETAINING WALL

- THEORY AND DESIGN

 Types of Retaining Structures

A. Gravity Retaininq Walls

I.Mass Concrete Retaining Wall

2. Crib Wall

3. Gabions Wall
6

4. Reinforced Fill Retaining Walls

Types of Retaining Structures (conk..)

T-shaped L-shaped
B. Reinforced Concrete Retaininq Walls
I.RC L- or inverted T-shaped
Cantilever Retaining Wall (with or
without key)

2. R.C. Counterfort Retaining Wall

3. R.C. Buttressed Retaining Wall

C. Cantilevered Retaininq Walls

1. Contiguous I Secant Bored pile wall
or Sheet Pile (conc /steel) Retaining
Walls
 Types of Retaining Structures (cont...)

Retaining Wall with Counterforts

RetainingWall with Buttresses

Common Usage of Retaining Wall - in DID

Fill

Water
 Gravity a. Stability by wt of wall a. need large amt of space
b. support may be required during
construction
a. Reasonably good fdn required
b.Large quantities conc, need curing
c. can incorporate features on surface time
-
c. Generallv H < 3 4 m
21 Crib Wall I a.Easy to construct & maintain a. selfdrain fill reqd

II b.Soil used as structural components, no

need manufacturedmaterials
c. Used manufactured elements. better
b. High cost for small quantities
c. Not suitable for ht > 7 m

I quality
3 Gabions wall a.As (a). & (b) in u i b wall
b. Permit construction on weaker fdn
c. Flexible str, tolerate higher differential
settlement than conc wall
4 Reinforced Fill a. As in (a). (b), (c) in crib wall
b. Can cope in tighter curve than conc
wall
c. As in (b), (c), (d ) for gabions wall1
a. As in (a) & (b) in Crib wall
a. Land take may be more than other
gravity wall requirement
b. Reinforced zone required protection
c. Stringent requirementfor fills
d. Patents aspects
e. Cost may be high for small quantities

Advantages and Disadvantages of different Types of Retaining Wall (Cont..)

Reinforced a. Provides stability by strength & a. Construction may required large

Concrete stiffness of R. C & wt of Retained excavation with supports
Retaining Wall fill b. reasonable good fdn required
b. Suitable for retaining fill, c. need curing time
embankmentetc d. thin wall susceptible to damage by
impact
R.C. Cantilever a.Conventional construction I a. Reasonably good fdn required
Retaining Wall b. can incorporate features on b. Large quantities conc, need curing
(L- T-shaped) surface time
c. Generallv H < 7 m
R.C. Counterfort a. Can be construct to higher than a. Formwork may be costly
or Buttress RC. Ret wall b. Generafyy H < 12 m
Retaining Wall b. As in (a) (b) above
 Advantages and Disadvantages of different Types of Retaining Wall (Cont..)

Cantilevered a. Provides stability by bending a. May required substantial penetration into

Retaining strength & stiffness of cantilever
Wall b. Used where space limited & where
bearing pressure to be kept low
c. Suitable where it can be supported B
be part of adjacent structures
d. Temporary Cutting not required
ground for stability if frock or strong
bearing layer is not found at shallow
depth
b. Cost 8 ground movement are generally
much higher than gravity or RC retaining
wall
c. Design very sensitive to changes to
ground level
d. Impermeable wall may cause a rise in
h e local oroundwater level.

I Retaining Structures - Design Philosophy

2 set of calculations

- Set of equilibrium calculations for proportions Igeometric of

structures to achieve equilibrium under earth pressures and forces

I - Structural design calculations for Reinforced Concrete sections

propertiieslsize to resist bending momentsfshearforces
1. Assemble general info - topo, surveys etc.
2. Analyze subsoil conditions Ex. Ground

3. Compute Earth and surcharge pressures

4. Select tentative proportion of wall (for RC wall)
Proposed
5. Analyze structural and foundation stability Retaining wall
6. Design structural elements
7. Select drainage backfill
8. Predict settlement and movement of wall

Topo of site - existing Structures, utilities, groundwater, tidal

water, etc.
Controlling dimensions e.g. top and base elev. of wall, slope ,
alignment of wall , flood levels, drains, roads etc

