Solid State

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 1. Solid: It is a form of matter which possesses rigidity and hence a definite shape and volume.
2. Classification of Solids

Amorphous
Crystalline
A. Constituent particles are arranged in a definite A. Constituent particles are not arranged in any
geometric pattern within the solids. regular manner
B. Long Range order B. Short range order
C. Sharp Melting Point C. Melting point in range
D. Anisotropic Nature: Different physical properties D. Isotropic in nature: Similar physical properties
along different directions along any direction.
E. Also called True Solids E. Also Called Pseudo solids and considered as
super cooled liquids

3. Classification of Crystalline Solids (On the basis of intermolecular forces)

Molecular Metallic Covalent Ionic

Molecules as Kernels & mobile electrons Non-metal atoms linked to Positive and negative
constituent particles are constituent particle.g. adjacent atoms by covalent bond ions are constituent
Fe, Cu, Ag forms giant molecules. E.g. particles. E.g. NaCl,
Diamond, SiC, SiO2, AlN, Graphite MgO,ZnS, CaF2

Polar Molecular Non-Polar H-Bonded Molecular

Solids: HCl, Solid Molecular Solids: Solids: H2O, ROH
NH3, Solid SO2 He & Ar
4. Types of Symmetry in Crystals
a. Law of Symmetry: It states that all crystals of a substance possess the same element of symmetry.
Three important elements of symmetry are: i) Plane of Symmetry ii) Axis of Symmetry
iii) Center of Symmetry
b. The total number of element of symmetry is a cubic crystals =23
i. Plane of Symmetry = 3 (Rectangular Plane of symmetry ) + 6 (Diagonal Plane of symmetry )= 9

ii. Axis of Symmetry = 3 (4-fold)+ 4 (3-fold) + 6 (2-fold)=13

iii. Center of symmetry or inversion of symmetry=1

c. Axis of six fold or Hexad Axis of Symmetry: This type of symmetry is possible in hexagonal crystals and
not in cubic crystals.

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5. Structure Determination By X-Ray: Braggs
Equation Structure of Crystal can be determined
by diffraction of X-ray by crystal. Braggs Equation

is given by = n where = wave length
of X-ray used, = Angle between incident X-rays
and plane of crystals. The Diffracted beam makes
an angel of 2, d = distance between planes of the
constituent particles in a crystal, n = 1,2,3,..
which represents the serial order of diffracted
beams.

6. Five Type of Two-Dimensional Lattices: A lattices having arrangement of points in two dimensions are called
two-dimensional lattices. Such arrangement can be a five types: a) Hexagonal b) Square c) Rectangular
d) Rhombic e) Parallelogram

Pentagonal Lattice is not possible

becoz 360 is not multiple of 108
7. Crystal Lattice & Unit Cell
a. A Crystal Lattice is a 3-D arrangement of constituent particle in a crystal.
A Unit Cell is smallest portion of a crystal lattice which when repeated in different
direction gives the entire lattice. For a 3-D lattice, a Unit Cell is described by three edges
(a, b &c) and angles between them ( , and ).
b. Seven Crystal system and 14 Bravais lattice: There are seven crystal systems which
constitute 14 possible 3-D Lattices and are called Bravais Lattices.
c. Primitive and Centred Unit Cells

Primitive Centered Unit Cells

Constituents Particles are
present other than corner

Body-Centered Cubic Lattice Face-Centered End-centered

Lattice Points at corner
plus one lattice point in
the center of unit cell
Cubic Lattice Cubic Lattice
Lattice points at corners Lattice points at corners
plus one lattice point at the plus at the center of any
center of each face two opposite faces

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 Seven Primitive Unit Cells & Their Possible Variations As Central Unit Cell c

Unit Cell Parameters

Crystal Systems Bravais Lattice Example
Intercepts Crystal Angles b
a
Primitive, Face Centered,
1 Cubic a=b=c = = = 90 NaCl, Zinc blend, Cu
Body Centered
White tin, SnO2 , TiO 2 ,
2 Tetragonal Primitive, Body Centered a=bc = = = 90 CaSO4
Primitive, Face Centered, Rhombic sulphur, KNO 3 ,
3 Orthorhombic abc = = = 90 Cubic
Body Centered, End Centered BaSO4 a=b=c
= = = 90
Primitive Caccite (CaCO3 ), HgS
4 Rhombohedral or Trigonal a=b=c = = 90
(Cinnabar)
5 Hexagonal Primitive a= bc = = 90, = 120 Graphite, ZnO, CdS
Monoclinic sulphur,
6 Monoclinic Primitive, End Centered abc = = 90, 90
Na2 SO4 .10H2 O Tetragonal
a=bc
Triclinic Primitive abc 90 K2Cr2O7 , CuSO4.5H2O, = = = 90
7

Orthorhombic Rhombohedral
a=b=c Hexagonal Monoclinic Triclinic
abc abc
= = = 90 = = 90 a=bc abc
= = 90, = 120 = = 90, 90

8. Calculation of number of particles in a unit cell (Z)

A face-centered atom in a cubic An edge atom is shared by A corner atom in any cell is
cell is shared by two unit cells. four unit cells. shared by eight unit cells

Type of Lattice point Contribution to one unit cell

Corner 1/8
Edge 1/4
Facecenter 1/2
Body Center 1
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 9. Coordination Number (CN): The Number of atoms in a crystal which surround a particular atom as its
nearest neighbour atoms in its neighbourhood is called its Coordination Number.
For diatomic atoms, coordination number of cations is the number of surrounding anions vice-
versa.
In crystal with directional bonds, coordination number is lower than that of crystal with non-

directional bonds such as metals and ionic compounds.

10. =



= =


11. () =




= gm/cm3 where a is edge length of cubic unit cell in centi meter.

12. Simple Cubic Unit Cell: Each corner atom is in contact with its corner atoms. Spheres in one layer
sitting directly on top of those in previous layer, so that all layers are identical. Each sphere is touched
by six other, hence coordination number is 6. 52% of available space occupied by spheres. Example:
Polonium crystallises in simple cubic arrangement. 1
8 atom at
8 corners

1
2 = = = 8 =1 Packing factor=

=
()
= = .
8

= = =
()

13. Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Unit Cell: Spheres in one layer sit in the depression made by first layer in a-
b-a-b manner. Coordination number is 8, and 68% of available space is occupied by atoms. Example:
Iron, sodium and 14 other metal crystallises in this manner. 1 atom
1
8 atom at
at center 8 corners

= + =







Packing factor=
=
= = . = =




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 Cutaway side view
showing face-centered
14.Face Centered Cubic Unit Cell: cubic unit cell
orange Layer c
over white
Layer a space
spaces
Layer b white
space
To cubic closesetPacking

Closest packing of first and second layers

1 1
8 atom at atom at
2
8 corners 6 faces

Tilted side view

of unit cell

F Cubic closest packing (abcabc...) (74%)

