A2.30 Moisture TutorialID55VER20

Moisture Equilibrium
and Moisture Migration

Within Transformer Insulation System
Tutorial of CIGR WG A2.30

Conveners: Victor Sokolov, Ukraine
Maik Koch, Germany
Outline
Introduction: background and definitions

Main sources of water contamination
Water in oil and in cellulose materials
Moisture distribution, equilibrium and migration
Mechanism and criteria for bubble evolution
Methods for moisture determination
MOISTURE EQUILIBRIUM AND MOISTURE MIGRATION WITHIN TRANSFORMER INSULATION SYSTEMS Tutorial of CIGR WG A2.30 2
History
Initiator and convener: Victor Sokolov
2001 Presentation on the CIGRE A2 website
2005 Attempt to restart work
2006 Maik Koch took over organization of WG
2007 Final version finished
2008-01-06 Victor Sokolov, convenor,
passed away suddenly
2008-06 Brochure 349 available at
www.e-cigre.org
Moisture - Frequently Discussed

Large population operates under aged conditions
Hazardous effects:
1. Decreases the dielectric withstand strength
2. Accelerates cellulose decomposition
3. Causes the emission of bubbles at high temperatures
Uncertainty of traditional 1000
Life expectance / a
Dr
measurement methods 1%
y
100
New methods available:
Capacitive sensors 10 2%
Dielectric response methods 3%

1
4%
0,1
50 70 90 110 130
Temperature / C
Many Measures of Water
Water content (absolute water content) W

Water saturation RS
Relative humidity RH
Water activity aW
Water vapor pressure p
Dew point
Measures of Moisture
Water content (absolute water content) W
Water mass related to dry mass or mass as sampled
Measure: (0,5 5) % for cellulose 6
Moisture in Kraft paper / %
or (1-~80) ppm (mg/kg) for oil 5
4
Moisture
3
isotherms
Water saturation RS (relative humidity RH) 2
21C
40C
Water vapour pressure p 1 60C
relative to saturation RS = 100 % 80C
Measure 0 - 100 % pS 0 10 20 30 40
Moisture saturation / %
Information about water availability / activity

Important for damaging effects, migration,
equilibrium, drying potential
Water activity = RH under equilibrium / 100%
Outline

Moisture distribution in transformers
Moisture equilibrium and migration
Sources of Water
Leaky seals
Installation, repair
Breathing Water from aging
Residual moisture
Sources of Water: Atmosphere
Main mechanism through poor seals
Typical leaks: top seal of draw-lead bushings, the seals in
explosion vents, and leaks in forced-oil circulation systems
between the main tank and the coolers
Rainwater can be sucked in when there is a rapid drop of
pressure
Free breathing: significant, but limited
up to 0.2 % per year
Leaky seals
Membrane-sealed: Installation, repair
about 0.03 to
0.06 % water RHbreather=1%
RHair=50% Water from aging
RSoil=RScellulose= 3%
Ingress due to Breathing

1. 2. Grid w. heat
Grid transformer GT recovery HE 3. GSU
Rated power (MVA) 600 150 850
Oil volume @ 20C 101 m 45 m 100 m
No. of conservators and 2/2 1/1 2/2
breathers
Moisture sensors 1 per conservator and 1 per breather 1 per bre.
RH
RH
Air Volume
104 2,4
Oil volume
Change of oil volume and
Penetrating air volume [m]

103 1,8
penetrating air volume for GT
Oil volume [m]
Air
GT: typ 0,05 m/h, max 0,8 m/h
102 1,2
volume
HE: typ: 0,15 m/h, max. 4,2 m/h
101 0,6 GSU: 0,005 m/h, max. 0,1 m/h
100 0
04.1. 04.3. 04.5. 04.7. 04.9. 04.11.
Time [day.month]
10
9 Volume of air entering the
Air volume [m]
8 transformers
7
6 2 weeks in February and in May
5 most air enters HE, volume
4
3
only 45% of that of other
2 transformers
1
0
GT GT HE Feb HE May GSU GSU
MOISTUREFeb May AND MOISTURE MIGRATION
EQUILIBRIUM Feb WITHIN
May TRANSFORMER INSULATION SYSTEMS Tutorial of CIGR WG A2.30 11
Moisture Contamination
600
Water mass [g]
500
400
300
Moisture ingress in a
200
period of two weeks
100
0
GT GT HE Feb HE GSU GSU
Feb May May Feb May
20 180
163
Water mass [kg/10a]
18
Water mass [kg/a]
16 160
16
140
14
120
12
10
100 Extrapolated for
8
80
1 resp. 10 years
6 60
4 40
1,5 15,1
2 20
0 0
0 0
GT AND MOISTURE
MOISTURE EQUILIBRIUM HE GSU GT HE INSULATION
MIGRATION WITHIN TRANSFORMER GSU SYSTEMS Tutorial of CIGR WG A2.30 12
Exposure to the Atmosphere
25
Moisture adsorption of 3 mm
high-density pressboard 23 C, 97 % rh
Weight increase (%)

