SIM Introduction

Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 1, Introduction
Syllabus:
Types of materials (metals, ceramics, polymers,

semiconductors)
Properties of materials (mechanical, thermal,

electrical, optical)
Different levels of structure in materials (atomic,

microscopic, macroscopic)
Relation among material processing, structure,

properties, and performance
The main objective is to understand the basic concepts

and language of Materials Science
4
Chapter Outline
Historical Perspective
Stone Bronze Iron Advanced materials
What is Materials Science and Engineering ?

Processing Structure Properties Performance
Classification of Materials
Metals, Ceramics, Polymers, Semiconductors
Advanced Materials
Electronic materials, superconductors, etc.
Modern Material's Needs, Material of Future

Biodegradable materials, Nanomaterials, Smart materials
5
Historical Perspective
Beginning of the Material Science - People began to
make tools from stone Start of the Stone Age about
two million years ago.
Natural materials: stone, wood, clay, skins, etc.
The Stone Age ended about 5000 years ago with
introduction of Bronze in the Far East. Bronze is an
alloy (a metal made up of more than one element),
copper + < 25% of tin + other elements.
Bronze: can be hammered or cast into a variety of
shapes, can be made harder by alloying, corrode only
slowly after a surface oxide film forms.
The Iron Age began about 3000 years ago and continues
today. Use of iron and steel, a stronger and cheaper
material changed drastically daily life of a common
person.
Age of Advanced materials: throughout the Iron Age
many new types of materials have been introduced
(ceramic, semiconductors, polymers, composites).
Understanding of the relationship among structure,
properties, processing, and performance of materials.
Intelligent design of new materials.
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 6
A better understanding of structure-composition-

properties relations has lead to a remarkable progress
in properties of materials. Example is the dramatic
progress in the strength to density ratio of materials, that
resulted in a wide variety of new products, from dental
materials to tennis racquets.
7
What is Materials Science and Engineering ?
Processing
Materials
Optimization Loop
Structure Properties
Observational
Material science is the investigation of the relationship

among processing, structure, properties, and performance
of materials.
8
Structure
Subatomic level (Chapter 2)

Electronic structure of individual
atoms that defines interaction among
atoms (interatomic bonding).
Atomic level (Chapters 2 & 3)

Arrangement of atoms in materials
(for the same atoms can have
different properties, e.g. two forms of
carbon: graphite and diamond)
Microscopic structure (Ch. 4)

Arrangement of small grains of
material that can be identified by
microscopy.
Macroscopic structure
Structural elements that may be
Monarch butterfly
viewed with the naked eye. ~ 0.1 m
9
Length-scales
Angstrom = 1 = 1/10,000,000,000 meter = 10-10 m

Nanometer = 10 nm = 1/1,000,000,000 meter = 10-9 m
Micrometer = 1m = 1/1,000,000 meter = 10-6 m
Millimeter = 1mm = 1/1,000 meter = 10-3 m
Interatomic distance ~ a few

A human hair is ~ 50 m
Elongated bumps that make up the data track on CD are
~ 0.5 m wide, minimum 0.83 m long, and 125 nm high
10
Length and Time Scales from the point of view of
Materials Modeling .
1
1027
0.1
Length Scale, number of atoms
Mesoscopic
Length Scale, meters
Time Scale, seconds

a n dia
m , S ture l
l
h Ho r frac mode
t a
Dislocation Dynamics i z abe ranul Potts
El terg arlo
Nature, 12 February, 1998 In t e C
n
Mo
Microscopic
10-7
10-7
109
Mo Li, JHU, Atomistic

model of a nanocrystalline
Farid Abraham, IBM
MD of crack propagation
10-8
10-9
106
Nanoscopic
Leonid Zhigilei, UVA

Phase transformation on
diamond surfaces
10-9
10-12
103

THE SCALE OF THINGS
Things Natural Things Manmade

0
10 m 1 meter (m)
0.1 m
Progress in miniaturization
10-1 m
100 mm
The 21st century challenge -- Fashion materials at the nanoscale with desired properties and functionality
Objects fashioned from
metals, ceramics, glasses, polymers ...
Monarch butterfly 0.01 m Head of a pin