Expanded side view

1 1
Atoms/unit cell = ( 8 x 8) + ( 2 x 6) = 4 Coordination number = 12

C 2 = A2 + B2 = 2A2

r C = 4r = + =

C 2 = 16r 2 = 2A2
B
C A= 8r Packing factor=

= = = .
2r


r A
=
=
Face-centered cubic

15. Hexagonal Unit Cell:

orange
space Next
Layer a layer a
white over orange
Layer b space spaces
To Closest
Hexagonal
Packing

Closest packing of first and second layers

Cutaway side view Expanded side view

showing hexagonal unit cell
Hexagonal closest packing (abab...) (74%)

a = 2r a = 2r

ABCD is the base of hexagonal unit cell

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 AD = AB = a . The sphere in the next layer has its centre F vertically above E it touches the
three spheres whose centres are A,B and D.
F 2
2r
Hence FE = C (2r)
2

a C/2
2 = 3


2
The height of unit cell (C) = 4r 3
A a/ 3 E

3
The area of the base is equal to the area of six equilateral triangles, =6 (2r)2
4
3 2
The volume of the unit cell = 6 (2r) 2 4r =24 2 r3
4 3
(a) For HCP geometry Coordination number = 12
(b) For HCP geometry no. of atoms per unit cell
1 1
= 12 (corners) + 2(face centres) + 3 (inside the body) 1 = 6
6 2
(c) For HCP geometry packing efficiency


PF = = = = .

16. Close packing in crystals
(i) Close packing in two dimensions
There are two ways to build a crystal plane
(a) Sphere are packed in a such a way that the rows have a horizontal
as well as vertical alignment. In this arrangement, the spheres are
found to form square. This type of packing is also called square
close packing.
The number of spheres which are touching a given sphere is called
the co-ordination number. Thus, the coordination number of each
sphere in (a) is four.
(b) The sphere are packed in such a way that the spheres in the second row
are placed in the depressions between the spheres of the first row and
so on. This gives rise to hexagonal close packing of spheres and the
coordination number of each sphere is six.
(ii) Close packing in three dimensions
It is clear from the figure (a) that there are two types of voids or hollows in the first layer. These are marked as
b and c. All the hollows are equivalent but the sphere of second layer may be placed either on hollows
which are marked b or on the other set of hollows marked c. It may be noted that it is not possible to place
spheres on both types of hollows so the second layer is indicated as dotted in circles in figure b.
When a third layer is to be added, again there two types of hollows available. One type of hollows marked
a are unoccupied hollows of the first layer. The other type of hollows are hollows in the second layer (marked
c). Thus, there are two alternatives to build the third layer.

a a a a a a a a a a
(a) c c c c (b) c c c c
b b b b b b
a a a a a a a a
c c c c c c
b b b b b b b b
a a a a a a a a a a

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 Hexagonal close packing (hcp) Cubic close packing (ccp)

First layer
top view

Spheres sit in depressions Second layer Spheres sit in depressions

marked with yellow dots top view marked with yellow dots

Spheres sit in depressions

Spheres sit in depressions marked with red dots;
that lie directly over spheres of Third layer centers of third-layer
first layer, ABAB stacking. top view spheres offset from centers
of spheres in first two
layers, ABCABC stacking.

Side view

A C

B B

A A

Close packing of equal-sized spheres. Hexagonal (left) close packing and cubic (right) close packing are equally efficient ways of packing spheres. The red
and yellow dots indicate the positions of depressions between atoms.

B A

A C
Side view Side view
B B

A A

Unit cell view

Unit cell view
(a) Hexagonal close-packed metal
(b) Cubic close-packed metal

The unit cells for (a) a hexagonal close-packed metal and (b) a cubic close-packed metal. The solid lines indicate the unit cell boundaries. Colors are used to
distinguish one layer of atoms from another.

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16. Different Void in Solid
In the close packing of spheres, certain hollows are left vacant. These holes or voids in the crystals are called
interstitial sites or interstitial voids. Two important interstitial sites are
(i) Triangular
(ii) Tetrahedral (iii) Octahedral (iv) Cubical void

(i) Triangular : The vacant space (void) formed by touching three spheres.
3 3
= = 2 = 3
2 2
2 2 2
= = 3 =
3 3 3
2
= + =
3
2
= 1 = 0.1547
3

(ii) Tetrahedral The vacant space among four spheres having tetrahedral arrangement is called
tetrahedral site or tetrahedral hole.

The f.c.c. unit cell can be divided into 8 minicubes by bisecting each
edge; in the centre of each minicube is a tetrahedral site.
The mini-cube have alternate corners missing and the tetrahedral
site is at the body centre of this mini-cube.
a/2

a/2

For FCC packing we know that = 2 = 4 =

1 1 3
= = 3 =
2 2 2
1 1 3 3 3 3
= 2 = = = = 22 =
2 2 2 4 4 2

= + = = = .

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 Number of tetrahedral void in a cubic unit cell is equal to number of
mini-cubes because each mini-cubes will have one tetrahedral void .
Number of tetrahedral void = Number of mini-cubes = 8 T

T
In FCCthere are 4-Atoms per unit cell T T
So Number of Tetrahedral Void is Double the Number of Atoms.
rvoid T T
= 0.225 . T T
rsphere
Tetrahedral Void

(iii) Octahedral This type of site is formed at the centre of six sphere. The void formed by two equilateral
triangles with apices in opposite direction is called octahedral site or octahedral hole.

ABCD is a square CD = BD = 2R (where R is the radius of the anion)

2 = 2 + 2
2 = (2)2 + (2)2 = 82
= 22
= 2 + 2
22 = 2 + 2
2 = +

= 2 1 = 0.414

Position of Octahedral Void

So body center and each edge center will have octahedral hole
No edge in unit cell= 12
Each edge is shared by four neighbour unit cell
So number of octahedral void in unit cell
1
12 ( At ) + 1 (A ) = 4
4
The number of octahedral voids is equal to the number of atoms in unit cell of CCP ( = ) .
O
O O
O

O O
O
O O

Octahedral Void O
O O
O
Note : If a close packing (array) is made up of n number of
atoms or ions then it has n no. of octahedral voids and 2n no.
of tetrahedral voids.
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 (iv) cubical void : The vacant space (void) formed by touching eight spheres.



AB = a = 2R
AC2 = AB2 + BC2
AC2 = a2 + 2a2 =3a2

a
AC =R + 2r + R = 2R+2r
3a

R + r = 3a = 3 R
2
r = ( 3 -1)R
r/R=0.732
2 a

17. Radius ratio rules

In ionic crystals, the coordination numbers as well as the geometrical shapes of the crystals depend mainly on
the relative sizes of the ions. The ration of the radii of the positive and negative ions is called radius ratio.