20
at 23 and 40C at various 15
humiditys of the ambient air 23 C, 75 % rh
10
5 23 C, 50 % rh
Water mainly in the outer
40 C, 25 % rh
insulation components, 0
depth 0.3-0.35 mm 0 7 14 21 28
Time (days)
Leaky seals
Installation, repair
RHbreather=1%
RHair=50% Water from aging
RSoil=RScellulose= 3%
Cellulose Decomposition
Degree of polymerisation
new: 1200
end of life: 200
8
Aging causes molecular chain scission
and formation of by-products 4
Moser Dahinden
including water and 3,5 Fabre Pichon
furanic compounds 3 Fallou
4 scissions ~ 1 %
W ater [%]
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
0 2 4 6 8
Chain scissions
Moisture Concentration over Age
of 77 Transformers in DE, PL, SE, REDIATOOL research project
5 18
Moisture saturation @ 25C / %

Moisture content in cellulose/ %
4,5
4 13
3,5
3 8
2,5
2 3
1,5
1 1
0,5
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Age / years
Preservation Systems
Free breathing
Self-drying breather
Breathing via a desiccant
Flexible diaphragm or rubber bag
Nitrogen cushion either at atmospheric
or high pressure Dehydrating breather for
free breathing system
Refrigerated drier
Hermetical seal Thermo-electric
Air
modules
Molecular sieve Oil

Breather
Drain tube
Main oil pipe Temporary connection

Refrigerated drier connection to tank to bottom of tank
Outline


Moisture distribution in transformers
Moisture equilibrium and migration
Solubility of Water in Oil

Moisture Saturation [ppm]
800
Oil 1
Oil 4
Silicone
Nonpolar molecules 600 Oommen
Aged
Very low solubility
400
Increases with aromatics,
aging products (acids) 200
W S = WOil e B / T 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Temperature [C]
B oil specific constant
Free water droplets if saturation level exceeded

Ester liquids dissolve 20 to 40 times more water
Solubility due to Acids
450
Moisture Solubility in
Saturation humidity [ppm weight]

Non-acidic lab-used Nytro 10X, NV=0.005
400 Service aged, NV=0.11/0.001
Four Service Aged Oils Service aged, NV=0.22/0.003
350 Service aged, NV=0.34/0.06
Compared to a Non- Service aged, NV=0.42/0.04
Aged Laboratory Used 300
Oil. 250
200
Neutralisation value =
150
value for all acids / value
100
for water soluble acids
50
[mgKOH/g]
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Temperature [C]
Adsorption to Cellulose
Polar and therefore hygroscopic
Attraction to OH-groups
Water solubility ~ 2000-fold H
H
H H H O
H H O
higher than oil O H H
H O H O O
O
H H
H H H H H
O H O H
O H O O O
C H H H H
O H
OH
OH OH
OH OH
OH
OH OH OH
monolayer polylayer capillary

adsorption adsorption condensation
Moisture Isotherms
25
Water content (%)
Strongly bound Less strongly bound Solvent and

monolayer water layers and free water
capillary adsorbed water
20
15
o rptio
n General moisture
Des
10
isotherm for cellulose
Increasing pressure
material
and/or temperature
5 tio n
o rp
Ads
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative humidity (%)
Moisture Isotherms
25
Water content [%]
20
1
15 0
0 0,5 1
Water-Paper Isotherms
10 (23C) Experimental and
Piper
Based on the Formulas
5
Fessler
In vacuum of Piper and the
0
In air
Measurements of
0 5 10 15 20
Water vapor pressure [mm Hg] Fessler
Outline


Moisture Distribution in the Solid

Insulation
1. Thick structures: supporting components,
about 50 % of insulation mass, diminutive contribution to moisture
migration due to a few years time constants
2. Thin cold structures pressboard barriers, end caps, etc
20 30 % of insulation mass, at bulk oil temperatures, large amount
of the water
3. Thin hot structures paper wrapped on conductors
close to conductor temperature, relatively dry
Clamping Plate
Spacer Block
Angle Ring
Paper Wrap around