Cat ~ 0.1 m 10-2 m 1-2 mm
~ 0.3 m
1 cm
10 mm
Microelectronics
Bee 10-3 m 1 millimeter (mm)
~ 15 mm
MEMS (MicroElectroMechanical Systems) Devices
Dust mite 10 -100 m wide
300 m
0.1 mm
10-4 m
100 m
The Microworld
Human hair
~ 50 m wide
Fly ash
~ 10-20 m
0.01 mm
10-5 m
10 m
Red blood cells
Pollen grain
Magnetic domains
garnet film Red blood cells
10-6 m m)
1 micrometer (
11 m wide stripes with white cell
spectrum
Visible
~ 2-5 m
Indium arsenide Quantum dot array --
quantum dot germanium dots on silicon
Schematic, central core ATP synthase
Progress in atomic-level understanding
0.1 m
10-7 m
100 nm
The Nanoworld
10-8 m 0.01 m
10 nm 10 nm
Biomotor using ATP Self-assembled
mushroom
Cell membrane
10-9 m 1 nanometer (nm)
DNA
~2 nm wide
10-10 m 0.1 nm
Atoms of silicon Quantum corral of 48 iron atoms on copper surface
spacing ~tenths of nm positioned one at a time with an STM tip
Corral diameter 14 nm
meter m 100 1m
centimeter cm 10-2 0.01 m
millimeter mm 10-3 0.001 m Chart from http://www.sc.doe.gov/production/bes/scale_of_things.html
micrometer
nanometer
m
nm
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
10-6
10-9
0.000001 m
0.000000001 m 12
Properties
Properties are the way the material responds to the

environment and external forces.
Mechanical properties response to mechanical forces,

strength, etc.
Electrical and magnetic properties - response electrical
and magnetic fields, conductivity, etc.
Thermal properties are related to transmission of heat and
heat capacity.
Optical properties include to absorption, transmission and
scattering of light.
Chemical stability in contact with the environment -
corrosion resistance.
13
Types of Materials
Let us classify materials according to the way the atoms are
bound together (Chapter 2).
Metals: valence electrons are detached from atoms, and
spread in an 'electron sea' that "glues" the ions together.
Strong, ductile, conduct electricity and heat well, are shiny
if polished.
Semiconductors: the bonding is covalent (electrons are
shared between atoms). Their electrical properties depend
strongly on minute proportions of contaminants. Examples:
Si, Ge, GaAs.
Ceramics: atoms behave like either positive or negative
ions, and are bound by Coulomb forces. They are usually
combinations of metals or semiconductors with oxygen,
nitrogen or carbon (oxides, nitrides, and carbides). Hard,
brittle, insulators. Examples: glass, porcelain.
Polymers: are bound by covalent forces and also by weak
van der Waals forces, and usually based on C and H. They
decompose at moderate temperatures (100 400 C), and
are lightweight. Examples: plastics rubber.
14
Metals
Several uses of steel and

pressed aluminum.
15
Ceramics
Examples of ceramic materials ranging from household to

high performance combustion engines which utilize both
metals and ceramics.
16
Polymers
Polymers include Plastics and rubber materials
17
Composites
Polymer composite materials:

reinforcing glass fibers in a
polymer matrix.
18
Semiconductors
Micro-Electrical-
Mechanical Systems
(MEMS)
Si wafer for computer

chip devices.
19
Material Selection
Different materials exhibit different crystal structures
(Chapter 3) and resultant Properties
(a) (b)
force
20
Material Selection
Different materials exhibit different microstructures
(Chapter 4) and resultant Properties
Superplastic deformation involves low-stress sliding along

grain boundaries, a complex process of which material
scientists have limited knowledge and that is a subject of
current investigations.
21
Material Selection
How do you decide on a specific material for your

application ?
22
Composition, Bonding, Crystal Structure

and Microstructure DEFINE Materials Properties
Composition
Bonding Crystal Structure
Thermomechanical
Processing
Microstructure
23
Future of materials science