Radius of postive ion (cation) rc+

Radius ratio = =
Radius of negative ion (anion) ra
Common coordination numbers are 3, 4, 6 and 8.
Following conditions must be satisfied simultaneously during the stacking of ions of different sizes in an ionic crystal:
a. An anion and a cation are assumed to be hard spheres always touching each other.
b. Anions generally will not touch but may be close enough to be in contact with one another in a limiting situation.
c. A cation should surround itself with as many anions as possible. Each ion tends to surround itself with as many
ions of opposite sign as possible to reduce the potential energy. This tendency promotes the formation of
closepacked structures.
d. So as radius ratio increases the co-ordination number also increases to accomodate more opposite charged ions.

rc Coordination
Limiting radius ratio, = x Shape Example
ra number
x < 0.155 2 Linear BeCl2
0.155 x < 0.225 3 Triangular planar BCl3
0.255 x < 0.414 4 Tetrahedral ZnS, BeO
0.414 x < 0.732 4 Square planar [PtCl4]2
0.414 x < 0.732 6 Octahedral NaCl, CaO
0.732 x < 0.999 8 Body centered cubic CsCl
x=1 12 Ideal FCC Fe, Al, Ag

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 18. Structure of ionic compounds
Simple ionic compounds are of the type AB or AB2 where A and B represent the positively and
negatively charged ions respectively. (In any solid of the type AxBy, the ratio of coordination
number of A to B would be y :x.
(i) Structures of Type AB:
Ionic compounds of the type AB means compounds having the positively and negatively
charged ions in the ratio 1:1. These compounds can have following three type of structures.
1. Rock salt (NaCl) type
2. Cesium chloride (CsCl) type
3. Zinc blende (ZnS) type
1. Rock salt structure (NaCl) :
(a) Cl is forming a FCC unit cell in which Na+ is in the octahedral voids. The co-ordination
number of Na+ is 6 and that of Cl would also be 6.
rNa +
(b) Ratio of ionic radii = r = 0.525
Cl
1
(c) No. of sodium ions = 12 (At edge centre) + 1 (At body centre) 1 = 4
4
No. of chloride ions
1 1
= 8 (At corners) + 6 (At face centres) = 4 (Thus formula is Na4Cl4 i.e. NaCl)
8 2

(d) Most of the halides of alkali metals and oxides of alkaline- Na+
earth metal have this type of structure. e.g. NaI, KCl, RbI and RbF. Cl
FeO also has rock-salt structure in which oxide ions are arranged in
ccp and Fe2+ ions occupy octahedral voids.
Sodium chloride structure

2. Caesium chloride structure (CsCl)

(a) CsCl has body-centered cubic (bcc) arrangement. This
structure has 8 : 8 co-ordination, i.e., each Cs+ ion is
touching eight Cl ions and each Cl ions in touching eight
Cs+ ions. (bcc)

Cs+
rCs +
(b) = 0.93 . Cl

rCl

(b)
One unit cell
(a)

1
(c) No. of Cl ions = 8 (At corners) = 1
8
No. of Cs ions = 1 (At the body centre) 1 = 1
+

No. of CsCl unit per unit cell = 1

(d) Compounds having this type of structure are CsBr, CsI, TlCl, and TlBr.

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3. Zinc blende structure or sphalarite structure (ZnS)
(a) Sulphite ions are face centered and zinc is present in alternate tetrahedral voids.
rZn 2+
(b) = 0.40
rS2

(c) In unit cell no. of S2 ions

1 1
= 8 at corners + 6 at face centres = 4
8 2
(Formula is Zn4S4, i.e. ZnS)
No. of Zn2+ ions = 4 (within the body) 1 = 4
No. of ZnS units per unit cell = 4
(d) Ionic solids having zinc blende structure are CuCl, CuBr, CuI & AgI

(ii) Structure of Ionic Compounds of the Type AB2:

These are the ionic compounds having cations and anions in the ratio 1 : 2.

4. Fluorite structure (CaF2)

(a) The cations are arranged in cubic close packing (ccp) while the anion occupy all the tetrahedral
voids. Calcium fluoride has 8 : 4 co-ordination. (ccp)
(b) In unit cell no. of calcium ions
1 1
= 8 at corners + 6 at face centres = 4
8 2
Ca2+
No. of fluoride ions = 4 (within the body) 1 = 4
No. of CaF 2 units per unit cell = 4 F
(c) Compounds having fluorite structure are
SrF2, BaCl2, BaF2, PbF2 and CdF2.

Structure of calcium fluoride

(iii) Structure of Ionic Compounds of the Type A2B:

5. Antifluorite structure.
In antifluorite structure e.g., (Na2O)
(a) The anions are arranged in cubic close packing (ccp) while the cations occupy all
the tetrahedral voids.
(b) Na2O has 4 : 8 co-ordination
(c) Compounds having antifluorite structures are : Li2O, K2O, Rb2O and Rb2S

O2
Na+

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(iv) Some special structures
6. WURTZITE structure
(a) Sulphide ions have hcp arrangement and zinc ions
S2
occupy tetrahedral voids.
(b) Structure has 4 : 4 coordination Zn2+

Unit cell representation

of Wurtzite structure

7. Spinal structure
(a) A spinel is an important class of oxide consisting of two types of metal ions with
the oxide ions.
(b) General formula of compound is AB2O4
e.g., MgAl2O4, ZnFe2O4
(c) Oxide ions are arranged in ccp arrangement. Divalent cations are in tetrahedral sites
and trivalent ions are in octahedral sites.
(d) Spinel type structures are important magnetic material used in telephones or memory
loops in computers.

19. Imperfections or defects in solids

At absolute zero, crystals tend to have a perfectly ordered arrangement. This arrangement corresponds to
state of lowest energy. As the temperature increases, the crystals start deviating from the perfectly
ordered arrangement. Any deviation from the perfectly ordered arrangement constitutes a defect or
imperfection. These defects are sometimes called thermodynamic defects because the number of these
defects depends on the temperature. Crystals may also possess addition defects due to the presence of
impurities. Many properties of crystalline solids such as electrical conductivity and mechanical strength
can be explained in terms of imperfections. Imperfections not only modify the properties of solids but also give
rise to new properties.
The defects which arises due to the irregularity in the arrangement of atoms or ions are called atomic
imperfections. The atomic defects caused by missing or misplaced ions are called point defects. If the
deviations from periodicity extend over microscopic regions of the crystal they are called lattice
imperfections. Lattice imperfections may extend along lines (line defects) or planes (plane defects). Line
defects are also called dislocations. Various types are as follows :

(i) Stoichiometric point defects

The compounds in which the numbers of positive and negative ions are exactly in the ratios indicated by their
chemical formulae are called stoichiometric compounds. The defects that do not disturb the stoichiometry
(the ratio of numbers of positive and negative ions) are called stoichiometric defects. These are of
following types
(a) Schottky Defects : This type of defect is created when one
positive ion and one negative ion are missing from their respective
positions leaving behind a pair of holes. Schottky defects are more
common in ionic compounds with high co-ordination number, and
where the sizes of positive and negative ions are almost equal. For
example, NaCl, KCl, CsCl and KBr.
The presence of large number of Schottky defects in crystal results
in significant decrease in its density.