Cylinder Copper Wire
Mass and Surface Area of
Insulation Structures
Thin Hot Thick
Thick Thin Hot
3
43 35 38
Mass Area
59
22
Thin Cold
Insulation Structures Classified by Mass and Area

for a 400 MVA GSU Transformer 18/347 kV
Moisture Distribution
Distribution example:
150 MVA, 7 t cellulose,
70 t Mineral oil,
125/95C 1,4/2,1% 270/420 Temperature 40C
cellulose Cw = 3 %
210 kg water
T+ T
85/65C 2,4/2,9% 441/1105 Oil 16 ppm 1,1 kg H2O
Temp. Moisture DP
Important to know how wet
the paper/pressboard is,
not the oil!
Moisture Migration
Diffusion time Oil free pressboard Impregnated pressboard
Temperature 20C 70C 20C 70C
Time constant 1,7 h 0,03 h 333 h 6h
Conditions: water content in pressboard 0,5 %, 3,5

pressboard thickness 1 mm
3
2,5 W=2,0%
T=20oC
2 W=1,8%
W,%
T=40oC
1,5
W=1,2%
1 T=20oC
0,5
Effect of Temperature on Moisture
Distribution in Turn Insulation 0
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1
x/d
Moisture Equilibrium
Water potential the same everywhere in the RT p
= 0 + ln
system
M W pS
Moisture diffusion depends on differences
in moisture saturation / water vapour p
RS = 100 %
pressure / water activity (same temperatures, pS
same pressure assumed )
RS Pb = RS Oil = RH Air
pCellulose = pOil = p Air
aW , Cellulose = aW , Oil = aW , Air

RSBreather= 1 %
RHAir= 50%
RSOil= RSCel= 3 %
Traditional Equilibrium Diagrams
Used for determination of moisture in paper:

Onsite oil sampling, transportation to laboratory
Moisture content determination (ppm)
Application of an equilibrium diagram
Errors
6 Conditions:
Moisture by weight in cellulose [%]
21C New paper

40 C New paper 1. Equilibrium exists
5
60 C New paper 2. Temperature- and
4 80 C New paper moisture distribution
60C Aged oil + PB
3,6 % 3. Sampling, moisture
3,2 % 60C New pressboard
2,9
2,8 %
%
3 60C Aged oil + paper measurement
2,3 % 13 % error
2
1,7 % 4. Results vary for different
1
authors
5. Absorption capacity of oil
0 6. Absorption capacity of
0 20 40 60 80 100
20 ppm 5 ppm Moisture by weight in oil [ppm] cellulose
100 % error
Diagrams not applicable!
Unless adapted to the cellulose and oil
Based on Water Saturation
6
Moisture in paper [%]
Conditions:
5 1. Equilibrium exists
2. Temperature- and moisture
4
distribution
3 3. Sampling, moisture
21C%P measurement
2 40C%P 13 % error
1
60C%P 4. Steep gradient in low
80C%P moisture region
0 5. Absorption capacity of oil
0 10 20 30 40
Moisture relative to saturation [%] 6. Absorption capacity of
cellulose
Onsite and online application
Application for Online Monitoring

Moisture in oil is identical to moisture in
cellulose if equilibrium exists
Equilibrium through long time mean value
Type and aging of oil have no influence
Relative saturation / %
65 10
Top oil temperature / C
60
55
Oil temperature 8
50
45
40 6
35
RS in oil
30
25 4
20 RS in cellulose
15
2
10
5
0 0
01.06.2003 05.06.2003 09.06.2003 13.06.2003 17.06.2003
Time, date
Outline


Bubble Evolution
10 layers Kraft paper
3,9% moisture content
Inception at 120C
Temperature measured
at conductor surface,
below paper
External player
Bubble Evolution
10 layers Kraft paper
3,9% moisture content
Inception at 120C
Temperature measured
at conductor surface,
below paper
Bubble Evolution
pin = pexternal + p
Formation of vapour-filled cavities (bubbles)
decrease of the dielectric strength,
De-impregnation of the turn insulation
Begins at gaseous residues in paper
R = R >> r R=r R >r
pe pe pe pe pe
2r
R =
pi = pe pi = pe + p pi = pe + pmax. pi = pe + p pi = pe
Experimental Results
Amount of evapourable water in paper
Microstructure of paper, depends on aging
Gaseous residues in paper
Surface tension of oil, depends on polar impurities
(aging) and temperature
200 200
New KP new oil
Temperature [C]
New KP aged oil