Design of materials having specific desired characteristics
directly from our knowledge of atomic structure.
Miniaturization: Nanostructured" materials, with
microstructure that has length scales between 1 and 100
nanometers with unusual properties. Electronic
components, materials for quantum computing.
Smart materials: airplane wings that deice themselves,
buildings that stabilize themselves in earthquakes
Environment-friendly materials: biodegradable or
photodegradable plastics, advances in nuclear waste
processing, etc.
Learning from Nature: shells and biological hard tissue
can be as strong as the most advanced laboratory-produced
ceramics, mollusces produce biocompatible adhesives that
we do not know how to reproduce
Materials for lightweight batteries with high storage
densities, for turbine blades that can operate at 2500C,
room-temperature superconductors? chemical sensors
(artificial nose) of extremely high sensitivity, cotton shirts
that never require ironing
24
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 2, Atomic Structure -Interatomic Bonding
Chapter Outline
Review of Atomic Structure

Electrons, Protons, Neutrons, Quantum mechanics
of atoms, Electron states, The Periodic Table
Atomic Bonding in Solids

Bonding Energies and Forces
Periodic Table
Primary Interatomic Bonds

Ionic
Covalent
Metallic
Secondary Bonding (Van der Waals)

Three types of Dipole Bonds
Molecules and Molecular Solids
Understanding of interatomic bonding is the first step

towards understanding/explaining materials properties
1
Review of Atomic Structure
Atoms = nucleus (protons and neutrons) + electrons
Charges:
Electrons and protons have negative and positive charges
of the same magnitude, 1.6 10-19 Coulombs.
Neutrons are electrically neutral.
Masses:
Protons and Neutrons have the same mass, 1.67 10-27 kg.
Mass of an electron is much smaller, 9.11 10-31 kg and
can be neglected in calculation of atomic mass.
The atomic mass (A) = mass of protons + mass of

neutrons
# protons gives chemical identification of the element
# protons = atomic number (Z)
# neutrons defines isotope number
2
Electrons in Atoms (I)
The electrons form a cloud

around the nucleus, of radius
of 0.05 2 nm.
This picture looks like a mini

planetary system. But
quantum mechanics tells us
that this analogy is not
correct:
Electrons move not in circular orbits, but in 'fuzzy orbits.

Actually, we cannot tell how it moves, but only can say what
is the probability of finding it at some distance from the
nucleus.
Only certain orbits or shells of electron probability densities
are allowed. The shells are identified by a principal
quantum number n, which can be related to the size of the
shell, n = 1 is the smallest; n = 2, 3 .. are larger. The second
quantum number l, defines subshells within each shell. Two
more quantum numbers characterize states within the
subshells.
5
Periodic Table
Elements in the same column (Elemental Group) share

similar properties. Group number indicates the number of
electrons available for bonding.
0: Inert gases (He, Ne, Ar...) have filled subshells: chem. inactive
IA: Alkali metals (Li, Na, K) have one electron in outermost
occupied s subshell - eager to give up electron chem. active
VIIA: Halogens (F, Br, Cl...) missing one electron in outermost
occupied p shell - want to gain electron - chem. active
8
Periodic Table - Electronegativity
Figure 2.7 from the textbook. The electronegativity values.
Electronegativity - a measure of how willing atoms are to

accept electrons
Subshells with one electron - low electronegativity
Subshells with one missing electron -high electronegativity
Electronegativity increases from left to right
Metals are electropositive they can give up their few
valence electrons to become positively charged ions
9
repulsion
Potential Energy, E
0
attraction
equilibrium
This is typical potential well for two interacting atoms

The repulsion between atoms, when they are brought close
to each other, is related to the Pauli principle: when the
electronic clouds surrounding the atoms starts to overlap,
the energy of the system increases abruptly.
The origin of the attractive part, dominating at large

distances, depends on the particular type of bonding.
10
a0
Potential Energy
Ut=Ur+Ua
E0
E0 bond energy
F= dE/da
a0 equilibrium distance
a0
at a0, dE/da = 0, Fa = Fr
Tensile
(+)
Force
Compressive
(-)
11
The electron volt (eV) energy unit convenient for

description of atomic bonding
Electron volt - the energy lost / gained by an electron

when it is taken through a potential difference of one
volt.
E=qV
For q = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs

V = 1 volt
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
12
Types of Bonding
Primary bonding: e- are transferred or shared
Strong (100-1000 KJ/mol or 1-10 eV/atom)
" Ionic: Strong Coulomb interaction among negative
atoms (have an extra electron each) and positive atoms
(lost an electron). Example - Na+Cl-
" Covalent: electrons are shared between the molecules,

to saturate the valency. Example - H2
" Metallic: the atoms are ionized, loosing some electrons

from the valence band. Those electrons form a electron
sea, which binds the charged nuclei in place
Secondary Bonding: no e- transferred or shared

Interaction of atomic/molecular dipoles
Weak (< 100 KJ/mol or < 1 eV/atom)
" Fluctuating Induced Dipole (inert gases, H2, Cl2)
" Permanent dipole bonds (polar molecules - H2O, HCl...)
" Polar molecule-induced dipole bonds (a polar molecule
like induce a dipole in a nearby nonpolar atom/molecule)
13
Ionic Bonding (I)

Formation of ionic bond:
1. Mutual ionization occurs by electron transfer
(remember electronegativity table)
Ion = charged atom
Anion = negatively charged atom
Cation = positively charged atom
2. Ions are attracted by strong coulombic interaction
Oppositely charged atoms attract
An ionic bond is non-directional (ions may be attracted
to one another in any direction
Example: NaCl
Na has 11 electrons, 1 more than needed for a full outer
shell (Neon)
11 Protons Na 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S1 donates e-
11 Protons Na+ 1S2 2S2 2P6 10 e- left
Cl has 17 electron, 1 less than needed for a full outer shell

(Argon)
17 Protons Cl 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P5 receives e-
17 Protons Cl- 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 18 e-
14
Ionic Bonding (II)

e-
Na Cl Na+ Cl-
Electron transfer reduces the energy of the system of

atoms, that is, electron transfer is energetically favorable
Note relative sizes of ions: Na shrinks and Cl expands
Ionic bonds: very strong, nondirectional bonds
15
Covalent Bonding (I)

In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between the
molecules, to saturate the valency. The simplest example is
the H2 molecule, where the electrons spend more time in
between the nuclei than outside, thus producing bonding.
Formation of covalent bonds:

Cooperative sharing of valence electrons
Can be described by orbital overlap
Covalent bonds are HIGHLY directional
Bonds - in the direction of the greatest orbital overlap
Covalent bond model: an atom can covalently bond with
at most 8-N, N = number of valence electrons
Example: Cl2 molecule. ZCl =17 (1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P5)
N = 7, 8 - N = 1 can form only one covalent bond
16
Metallic Bonding
Valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in
an 'electron sea' that "glues" the ions together.
A metallic bond is non-directional (bonds form in any

direction) atoms pack closely
Electron cloud from valence electrons
ion core
20
Secondary Bonding (I)

Secondary = van der Waals = physical (as opposite to
chemical bonding that involves e- transfer) bonding results
from interaction of atomic or molecular dipoles and is
weak, ~0.1 eV/atom or ~10 kJ/mol.
_ _ - van der Waals bonding

+ +
Permanent dipole moments exist in some molecules (called

polar molecules) due to the asymmetrical arrangement of
positively and negatively regions (HCl, H2O). Bonds
between adjacent polar molecules permanent dipole
bonds are strongest among secondary bonds.
Polar molecules can induce dipoles in adjacent non-polar
molecules and bond is formed due to the attraction between
the permanent and induced dipoles.
Even in electrically symmetric molecules/atoms an electric
dipole can be created by fluctuations of electron density
distribution. Fluctuating electric field in one atom A is felt
by the electrons of an adjacent atom, and induce a dipole
momentum in this atom. This bond due to fluctuating
induced dipoles is the weakest (inert gases, H2, Cl2).
21
Secondary Bonding (II)

Example: hydrogen bond in water. The H end of the
molecule is positively charged and can bond to the
negative side of another H2O molecule (the O side of the
H2O dipole)
H H
-
+ +
Dipole
Hydrogen bond secondary bond formed between two

permanent dipoles in adjacent water molecules.
22
Summary (I)
Examples of bonding in Materials:

Metals: Metallic
Ceramics: Ionic / Covalent
Polymers: Covalent and Secondary
Semiconductors: Covalent or Covalent / Ionic
25
Summary (II)
26
Summary (III)
Make sure you understand language and concepts:
" Atomic mass unit (amu)
" Atomic number
" Atomic weight
" Bonding energy
" Coulombic force
" Covalent bond
" Dipole (electric)
" Electron state
" Electronegative
" Electropositive
" Hydrogen bond
" Ionic bond
" Metallic bond
" Mole
" Molecule
" Periodic table
" Polar molecule
" Primary bonding
" Secondary bonding
" Van der Waals bond
" Valence electron
27
Reading for next class:
Chapter 3: The structure of crystalline solids

Unit cells
Crystal structures
Face-centered cubic
Body-centered cubic
Hexagonal close-packed
Density computations
Types of solids
Single crystals
Polycrystalline
Amorphous
Optional reading (Parts that are not covered / not tested):

3.73.10 Crystallography
3.15 Diffraction
Learning objectives #5, #6
28
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 3, The structure of crystalline solids
Chapter Outline
How do atoms arrange themselves to form solids?
Fundamental concepts and language

Unit cells
Crystal structures
! Face-centered cubic
! Body-centered cubic
! Hexagonal close-packed
Close packed crystal structures
Density computations
Types of solids
Single crystal
Polycrystalline
Amorphous
3.73.10 Crystallography Not Covered / Not Tested

3.15 Diffraction Not Covered / Not Tested
Learning objectives #5, #6 - Not Covered / Not Tested
1
Types of Solids
Crystalline material: atoms self-organize in a periodic
array
Single crystal: atoms are in a repeating or periodic array
over the entire extent of the material
Polycrystalline material: comprised of many small
crystals or grains
Amorphous: lacks a systematic atomic arrangement
Crystalline Amorphous
SiO2
2
Crystal structure
To discuss crystalline structures it is useful to consider
atoms as being hard spheres with well-defined radii. In this
hard-sphere model, the shortest distance between two like
atoms is one diameter.
We can also consider crystalline structure as a lattice of
points at atom/sphere centers.
3
Unit Cell
The unit cell is the smallest structural unit or building block
that can describe the the crystal structure. Repetition of the
unit cell generates the entire crystal.
Example: 2D honeycomb net can

be represented by translation of
two adjacent atoms that form a unit
cell for this 2D crystalline structure
Example of 3D crystalline structure:
Different choices of unit cells possible, generally choose

parallelepiped unit cell with highest level of symmetry
4
Metallic Crystal Structures
! Metals are usually (poly)crystalline; although formation

of amorphous metals is possible by rapid cooling
! As we learned in Chapter 2, the atomic bonding in metals

is non-directional no restriction on numbers or
positions of nearest-neighbor atoms large number of
nearest neighbors and dense atomic packing
! Atom (hard sphere) ra dius, R, defined by ion core

radius - typically 0.1 - 0.2 nm
! The most common types of unit cells are the faced-

centered cubic (FCC), the body-centered cubic (FCC)
and the hexagonal close-packed (HCP).
5
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal Structure (I)
! Atoms are located at each of the corners and on the

centers of all the faces of cubic unit cell
! Cu, Al, Ag, Au have this crystal structure
Two representations
of the FCC unit cell
6
Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (II)
a
! The hard spheres or ion cores touch one another across a
face diagonal the cube edge length, a= 2R2
! The coordination number, CN = the number of closest
neighbors to which an atom is bonded = number of
touching atoms, CN = 12
! Number of atoms per u nit cell, n = 4 . (For an atom
that is shared with m adjacent unit cells, we only count a
fraction of the atom, 1/m). In FCC unit cell we have:
6 face atoms shared by two cells: 6 x 1/2 = 3
8 corner atoms shared by eight cells: 8 x 1/8 = 1
! Atomic packing factor, APF = fraction of volume
occupied by hard spheres = (Sum of atomic
volumes)/(Volume of cell) = 0.74 (maximum possible)
7
Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (III)

! Corner and face atoms in the unit cell are equivalent
! FCC crystal has APF of 0.74, the maximum packing for
a system equal-sized spheres FCC is a close-packed
structure
! FCC can be represented by a stack of close-packed
planes (planes with highest density of atoms)
8
Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structure (I)
Atom at each corner and at center of cubic unit cell