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 (b) Interstitial Defects This type of defect is caused due to the presence of ions in the normally vacant
interstitial sites in the crystal. The ions occupying the interstitial sites are called interstitials. The formation of
interstitial defects is determined by the size of the interstitial ion.
(c) Frenkel Defect This type of defect is created when an ion leaves its correct
lattice site and occupies an interstitial site. Frenkel defects are common in ionic
compounds which have low co-ordination number and in which there is large
difference in size between positive and negative ions. For example, ZnS, AgCl, AgBr
and AgI.
Consequences of stoichiometric defects
(i) The presence of those defects in the crystal makes them good electrical
conductors.
(ii) The presence of holes in the Schottky type defects lowers their density.
(iii) The presence of ions in interstitial sites in the Frenkel defects increases the
dielectric constant of the crystals.
(ii) Non Stoichiometric defects
There are may compounds in which the ratio of positive and negative ions present in the compound differs from
that required by ideal chemical formula of the compound. Such compounds are called non-stoichiometric or
Bertholloide compounds. In these compounds composition may vary over a wide range. The defects which disturb
the stoichiometry of the compound are called non-stoichiometric defects. These defects are either due to the presence
of excess metal ions or excess non-metal ions.
(a) Metal excess Defects due to Anion Vacancies.
A compound may have excess metal ion if a negative ion is absent M+ X M+ X
from its lattice site, leaving a hole, which is occupied by electron to
maintain electrical neutrality. This type of defects are found in crystals
X M+ e M+
which are likely to possess Schottky defects. Anion vacancies in alkali
halides are produced by heating the alkali halide crystals in an atmosphere
of alkali metal vapours. Under these conditions alkali metal atoms deposit M+ X M+ X
on the surface of the alkali halide crystal, halide ions move to the surface
and combine with metal ions. The electrons released during conversion
of metal atoms into ions diffuse into the crystal and occupy the sites X M+ X M+
vacated by anions. The holes occupied by electrons are called F-
(a)
centres (or colour centres) and are responsible for the colour of the
(a) Metal excess defect due to
compound and many other interesting properties. For example, the
anion vacancies
excess sodium in NaCl makes the crystal appear yellow, excess potassium
in KCl makes it violet and excess lithium in LiCl makes it pink. Greater the
number of F-centres, greater is the intensity of colour. Solids containing
F-centres are paramagnetic because the electrons occupying the holes
are unpaired.
(b) Metal Excess Defects due to Interstitial Cations
M+ X M+ X
Another way in which metal excess defects may occur is, if an extra
positive ion is present in an interstitial site. Electrical neutrality is
maintained by the presence of an electron in the interstitial site. This type of X M+ X M+
defects are exhibited by the crystals which are likely to exhibit Frenkel M+
defects. For example, when ZnO is heated, it loses oxygen reversibly. The
M+ X M+ X
excess metal is accommodated in interstitial sites, with electrons trapped in
the neighbourhood. The yellow colour and the electrical conductivity of e
the non-stoichiometric ZnO is due to these trapped electrons. X M+ X M+

(b) Metal excess defect due to

interstitial cation

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(c) Metal Deficiency due to cations vacancies.
The non-stoichiometric compounds may have metal deficiency due M+ X M+ X M+
to the absence of a metal ion from its lattice site. The charge is balanced by
an adjacent ion having higher positive charge. This type of defects are X X M+ X
generally shown by compounds of transition metals. It may be
mentioned here that metal excess compounds and metal deficient M+ X M2+ X M+
compounds both act as semi-conductors. Metal excess compounds
conduct electricity through normal electron conduction mechanism X X
M+ M+ X
and are therefore n-type semiconductors. Metal deficient compounds
conduct electricity through positive hole conduction mechanism and Metal deficiency due to cation
are therefore p-type semiconductors. vacancy

(iii) Point Defects due to the Presence of Foreign Atoms (Impurity defect)
Foreign atoms can occupy interstitial sites in a crystal example non-
stoichiometric cuprous oxide (Cu2O) can be prepared in laboratory. Na+ Cl Na+ Cl Na+
In this oxide copper to oxygen ratio is slightly less than 2 : 1. This is
due to the reason that some of the positions which were to be
Cl Sr2+ Cl Na+ Cl
occupied by Cu+ ions are vacant whereas some positions are
occupied by Cu2+ ions. Defects in the ionic solids may be
introduced by adding impurity ions. If the impurity ions have different Na+ Cl Cl Na+

valence state than that of the host ions, vacancies are created. For
example addition of SrCl2 to NaCl yields solids solution where the Cl Na+ Cl Na+ Cl

divalent cation occupies Na+ sites and produces cation vacancies Introduction of cation vacancy in NaCl
equal to the number of the divalent ions occupying substitutional sites. by substitution of Na+ with Sr2+ ion.

Similarly, AgCl crystals can be doped with CdCl2 to produce impurity

defects in a likewise manner.
20. PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
The three main properties of solids which depend upon their structure
(i) Electrical properties
(ii) Magnetic properties
(iii) Dielectric properties

(i) ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

Electrical conductivity of solids may arise through the motion of electrons and positive holes (electronic conductivity)
or through the motions of ions (ionic conductivity). The conduction through electrons is called n-type conduction
and through positive holes is called p types conduction. Electrical conductivity of metal is due to motion of electrons
and it increases with the number of electrons available to participate in the conduction process. Pure ionic solids where
conduction can take place only through motion of ions are insulators. However, the presence of defects in the crystal
structure increases their conductivity.
On the basis of electrical conductivity the solids can be classified into three types
(a) Metal (conductors): They allow the maximum portion of the applied electric field to flow through them and have
conductivities in order of 106 108 ohm-1.
(b) Insulators: They have low conductivities i.e. they do not practically allow the electric circuit to
flow through them. The electrical conductivity is in order 10-10 10-20 ohm-1 m-1
(c) Semi conductors: The solids with intermediate conductivities at the room temperature. Semi conductors allow a
portion of electric current to flow through them. Actually semi conductors are those solids which are perfect insulators at
absolute zero, but conduct electric current at room temperature.
(1) Intrinsic semi conductors (semi-conductors due to thermal defects)
At zero Kelvin pure substance silicon and germanium act as insulators because electrons fixed in covalent
bonds are not available for conduction. However at higher temperature some of the covalent bonds are
broken and the electrons so released become free to move in the crystal and thus conduct electric current.
This type of conduction is known as intrinsic conduction as it can be introduced in the crystal without adding
an external substance.
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 (2) Extrinsic semi conductors: (semi conductors due to impurity defects)
The conductivity of pure silicon and germanium is very low at room temperature. The conductivity of silicon and
germanium can be increased by doping with impurities producing n-type semiconductors or p type semi

conductors

(ii) MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

The magnetic properties of different materials are studies in terms of their magnetic moments which arise due to the
orbital motion and spinning motion of the electron. As electron is charged particle, the circular motion of the electric
charge causes the electron to act as a tiny electromagnet. The magnetic moment of the magnetic field generated
due to orbital motion of the electron is along the axis of rotation. The electron also possesses magnetic moment
due to the spin which is directed along the spin axis.
Thus, magnetic moment of the electron is due to travelling in closed path (orbital motion) about the nucleus and
spinning on its axis. For each electron spin magnetic moment is B . Where B, Bohr Magneton is the fundamental unit of
magnetic moment and is equal to 9.2710-24 em2. The magnetic moment due to orbital motion is equal to M B
where M is the magnetic quantum number of the electron.