TUP new oil Aged KP aged oil
180 180
Aged KP new oil Oommen
160 160
140 140
120 120
100 100
80 80
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Moisture in paper [%] Moisture in paper [%]
Risk Estimation
Hot Spot is rather dry, has less gaseous remnants
140
Inception temperature [C]
Steep temperature rise

120
supports formation
100
Danger limited to areas

80
with high field strength 0 10 20 30 40 50
Temperature gradient [K/min]
Large bubbles might be torn by the electric field.
"As a conclusion, the risk of a dielectric breakdown

due to bubble evolution is considered to be low."
Outline

Practical experiences
Dielectric Strength of Oil

Breakdown voltage in oil depends on
Relative humidity 100
Breakdown Voltage [kV]
Particles 20g/t
Particles 80
Contaminations
(soot, acids ) 60
Temperature 40
Consider sampling
Particles 50g/t
temperature! 20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Relative Humidity in Oil [%]
Operation at Cold Temperatures
Dissolved water (high relative saturation)

Failures after energizing wet transformers in winter time
Ingress of free water
400 MVA, 220 kV: breakdown of the oil space between the
bushing and the tank
Rainfall low pressure inside sucked in about 500 g of water
through a broken seal in the draw-lead bushing
Rapid cooling of a wet transformer after high loading
may result in super-saturation of oil in the cooler and
formation of free water
Classification Based on Relative

Saturation
CIGR WG A2.30 IEC 60422
Saturation / content
CLASS I: good: RS below Dry < 6 / < 2,2
5%@20C, mc below 1.0 %
CLASS II: fair: RS below Moderately wet 6-22 / 2,2-3,7
8%@20C, mc below 2.0 %
RS of oil < 50% at lowest T Wet 22-30 / 3,7 5
CLASS III: probably wet: RS of
Extremely wet > 30 / > 5
oil ~ 50% at lowest
temperatures 5
Moisture content [%]
21C
CLASS IV: wet: RS of oil up to 4 80C
100% at lowest temperatures 3
ure tio
ist ina
n
M o tam Wet,
n
co > 30 %
! 2
nger p pm levels Moderately

wet
extremely
No lo 1
Dry
wet
0 10 20 30
MOISTURE EQUILIBRIUM AND MOISTURE MIGRATION WITHIN TRANSFORMER INSULATION SYSTEMS Moisture saturation
Tutorial of CIGR [%]
WG A2.30 42
Outline

Practical experiences
Karl Fischer Titration

Reference for other methods 2 H2O + SO2 + I2 H2SO4 + 2 HI
Measures water content
Water relative to weight [g, %, ppm]
Sample
injection
Water Vapour
Possible errors: Electrolysis
Sample
Transportation to laboratory electrodes
Detection
electrode
Sample preparation Heating
Titration system
Measurement of bound water depends
on heating temperature and time
Scattering results obtained by Round Robin Tests
Capacitive Probes
Based on moisture equilibrium Moisture relative to saturation
Hygroscopic polymer film
diffusion Change of capacity
upper porous electrode
Result: 0-100 % or 0-1 aw
polymer film
Possible errors:
bottom electrode, glass substrate
Diffusion of aging byproducts
Corrosion of electrodes
Moisture Saturation[ppm]
800
Oil 1
Calibration necessary
Oil 4 Ions
600
Silicone
Oommen
Calculation of ppm (g/g)
NN 0,49
Water
by oil specific coefficients
400
Cw,S = 280 ppm

200
Example: Cw,rel = 10%, 40C
Cw,S = 122 ppm New Oil: Cw = 12 ppm
0 Aged oil: Cw = 28 ppm
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Calibration to oil essential
On-Line Application
65 10 5
Moisture in aged Kraft paper / %
Top oil temperature / C
Relative saturation / %
60
55
Oil temperature 8 4
50
45
40 6 3
35 2,2
30
RS in oil
25 4 2
Aged KP 21C
20 RS in cellulose Aged KP 40C
15 1
2
10 Aged KP 60C
5 4,1 Aged KP 80C
0 0 0
01.06.2003 05.06.2003 09.06.2003 13.06.2003 17.06.2003 0 10 20 30 40
Time, date Moisture relative to saturation / %
Long time average for mathmatical equilibrium

RS in oil and RS in paper
Water content in cellulose by moisture isotherms
Chilled Mirror Dew Point
Instruments
Dew point of water vapour in
gases
sample equilibrated within Mirror
Optical
sealed chamber Sensor
thermoelectric cooler chills the
mirror until condensation Sample Gas
detected by an optical Sample
reflectance sensor
relative saturation calculated
from sample temperature and
dew point temperature
Dielectric Response Methods