Wall foundation supports - on earth, piles (need batter piles

for lateral forces)
Determine bearing capacity of foundation soils.
Determine shear strength of soil, c', t+ ' (long vs. short term)
Investigation of lower strata - possible settlement and failure
and piles bearing capacity (if required).
 Determination of Soil Properties - Cohesionless Soils
- Normally free draining, excess pore pressure dissipate rapidly
Thus, effective stress used for both long-term & short-term, C= 0.4 = 4 '
Effect of Wall friction on wall, 6 on
- Active pressure 3 normally ignored
- Passive pressure 3 6 = 213
- Soil Properties
- SPT
- JKRI Mackintosh Probe
- Shear Box Test

SPT Vs + for cohesionless soils

Type of soil Penetration Angle of Internal friction (degree!
Resistance, N Peck (1974) Meyerhof (1956)
Very Loose sand c4 < 29 <3 0
Loose sand 4 - 10 29 - 30 30 - 35
Medium Sand 1 0 - 30 30 - 36 35 - 40
Dense Sand 30 - 50 36 - 41 40 - 45
V. Dense Sand > 50 > 41 > 45

-
Determination of Soil Properties Cohesive Soils
Shear strength change over time due to excess pore pressure dissipation

Considered both long- and short-term

- Short term (undrained) - immediately after construction 3 Total stress values
- Long-term (drained) - effective stress values (i.e. values resemble cohesive
values)

Soil Properties
- Total Stress Values (+ =o, c = c)
Direct shear test 3 Vane Shear (in-situ)
Indirect Shear Test
9 Triaxial UU, CU
9 Unconfined CompressionTest - undrained cohesive soil under zero
lateral pressure

-
- Effective Stress Values
Triaxial CU with pore pressure meas
Triaxial CD (not common)

-
-
Other soil parameters required
Moisture contents
Density
= Soil dassifications
 (Reference:

Determination of Soil Properties - Cohesive Soils (cont....)

If no effective stress parameters are available from drained

tests, this tables may be used only for initial studies and would
tend to give conservative values (BSC - Piling Handbook)

Plasticity Undrained Drained @ ' (degrees)

Description Index (%) cohesion, c, Cohesion, c'
kN/m2 (kN/m2)

Verysoft I > 80 1 c20 1 0 1 15

Soft
1 80 / 20-40 / 0 1 15
Medium 50 50 - 75 0 20
(firm)
Stiff 0 25
30 100 - 150
Very stiff
1 15 1 >I50 / 0 1 30
 Determination of Soil Properties - Cohesive Soils (cont....)

Relationship Between SPT, JKRMackintosh Probe and Unconfined

Compression Strength of Cohesive Soil

.
1 .

3. compute Earth anh Surcharge pi-essures

- Earth pressure on retaining structures depend on lateral movement of soils

Active pressure : -
J Minimum pressure when wall moved outward away from soil

A > 0.003 H , Active forces (min)

Very small wall deflection needed to

activation active force ,
 * Passive pressure on Retaining Structures -
J Maximum pressure when wall moved toward the soil

A
. t*
A > 0.05 H , Passive Forces (min)

Very large wall deflection needed to

H activation passive force

At-rest earth pressure on Retaining Structures

J For very rigid Ismall wall deflection (eg. propped anchored wall)
KO= 1 - sin I$ ' - Jaky's

Normally KO 1 0.5

,, = Coefficient of lateral pressure at rest

Where K
Rankin's Theory For Coefficient of Lateral Pressures
"
COS p - . J c 0 s Z p - C O S 2 4
Ka = cos p
COS + 4i-

cos p-J z j 7 G 2 4
Kp = cos p
c o s p +4
-4
Where

Ka = Coefficient o f active pressure

I@ = Coefficient o f passive pressure

For Level backfill

D

L$"i: Compute Earth and &rcharge,pressuPes ( ~ 6 ~ ; ~ )

f t

Active and Passive Lateral Pressures

Where
Pa= Active Lateral Pressure (kWm2) on wall
P, = Passive lateral Pressure (kN/mZ) on wall

Ka = Coefficient of active pressure

Kp = Coefficient of passive pressure
Note:
Rankine's underestimate Passive BS8002 - ignore top
pressure, however, frequently used as 0.5m of soil in passive
it err on the conservative side for resistance force
stability analysis.
 Coulomb's Theory For Coefficient of Lateral Pressures

....................