Orbital magnetic moment spin Magnetic moment

Electron Electron

At. nucleus
direction of spin
(a) (b)

As magnetic moment is a vector quantity, the net magnetic moment of an electron may be represented by an
arrow. Thus a material may be considered to contain a number of magnetic dipoles (similar to a bar magnet with
north and south poles). Due to the magnetic moment of the electrons different substances behave differently towards
the external applied magnetic field. Based on the behaviour in the external magnetic field, the substances are
divided into different categories as explained below.

(i) Diamagnetic substance:

Substances which are weakly repelled by the external magnetic fields are called diamagnetic field e.g. TiO2, NaCl,
benzene etc. Diamagnetic substances have all their electrons paired.
(ii) Paramagnetic substances:
Substances which are weakly attracted by magnetic field are called paramagnetic substances. These substance
have permanent magnetic dipoles due to the presence of some species (atoms, ions or molecules) with unpaired
electron. The paramagnetic substances lose their magnetism in the absence of magnetic field. For e.g. TiO, VO2 and
CuO, O2, Cu+2, Fe+3 etc.

(iii) Ferromagnetic substances:

Substances which show permanent magnetism even in the absence of the magnetic field are called Ferromagnetic
substances. e.g. Fe Ni. CO, CrO2 show Ferromagnetism. Such substances remain permanently magnetised, once
they have been magnetised. This type of magnetism arises due to spontaneous alignment of magnetic moment
due to unpaired electrons in the same direction.

Ferromagnetism Antimagnetism Ferrimagnetism

Scholar Classes, Ambedkar Nagar UPS 16

(iv) Anti Ferromagnetic substance
Substances which are expected to possess paramagnetism or Ferromagnetism on the basis of unpaired electron
but actually they posses zero net magnetic moment are called anti Ferromagnetic substances e.g. MnO,
Mn2O3, MnO2.
Anit Ferromagnetism is due to presence of equal number of magnetic moments in the opposite direction.

(v) Ferrimagnetic substances

Substance which are expected to posses large magnetism on the basis of the unpaired electrons but actually have
small net magnetic moments are called Ferrimagnetic substances e.g. Fe3O3

(iii) Dielectric properties

A dielectric substance is, in which an electric field gives rise to no net flow of electric charge. This is due to the reason
that electrons in a dielectric substances are tightly held by individual atoms. However when electric field is applied.
Polarization takes place because nuclei are attracted to one side and the electron cloud to the other side. In addition
to these dipoles, there may also be permanent dipoles in the crystal.
The alignment of these dipoles may be in compensatory way i.e. the net dipole moment is zero or noncompensatory
way i.e. has a net dipole moment. The net dipole moment leads to certain characteristic properties to solids.

(a) Piezoelectricity (or pressure electricity)

When mechanical stress is applied on crystals so as to deform them, electricity is produced due to displacement of
ions. The electricity thus produced is called piezoelectricity and the crystals are called piezoelectric crystals.
Conversely, if electric field is applied to such crystals, atomic displacement takes place resulting into
mechanical strain. This is sometimes called Inverse piezoelectric effect.
The crystals are used as pick ups in record players where they produce electrical signals by application of
pressure. Examples of piezoelectric crystals include titanates of barium and lead, lead zirconate (PbZrO3),
ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (NH4H2PO4) and quartz. They are also used in microphones, ultrasonic
generators and sonar detectors.

(b) Pyroelectricity:
Some piezoelectric crystals when heated produce a small electric current. The electricity thus produced is called
pyroelectricity.
(c) Ferroelectricity:
In some of the piezoelectric crystals, the dipoles are permanently polarized even in the absence of the electric
field. However on applying electric field, the direction of polarization changes e.g. Barium titanate (BaTiO3) sodium
potassium tartarate (Rochelle salt) and potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4). All ferroelectric solids are
piezoelectric but the reverse is not true.
(d) Anti Ferroelectricity:
In some crystals, the dipoles align themselves in such a way, that alternately, they point up and down so that the
crystal does not posses any net dipole moment. Such crystal are said to be anti Ferroelectric e.g. Lead zirconate
(PbZrO3)
SUPER CONDUCTIVITY
A substance is said to be superconducting when it offers no resistance to the flow of electricity. Electrical resistance
decreases with decreases in temperature and becomes almost zero near the absolute zero. The phenomenon was
first discovered by Kammerlingh Onnes in 1913 when he found that mercury becomes superconducting at 4 K.
The temperature at which a substance starts behaving as super conductor is called transition temperature. Most
metals have transition temperatures between 2K -5K. Certain organic compounds also becomes superconducting
below 5K. Such low temperature can be attained only with liquid helium which is very expensive.
Certain alloys of niobium have been found to be superconducting at temperature as high as 23 K. Since 1987, many
complex metal oxides have been found to possess super conductivity at some what higher temperature e.g.
YBa2 Cu3 O7 90K
Bi2 Ca2 Sr2 Cu3 O10 105K
Ti2 Ca2Ba2 Cu3 O10 125K

Scholar Classes, Ambedkar Nagar UPS 17

 21.. Amorphous Solids
Solids, which do not have an ordered arrangement of their constituent atoms or ions but have a disordered or
random
arrangement are called amorphous solids e.g. ordinary glass.

Properties of Amorphous Solids

(i) Short range order : Amorphous solids have a short range order like liquids i.e. the order does not
extend to large three dimensional network.
(ii) No sharp melting point : These solids melt over a range of temperature. This property is used in
moulding and giving desired shape to the articles of glass.
(iii) Conversion into crystalline form on heating : Amorphous solids, when heated and cooled
slowly, become crystalline at certain temperature.

Use of Amorphous Solids

(i) Amorphous solids, in the form of inorganic glasses, find application in construction, houseware,
laboratory ware etc.
(ii) These solids are used in making tyres, shoe soles etc., in the form of rubber.
(iii) Large number of plastics are being used in articles of daily use.
(iv) These are used in photo voltaic cells (for converting sunlight into electricity).
22. Silicates
Silicates are the compounds in which anions present are either discrete SiO44 tetrahedra or a number of
such units joined together through corners . The tetrahedral structure of SiO44 is shown as

O

O

Si
Si

O O (SiO44)

Types of Silicates : Silicates can be classified into different types depending upon the corners (0 , 1 ,
2 , 3 , or 4) of the SiO 44 tetrahedron shared with other tetrahedra . If some of silicon atoms in
SiO 44 are replaced by aluminium, we get aluminosilicates.

1. Orthosilicate : Simple silicates containing discrete SiO 44 tetrahedra e.g. ZrSiO4.

2. Pyrosilicate : Two SiO 44 tetrahedra sharing one corner.. O O

or Si Si

O
O O
O
O
pyrosilicate
(Si2O7)6 (island structure)

3. Cyclic or ring silicate : Two oxygen atoms per tetrahedron sharing to form closed rings with
general formula (SiO32)n or (SiO3)n2n e.g. Ca3Si3O9.