U
1927+ U(t)
Ur,max
Dissipation factor at power frequency
t
Polarisation index, tip up test tc t d t peak
At that time: No reliable method for onsite moisture diagnostics

Uc (t)
1991 RVM for water determination U, I
ipol (t)
Soon questioned by users (Kachler 1996)

t
idep (t)
TC
1999+ Polarisation Depolarisation Currents
ETH Zurich, Switzerland
Dissipation factor
1999+ Frequency Domain Spectroscopy

KTH Stockholm
2007 Combination of PDC and FDS Frequency
Universities of Hannover and Stuttgart
Measurement
Main insulation between HV and LV
Voltage source
winding will be measured
~ Voltage to shorted HV, current from
Current meter shorted LV
HV-winding
Guard to tank
LV-winding
Guard Measurement of:
Time domain voltage after charging
RV method
Main insulation Time domain current during charging
Tank and discharging PDC
Frequency domain current and
dissipation factor FDS
Combination of TD and FD
Interpretation
1000
Current(nA)
moisture of
cellulose
(
high
100 and aging Time Domain
low
conductivity
10 Fast measurement
insulation
geometry
Ipol
Idep
1 high
low
No information for t<1s
oil
0,1
1 10 100 1000 10000
Time(s)
Dissipation factor
10
moisture of Frequency Domain
cellulose,
aging
1 high Wide frequency range
high
low
0,1
Long test duration
low
moisture of
Basically same
and aging
cellulose
insulation
geometry
0,01 high
oil
information in TD and FD
conductivity low
0,001
0,0001 0,001 0,01 0,1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency
MOISTURE EQUILIBRIUM AND MOISTURE MIGRATION (Hz)
WITHIN TRANSFORMER INSULATION SYSTEMS Tutorial of CIGR WG A2.30 50
Uncertainties
Determination of "correct" insulation temperature
Aging by-products increase conductivity, aged
transformers may appear moister than they really are.
Average moisture content of main insulation indicated
Accuracy in most of the cases better than 0.5 %
Summary
Motivation: risks of water contamination, new methods
Sources are installation, repair, aging, breathing, leaks
Most water stored in cellulose: oil/cellulose = 1/200
Moisture equilibrium is based on relative saturation
Bubble evolution at 100C possible
Inaccuracy of ppm-equilibrium
Moisture determination by
capacitive probes and
dielectric response methods
Brochure 349 available
at www.e-cigre.org

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Moisture Equilibrium

and Moisture Migration

Tutorial of CIGR WG A2.30

Introduction: background and definitions

Moisture - Frequently Discussed

Dielectric response methods 3%

Water content (absolute water content) W

or (1-~80) ppm (mg/kg) for oil 5

relative to saturation RS = 100 % 80C

Information about water availability / activity

Introduction: background and definitions

Main sources of water contamination

Breathing Water from aging

Ingress due to Breathing

Penetrating air volume [m]

Weight increase (%)

RHair=50% Water from aging

Moisture saturation @ 25C / %

Molecular sieve Oil

Main oil pipe Temporary connection

Introduction: background and definitions

Water in oil and in cellulose materials

Solubility of Water in Oil

Free water droplets if saturation level exceeded

Saturation humidity [ppm weight]

Aged Laboratory Used 300

monolayer polylayer capillary

Strongly bound Less strongly bound Solvent and

Introduction: background and definitions

Moisture distribution, equilibrium and migration

Moisture Distribution in the Solid

Paper Wrap around

Insulation Structures Classified by Mass and Area

Time constant 1,7 h 0,03 h 333 h 6h

Conditions: water content in pressboard 0,5 %, 3,5

aW , Cellulose = aW , Oil = aW , Air

Used for determination of moisture in paper:

21C New paper

Application for Online Monitoring

Introduction: background and definitions

Mechanism and criteria for bubble evolution

New KP aged oil

Steep temperature rise

Danger limited to areas

Large bubbles might be torn by the electric field.

"As a conclusion, the risk of a dielectric breakdown

Introduction: background and definitions

Dielectric Strength of Oil

Dissolved water (high relative saturation)

Classification Based on Relative

nger p pm levels Moderately

Introduction: background and definitions

Methods for moisture determination

Karl Fischer Titration

Scattering results obtained by Round Robin Tests

Cw,S = 280 ppm

Long time average for mathmatical equilibrium

Dielectric Response Methods

At that time: No reliable method for onsite moisture diagnostics

Soon questioned by users (Kachler 1996)

1999+ Frequency Domain Spectroscopy

Universities of Hannover and Stuttgart