- a R --------------
cos2 0

" = cod IE-/+ sin($+&)

cod
sin(@-@)
C O S ~

where @ = angle of internal friction of soil

6 = angle of wall friction
D = angle of t h e backfill w i t h respect to horizontal

1. Overestimate Passive pressure , thus, limit to F <+'I3 (HK Ret. Wall guidelines)
2. Mobilised angle of wall friction 6, need to be assumed

Surcharge Loads
Permanent or temporary
Uniform distributed eg stacked materials, vehicles etc.
Concentrated Loads
9 Line loads eg loads from strip footing
9 Point Load eg. squarelcircular footing
Area loads eg, large area footing in relation to ht of wall
Seismic Loads
Nominal Uniform Surcharqe Load
BS 8002 (Earth Retaining Structures): min 10 kNlm2
HK Ret Wall guidelines: -
J Buildings with shallow foundation = 10 kNlm2
4 Highway structures HA Loadings = 10 kNlm2
HB structures = 20 kNlm2
4 Footpaths, cycle trackslptay areas1 isolated roads = 5 kNlm2
Line Load Q, on Wall
(modified Boussinesq)

Point Load on Wall, Qp

(modified Boussinesq)

H
FEZ- I m H C p

For m. 0

'or m 10
I\
 Water Pressure Loads
Many walls failed due to water behind wall

Importance to provide adequate drainage behind wall

J prevent softening & loss of strength of cohesive backfill
J prevent ingress of water into fissures formed during hot dry spells.
Design based on worst credible groundwater conditions during extreme events
eg. flooding, severe rainfall, bursting of water mains, rapid drawdown
P, act on both passive and active side of wall

Groundwater Table assumed > 113 H

y ' =y ,y ,+ Lateral pressure below

- ..
/
WT calculated using y '

Water pressure on Wall-

Drainage

Effects of providing
drainage on phreatic line
 Backfill for Wall

* Granular fill , preferably e.g well graded small rockfills, gravels,

sands,

- Cohesive - used only if granular fill not possible leconomic reason

- Designed for in term of water pressure behind wall
and construction
- Liquid Limit < 45 % and P.l < 25 %

.
Tw= (0.085
-
- 0.15H, min 0.25 - 0.3m )

Batter = (1 : 50)

H
If no in-situ info, used Hw = 213 x H

Base frictional angle = 213 x Soil

int'l friction angle (drained condition)
If undrained condition, use .r = C,

.
+
B= (0.4 - 0.67 H)
 5 Stability of Retaininqlqravity Wall - Mode of Failures

General Principle on Stability of Wall

FOS = Moments or Forces Aidincl Stability

Moment or forces causing instability

5 Stability of Retaininq Iqravitv Wall Mode of Failures

3. Base soil Bearing Failure

------..-......-.
 5 Stabilitv of Retaining I qravitv Wall -

Rotation Failure

= 2.0

FOS Sum bf Moments resistina overturning

Sum of Moments causing overturning

J Passive Wall with deep keys should be avoided due to

construction problem and uncertainty in resisting rotation

5 Stabilitv of Retainincllnravit~Wall

Sliding Failure

FOS=(Wt+Pv)tan&,- + c -
hB+0.5Pp

Ph
Wt = Wt of Wall
Pv ) = Vertical component of earth pressure
force
6, = angle of base friction
C ,= adhesion at base of wall
B = Base width
FOS Sliding (min) = 1.5 (normal)
Pp = passive pressure force
= 1.2 (Adverse)
P, = horizontal component of earth pressure
forces
5 Stability of R e t a i n i n ~ l ~ r a v iWall
ty
Sliding Failure

S= Resisting lateral force due to base frictionladhesion

= Vertical force x Coefficient of friction at Base

Coefficient of friction at Base (cohesionlesssoil)

+ for rough base (eg conc on soil)
= tan 4
= 0.55 + Coarse grain soils (without silt)
= 0.45 + Coarse grain soils (with silt)
= 0.35 + silt
= 0.60 Sound rock (with rough surface)
Coefficient of friction at Base (cohesive soil)
= Cohesive strength, c (4 = 0)

Base on Piles

Ref :Foundation Design- WC = No frictionladhesion on base and all lateral &

Teng vertical loads supported by piles

- -

5 Stability of Retaininnlnravitv Wall

Used of Shear Key on base slab)

Increase lateral resistance ( but benefit generally
small unless embedded in rock)
Best located directly under stem or inner half of base

I
Shear Key
Disavantages -Excavation for keys disturbed soils
esp. in soft & purely granullar soils
 5 Stability of Retaininnlsravitv Wall -

Base Soil Bearing Failure

Estimate the ultimate bearing capacity from theoretical

analysis of the foundation
For foundation on saturated clayey soils of low
permeability, short term is more critical, thus used
undrained strength ( i.e. g' =O condition)
Submerged y should be used when foundation under
water table
Base soil Bearing Failure FOS (min) = 2 - 3