(Si3O9)6 (Si6O18)12
Scholar Classes, Ambedkar Nagar UPS 18
 4. Chain silicates : Two oxygen atoms per tetrahedron sharing to form long linear single strand
chain of general formula (SiO3)n2n e.g. CaMg(SiO3)2.

(SiO32)n

5. Sheet Silicates : Sharing of three corners (i.e. three oxygen of each tetrahedron) resulting in an
infinite two dimensional sheet structure of formula (Si2O5)n2n or (Si2O52)n
e.g. clay contains these anions.

(Si2O52)n

6. Three dimensional silicates : If all the four corners are shared with other tetrahedra forming
three dimensional network.

CBSE FLASH BACK

[ 1990 ] 1. Which point defect may lower the density of an ionic crystal ?
[ 1991 ] 2. An element crystallizes into a structure which may be described by a cubic-type unit cell having
one atom on each corner of the cube and two atoms on one of its diagonals . If the volume of this
unit cell is 24 1024 cm3 and density of the element is 7.2 g/cm3. Calculate the number of atom
present in 200 g of element.
3. What are interstitials in a crystal ?
[ 1992 ] 4. What is pyroelectricity ?
[ 1993 ] 5. Explain the term dislocation in relation to crystals .
6. What are the types of lattice imperfections found in crystals.
7. CsCl has bcc arrangement and its unit cell edge length is 400 pm . Calculate the interionic distance
in CsCl.,
[ 1996 ] 8. A solid AB has NaCl structure. If the radius of action A+ is 120 pm, calculate the maximum possible
value of radius of the anion B.
9. What are the coordination numbers of each of the ions present in the cubic close packed structure
of CaF2 at ordinary temperature and pressure?
[ 1997 ] 10. Although pure silicon is an insulator, then how does it behave as a semi-conductor on heating .
11. A compound AB crystallises in bcc lattice with unit cell edge length of 380 pm. Calculate :
(i) The distance between the oppositely charged ion in the lattice.
(ii) radius of A+ if radius of B is 175 pm
12. How does the conductivity of a semiconductor change if its temperature is raised ?

Scholar Classes, Ambedkar Nagar UPS 19

 13. An element of atomic mass 8.5 g mol1 occur in fcc structure. If its unit cell edge length is 500 pm
and its density is 5.22 g cm3. What is the value of Avogadro constant?
[ 1998 ] 14. In the compound AX, the radium of A+ ion is 95 pm and that of X ion is 181 pm. Predict the
crystal structure of AX and write the coordination numbers of each of the ion.
15. Name the type of structure possessed by a unit cell of CsCl.
16. What structural change will occur if sodium chloride crystal is subjected to high pressure ?
17. What is the effect of temperature and pressure on crystal structure of NaCl and CsCl ?
18. Structure of CsBr is same as of CsCl . Sketch the unit cell of CsBr showing the position of Cs+
ions and Br ions. Find out the total number of Cs+ and Br
[ 1999 ] 19. What is meant by Point defects in crystals ?
20. Why does pure silicon , which is an insulator , behave as a semiconductor on heating ?
21. Calculate the value of Avogadro number from the following data :
Density of KF = 2.48 g cm3 ; Distance between K+ and F in KF = 269 pm
22. KF has NaCl structure . If the distance between K+ and F is 269 pm , find the density of KF .
23. The density of chromium metal is 7.2 g cm3. If the unit cell is cubic with edge length of 289 pm,
determine the type of unit cell (simple , body centred or face centred)
[ 2000 ] 24. On heating crystals of KCl in potassium vapours , the crystals start exhibiting a violet colour .
Why ?
25. Account the following :
(i) Silicon is an insulator but silicon doped with phosphorus acts as a semiconductor.
(ii) Some of the glass objects recovered from ancient monuments look milky because of some
crystallization having taken place in them.
26. What are the properties of :
(i) Ferro magnetics and (ii) Ferroelectrics ? Given an example of each .
27. An element crystallises in bcc structure . The edge length of its unit cell is 288 pm . If the density of
the crystals is 7.2 g cm3, what is the atomic mass of the element ?
28. Define anti-fluorite structure or Mention a compound which shows antifluorite structure.
29. An ionic compound AB2 possess CaF2 type crystal structure. Write the coordination number of
A2+ and B ions in crystals of AB2.
[ 2001 ] 30. Frenkel defect is not found in pure alkali metal halide . Why ?
31. An element having B.C.C. crystal structure has atomic mass 50 amu and density 6.81 g cm 3.
Calculate the edge length of unit cell . [ NA = 6.02 1023 mol1 ]
32. If NaCl is doped with 103 mole % of SrCl2 . What is the concentration of cation vacancies ?
33. What is the non-stoichiometry defect in crystals ?
34. Analysis shows that nickel oxide has formula Ni0.98O1.0. What fraction of the nickel exist as
Ni2+ and Ni3+ ions .
35. What other element may be added to silicon to make electrons available for conduction of an
electric current ?
36. An alloy of god and cadmium crystallises with a cubic structure in which gold atoms occupy the
corners and cadmium atoms fit into face centres. What formula would you assign to the alloy?
Answer
2. 3.471 1024 atoms 7. 346 pm 8. 289.9 pm
11. (i) 329.09 pm (ii) 128.1 pm 13. 6.038 1023 atoms mol1
14. Crystal structure will be octahedral type and coordination number of each ion will be six.
18. 1 , 1 21. 6.0 1023 mol1 22. 2.47 g cm3 23. BCC body centred 31. 290 pm 32. 6.02 1018 mol1
Scholar Classes, Ambedkar Nagar UPS 20
 EXERCISE I

Single

correct
Q.1 A solid has a structure in which W atoms are located at the corners of a cubic lattice, O atom at the
centre of the edges and Na atom at centre of the cubic. The formula for the compound is
(A) NaWO2 (B) NaWO3 (C) Na2WO3 (D) NaWO4

Q.2 The density of CaF2 (fluorite structure) is 3.18 g/cm3. The length of the side of the unit cell is
(A) 253 pm (B) 344 pm (C) 546 pm (D) 273 pm

Q.3 Which of the following statements is correct in the rock-salt structure of an ionic compounds?
(A) coordination number of cation is four whereas that of anion is six.
(B) coordination number of cation is six whereas that of anion is four.
(C) coordination number of each cation and anion is four.
(D) coordination number of each cation and anion is six.

Q.4 The coordination number of cation and anion in Fluorite CaF2 and CsCl are respectively
(A) 8:4 and 6:3 (B) 6:3 and 4:4 (C) 8:4 and 8:8 (D) 4:2 and 2:4

Q.5 The interstitial hole is called tetrahedral because

(A) It is formed by four spheres.
(B) Partly same and partly different.
(C) It is formed by four spheres the centres of which form a regular tetrahedron.
(D) None of the above three.

Q.6 The tetrahedral voids formed by ccp arrangement of Cl ions in rock salt structure are
(A) Occupied by Na+ ions (B) Occupied by Cl ions
(C) Occupied by either Na+ or Cl ions (D) Vacant

Q.7 The number of nearest neighbours around each particle in a face-centred cubic lattice is
(A) 4 (B) 6 (C) 8 (D) 12

Q.8 If the anions (A) form hexagonal closest packing and cations (C) occupy only 2/3 octahedral voids in it,
then the general formula of the compound is
(A) CA (B) CA2 (C) C2A3 (D) C3A2

Q.9 A solid is formed and it has three types of atoms X, Y, Z. X forms a FCC lattice with Y atoms occupying
all the tetrahedral voids and Z atoms occupying half the octrahedral voids. The formula of the solid is:
(A) X2Y4Z (B) XY2Z4 (C) X4Y2Z (D) X4YZ2

Q.10 The intermetallic compound LiAg crystallizes in cubic lattice in which both lithium and silver have
coordination number of eight. The crystal class is
(A) Simple cubic (B) Body centred cubic (C) Face centred cubic (D) None

Q.11 A compound XY crystallizes in BCC lattice with unit cell edge lenght of 480 pm. If the radius of Y is
225 pm, then the radius of X+ is
(A) 127.5 pm (B) 190.68 pm (C) 225 pm (D) 255 pm
Q.12 The mass of a unit cell of CsCl corresponds to
(A) 1 Cs+ and 1 Cl (B) 1 Cs+ and 6 Cl (C) 4 Cs+ and 4 Cl (D) 8 Cs+ and 1 Cl

Q.13 In the closest packing of atoms A (radius : ra), the radius of atom B that can be fitted
into tetrahedral voids is
(A) 0.155 ra (B) 0.225 ra (C) 0.414 ra (D) 0.732 ra

Scholar Classes, Ambedkar Nagar UPS 21

Q.14 Which one of the following schemes of ordering closed packed sheets of equal sized spheres do not
generate close packed lattice.
(A) ABCABC (B) ABACABAC (C) ABBAABBA (D) ABCBCABCBC

Q.15 An ionic compound AB has ZnS type structure. If the radius A+ is 22.5 pm, then the ideal radius of B
would be
(A) 54.35 pm (B) 100 pm (C) 145.16 pm (D) none of these

Q.16 NH4Cl crystallizes in a body-centered cubic type lattice with a unit cell edge length of 387 pm. The
distance between the oppositively charged ions in the lattice is
(A) 335.1 pm (B) 83.77 pm (C) 274.46 pm (D) 137.23 pm

Q.17 In diamond, carbon atom occupy FCC lattice points as well as alternate tetrahedral voids. If edge length
of the unit cell is 356 pm, then radius of carbon atom is
(A) 77.07 pm (B) 154.14 pm (C) 251.7 pm (D) 89 pm

Q.18 Which of the following will show schottky defect

(A) CaF2 (B) ZnS (C) AgCl (D) CsCl

Q.19 Copper metal crystallizes in FCC lattice. Edge length of unit cell is 362 pm. The radius of largest atom
that can fit into the voids of copper lattice without disturbing it.
(A) 53 pm (B) 45 pm (C) 93 pm (D) 60 pm

Q.20 In FCC unit cell, what fraction of edge is not covered by atoms?
(A) 0.134 (B) 0.24 (C) 0.293 (D) None of these

Assertion & Reason

Q.21 Statement-1 : KCl is more likely to show schottky defect, while LiI is more likely to show Frenkel
defect.
Statement-2 : Schottky defect is more likely in ionic solids in which cations and anions are of
comparable size while Frenkel defect is more likely is which cations and anions have
large differences in their ionic sizes.
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.

Q.22 Statement-1 : Increasing temperature increases the density of point defects

Statement-2 : The process of formation of point defects in solids in endothermic and has S > 0.
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.

Q.23 Statement-1 : Increase in dielectric constant is observed in Frenkel defect.

Statement-2 : Anions come in interstitial space in case of Frenkel defect.
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.

Scholar Classes, Ambedkar Nagar UPS 22

Q.24 Statement-1 : Distance between nearest lattice points in BCC is greater than the same in FCC for the
atoms of comparable size.
Statement-2 : FCC has greater packing efficiency than BCC.
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.

More than one may be correct

Q.25 Which of the following statements is/are correct :
(A) The coordination number of each type of ion in CsCl is 8.
(B)A metal that crystallises in BCC structure has a coordination number 12.
(C) A unit cell of an ionic crystal shares some of its ions with other unit cells
(D) The length of the unit cell in NaCl is 552 pm.
[ rNa+ = 95 pm ; rCl = 181 pm ]

Q.26 Which of the following statements is/are correct :

(A) In an anti-fluorite structure anions form FCC lattice and cations occupy all tetrahedral voids.
(B) If the radius of cations and anions are 0.2 and 0.95 then coordinate number of cation in the
crystal is 4.
(C) An atom/ion is transferred from a lattice site to an interstitial position in Frenkel defect.
(D) Density of crystal always increases due to substitutinal impurity defect.

Q.27 80.0 gm salt of weak base & strong acid XY is dissolved in water and formed 2 litre of aqueous solution.
The pH of the resultant solution was found to be 5 at 298 K. If XY forms CsCl type crystal having
rX + (radius of X+) = 1.6 & rY (radius of Y) = 1.864 then select write statement(s).
(Given : Kb (XOH) = 4 105 ; NA = 6 1023)
(A) Molar mass of salt is 100 g/mol
(B) % Degree of dissociation of salt is 0.25
(C) Edge length of AB is 4
(D) Density of solid salt XY is 2 in gm/cc

Q.28 Select write statement(s)

(A) 8 Cs+ ions occupy the second nearest neighbour locations of a Cs+ ion
(B) Each sphere is surrounded by six voids in two dimensional hexagonal close packed layer
(C) If the radius of cations and amions are 0.3 and 0.4 then coordinate number of cation in the
crystal is 6.
(D) In AgCl, the silver ion is displaced from its lattice position to an interstitial position such a defect is
called a frenkel defect

Comprehension:
(Q.29 to Q.32)
Calcium crystallizes in a cubic unit cell with density 3.2 g/cc. Edge-length of the unit cell is 437 picometre (pm)
Q.29 The type of unit cell is
(A) Simple cubic (B) BCC (C) FCC (D) Edge-centred

Q.30 The nearest neighbour distance is

(A) 154.5 pm (B) 309 pm (C) 218.5 pm (D) 260 pm

Q.31 The number of nearest neighbours of a Ca atom are

(A) 4 (B) 6 (C) 8 (D) 12

Scholar Classes, Ambedkar Nagar UPS 23

Q.32 If the metal is melted, density of the molten metal was found to be 3 g/cc. What will be the percentage of
empty space in the melt?
(A) 31% (B) 36% (C) 28% (D) 49%

(Q.33 & Q.34)
Silicon carbide (SiC) and diamond are covalent solids which crystallize in cubic strucures. In SiC, carbon
atoms occupy points of the face centred cubic lattice (FCC positions) and silicon atoms occupy half of
the tetrahedral voids available. In diamonds, same position of the tetrahedral voids are occupied by
other carbon atoms.
Also the density of SiC and diamond are 3.2 and 3.6 g/cc respectively. Answer the following four
questions based on the above information: (M : Si = 28)
Q.33 The radius of silicon atom is
(A) 0.76 (B) 1.12 (C) 3.54 (D) 4.75

Q.34 Which of the following will not change the density of SiC solid?
(A) Substitution of some Si atoms by some carbon atoms
(B) Schottky defects
(C) Interchange of some Si atom by some C atom
(D) Decreasing the temperature of solid.