Foundation Bearing Capacity (shallow Foundation i.e. D < B)

Refer to Geotechnical Guidelines For DID Works Pg 37 to 44

Qult=cNcscdcicbcgc+p,Nqsqd,iqbqg, + % y N y s ydy i y b y g y
Effect of cohesion effect of surcharge effect of y

Brinch Hansen 's General Eqn

y = Density of soil below foundation level

B = Width of foundation C
C =undrained cohesion of soils t--------,

Po = effective overburden pressure of soil at foundation level B

N, , N, N y = bearing capacity factors s, , s, s, = shape factors

d, , d, d, = depth factors i, , i,, iy = Load inclination factors
b, ,b, b, = base inclination factors g, , g, gy = ground surface inclinationfactors
 Foundation Bearing Capacity (shallow Foundation i.e. D < B)

Qult=cNcscdcicbcgc+p,Nqsqdqiqbqgq +XyN,s,d, i, b,g,

Foundation Bearing Capacity (shallow Foundation i.e. D < B)

I Qult=cNcscdcicb,gc +p,Nqsqdqiqbqgq +KyN,s,d, i, b,g,

GROUND SLOPE FACTOW

INCLIP~ATION FACTORS
- 9*--
I, - iq--!z%
Ng tan@'
9'
Na fan$
 e of Design of RC Cantilever Retaining Wall (T- shaped)
- Dimensions of Wall

b) base mat1 =20

I I j$~n~~ty;bulk) y = 18kNlm3
aturated Densuity = 20kN/m3
0.5m or 10% of
retained ht. of soil
ignore in passive
resistance due to
unp(anod
II?Annl
IF ubmerged Density y' = 11-00 kN/rn3
(base material) (Cb ) = 5 kNlmZ

I bearina oressure allowable=150kNlm2 1

excavation
1 l4o0 1: ' I MATERIAL PROPERTIES I

I""_' . 1
fcu =zNlmrn2 ym =1.5 (conc)
fy = s N l m m 2 ym =1.15 (steel)
Cover tension steel =50mm
Concrete density =24kNlm3
II

Compute Lateral pressures

1 0.3 x 11 x 1 . 4 4 6 2

Earth
 Compute Lateral prdssures

I Compute Lateral prqssures

Compute Lateral prqssures

0.3 x 11 x 1 . 4 4 6 2 1 0 x l.4=14

Earth Surcharge Water

Compute Lateral Forces

Compute Lateral Forces

--

Compute Lateral Forces

Compute Vertical Force*
Ws=lOx(Z-.35-.4)=12.5

Ka x surcharge=

Compute Vertical Forces

Mq=173.4
Ms=17.2
 Compute Vertical Forces LF
l r
l

Compute Vertical Forces

-m
{ExternalStabilii t
iOveruning Moment j t I I I

I Overuning Moment
L
I

-!!~!E!L-- _- 9.8 - - 0 4 7 _-A606- j.4 3.4484 -L3.72

Pp 3.3 0.16 0.528
Sum 45.85 55.876 78.966 68.81
i
 Water 9,8 0.117 - 4.606 1 l 6.4484 13.72-
Pp 3.3 0.16 0.528
Sum 45.85 55.876 78.966 68.81 H.
Design for Heel

Surcharge = 10 x 1.25 = 12.5

Soil = W3=18x1.25~2+ 20x(1.4 -0.35)x1.25=71.25
Conc Wt. = 0.35 x 24 x 1.25=20.5

=(I .25 1 ~ ) X18.6

I =74.1

Design for Toe

Conc Wt. = 0.35 x 24 x 0.4=

3.18
118.6 y
Design for Stem

DElAlLIRG OF C A U T i l t l E R WALL RtlRiORCEAIENl I

. FIGURE 32
thtes:
Backfill with free draining materials, well compacted layers
Stability analysis as for gravity wall
Battered as shown
List of References
BS8002: Code of Practices : Earth Retaining Structures
BSC Piling Handbook
Retaining Walls b y DID Design Office
Geotechnical guidelines for DID Works - Design office JPT
Foundation Design - WC Teng
Steel Sheet Piling Design manual - United States Steel
Hong Kong Geotechnical Guidelines
An Introduction t o Geotechnical Engineering - Robert D.
Holtz & William D. Kovacs 8

Earth Retention Systems handbook -Alan Macnab

Soil Mechanics - GN smith