Match the Column:

Q.35 Column I Column II

[Distance in terms of edge length of cube (a)]

(A) 0.866 a (P) Shortest distance between cation & anion in

CsCl structure.

(B) 0.707 a (Q) Shortest distance between two cation in CaF2

structure.

(C) 0.433 a (R) Shortest distance between carbon atoms in

diamond.

(S) Shortest distance between two cations in rock

salt structure.

Q.36 Match the column:

Column I Column II
(A) Rock salt structure (P) Co-ordination number of cation is 4

3a
(B) Zinc Blend structure (Q) = r+ + r
4
(C) Flourite structure (R) Co-ordination number of cation and anion
are same
a
(S) Distance between two nearest anion is
2

Scholar Classes, Ambedkar Nagar UPS 24

 EXERCISE II
Q.1 The correct statement(s) regarding defects in solid is (are) [JEE 2009]
(A) Frenkel defect is usually favoured by a very small difference in the sizes of cation and anion.
(B) Frenkel defect is a dislocation defect
(C) Trapping of an electron in the lattice leads to the formation of F-center.
(D) Schottky defects have no effect on the physical properties of solids.

Paragraph for Question No. 2 to 4

In hexagonal systems of crystals, a frequently encountered arrangement of atoms is described as a
hexagonal prism. Here, the top and bottom of the cell are regular hexagons and three atoms are sandwiched
in between them. A space-filling model of this structure, called hexagonal close-packed (HCP), is
constituted of a sphere on a flat surface surrounded in the same plane by six identical spheres as closely
as possible. Three spheres are then placed over the first layer so that they touch each other and represent
the second layer. Each one of these three spheres touches three spheres of the bottom layer. Finally, the
second layer is covered with a third layer that is identical to the bottom layer in relative position. Assume
radius of every sphere to be r.

Q.2 The number of atoms in this HCP unit cells is [JEE 2008]
(A) 4 (B) 6 (C) 12 (D) 17

Q.3 The volume of this HCP unit cell is [JEE 2008]

64 3
(A) 24 2 r 3 (B) 16 2 r 3 (C) 12 2 r 3 (D) r
3 3

Q.4 The empty space in this HCP unit cell is [JEE 2008]
(A) 74% (B) 47.6 % (C) 32% (D) 26%

Q.5 Match the crystal system / unit cells mentioned in Column I with their characteristic features mentioned in
Column II. Indicate your answer by darkening the appropriate bubbles of the 4 4 matrix given in the ORS.
Column I Column II
(A) simple cubic and face-centred cubic (P) have these cell parameters a = b = c
and = =
(B) cubic and rhombohedral (Q) are two crystal systems
(C) cubic and tetragonal (R) have only two crystallographic angles of 90
(D) hexagonal and monoclinic (S) belong to same crystal system.
[JEE 2007]

Q.6 The edge length of unit cell of a metal having atomic weight 75 g/mol is 5 which crystallizes in cubic
lattice. If the density is 2 g/cc then find the radius of metal atom. (NA = 6 1023). Give the answer in pm.
[JEE 2006]
Q.7 An element crystallises in FCC lattice having edge length 400 pm. Calculate the maximum diameter
which can be placed in interstital sites without disturbing the structure. [JEE 2005]
Q.8 Which of the following FCC structure contains cations in alternate tetrahedral voids?
(A) NaCl (B) ZnS (C) Na2O (D) CaF2 [JEE 2005]

Q.9(i) AB crystallizes in a rock salt structure with A : B = 1 : 1. The shortest distance between A and B is
Y1/3 nm. The formula mass of AB is 6.023 Y amu where Y is any arbitrary constant. Find the density in kg m-3.
(ii) If measured density is 20 kg m-3. Identify the type of point defect. [JEE2004]

Scholar Classes, Ambedkar Nagar UPS 25

Q.10 Marbles of diameter 10 mm each are to be arranged on a flat surface so that their centres lie within the area
enclosed by four lines of length each 40 mm. Sketch the arrangement that will give the maximum number of
marbles per unit area, that can be enclosed in this manner and deduce the expression to calculate it.[JEE 2003]

Q.11 A substance AxBy crystallises in a FCC lattice in which atoms A occupy each corner of the cube and atoms
B occupy the centres of each face of the cube. Identify the correct composition of the substance AxBy.
(A) AB3 (B) A4B3
(C) A3B (D) composition cannot be specified [JEE-2002]

Q.12 The figures given below show the location of atoms in three crystallographic planes in FCC lattice. Draw
the unit cell for the corresponding structure and identify these planes in your diagram.
[JEE-2000]

Q.13 In a solid AB having NaCl structure A atoms occupy the corners of the cubic unit cell. If all the
face-centred atoms along one of the axes are removed, then the resultant stoichiometry of the solid is
(A) AB2 (B) A2B (C) A4B3 (D) A3B4 [JEE-2000]

Q.14 In any ionic solid [MX] with schottky defects , the number of positive and negative ions are same.[T/F]
[JEE-2000]

Q.15 The coordination number of a metal crystallising in a hcp structure is [JEE-2000]

(A) 12 (B) 4 (C) 8 (D) 6

Q.16 A metal cryatallises into two cubic phases, FCC and BCC whose unit cell lengths are 3.5 and 3.0
respectively. Calculate the ratio of densities of FCC and BCC. [JEE-1999]

EXERCISE I
Q.1 B Q.2 C Q.3 D Q.4 C Q.5 C Q.6 D Q.7 D
Q.8 C Q.9 A Q.10 B Q.11 B Q.12 A Q.13 B Q.14 C
Q.15 B Q.16 A Q.17 A Q.18 D Q.19 A Q.20 C Q.21 A
Q.22 A Q.23 C Q.24 A Q.25 A,C,D Q.26 A,C Q.27 A,C
Q.28 B,D Q.29 C Q.30 D Q.32 A Q.33 B Q.34 C
Q.35 (A) P (B) Q,S (C) R Q.36 (A) R,S (B) P,Q,R,S (C) Q

EXERCISE II
Q.1 B,C Q.2 B Q.3 A Q.4 D Q.5 (A) P, S (B) P,Q (C) Q (D) Q,R
Q.6 216.5 pm Q.7 117.1 pm Q.8 B
Q.9 (i) = 5 kg m3
(ii) There is huge difference in theoretically calculated density and observed density. It is only possible if
some foreign species occupies interstitial space i.e. substitution defect.

Q.10 Q.11 A Q.12 Q.13 D Q.14 True

Q.15 A Q.16 1.259

Scholar Classes, Ambedkar Nagar UPS 26