Cr, -Fe, Mo have this crystal structure
9
Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (II)
a
! The hard spheres touch one another along cube diagonal
the cube edge length, a= 4R/
3
! The coordination number, CN = 8
! Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 2
Center atom (1) shared by no other cells: 1 x 1 = 1
8 corner atoms shared by eight cells: 8 x 1/8 = 1
! Atomic packing factor, APF = 0.68
! Corner and center atoms are equivalent
10
Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure (I)
! HCP is one more common structure of metallic crystals

! Six atoms form regular hexagon, surrounding one atom
in center. Another plane is situated halfway up unit cell
(c-axis), with 3 additional atoms situated at interstices of
hexagonal (close-packed) planes
! Cd, Mg, Zn, Ti have this crystal structure
11
Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure (II)

! Unit cell has two lattice parameters a and c. Ideal ratio
c/a = 1.633
! The coordination number, CN = 12 (same as in FCC)
! Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 6.
3 mid-plane atoms shared by no other cells: 3 x 1 = 3
12 hexagonal corner atoms shared by 6 cells: 12 x 1/6 = 2
2 top/bottom plane center atoms shared by 2 cells: 2 x 1/2 = 1
! Atomic packing factor, APF = 0.74 (same as in FCC)

! All atoms are equivalent
12
Close-packed Structures (FCC and HCP)

! Both FCC and HCP crystal structures have atomic
packing factors of 0.74 (maximum possible value)
! Both FCC and HCP crystal structures may be generated
by the stacking of close-packed planes
! The difference between the two str uctures is in the
stacking sequence
HCP: ABABAB... FCC: ABCABCABC
13
FCC: Stacking Sequence ABCABCABC...
Third plane is placed above the holes of the first plane

not covered by the second plane
14
HCP: Stacking Sequence ABABAB...
Third plane is placed directly above the first plane of atoms
15
Density Computations
Since the entire crystal can be generated by the repetition
of the unit cell, the density of a crystalline material, = the
density of the unit cell = (atoms in the unit cell, n ) (mass
of an atom, M) / (the volume of the cell, Vc)
Atoms in the unit cell, n = 2 (BCC); 4 (FCC); 6 (HCP)
Mass of an atom, M = Atomic weight, A, in amu (or g/mol)

is given in the periodic table. To translate mass from amu
to grams we have to divide the atomic weight in amu by
the Avogadro number NA = 6.023 1023 atoms/mol
The volume of the cell, Vc = a3 (FCC and BCC)

a = 2R2 (FCC); a = 4R/3 (BCC)
where R is the atomic radius
Thus, the formula for the density is: nA

=
Vc N A
Atomic weight and atomic radius of many elements you

can find in the table at the back of the textbook front cover.
16
Polymorphism and Allotropy

Some materials may exist in more than one crystal
structure, this is called polymorphism. If the material is an
elemental solid, it is called allotropy.
An example of allotropy is carbon, which can exist as
diamond, graphite, and amorphous carbon.
Pure, solid carbon occurs in three crystalline forms diamond,

graphite; and large, hollow fullerenes. Two kinds of fullerenes
are shown here: buckminsterfullerene (buckyball) and carbon
nanotube.
17
Single Crystals and Polycrystalline Materials
Single crystal: atoms are in a repeating or periodic array

over the entire extent of the material
Polycrystalline material: comprised of many small
crystals or grains. The grains have different
crystallographic orientation. There exist atomic mismatch
within the regions where grains meet. These regions are
called grain boundaries.
Grain Boundary
18
Polycrystalline Materials
Atomistic model of a nanocrystalline solid by Mo Li, JHU
19
Polycrystalline Materials
Simulation of annealing of a polycrystalline grain structure

20
Anisotropy
Different directions in a crystal have a different packing.

For instance, atoms along the edge of FCC unit cell are
more separated than along the face diagonal. This causes
anisotropy in the properties of crystals, for instance, the
deformation depends on the direction in which a stress is
applied.
In some polycrystalline materials, grain orientations are

random, so bulk material properties are isotropic
Some polycrystalline materials have grains with preferred

orientations (texture), so properties are dominated by those
relevant to the texture orientation and the material exhibits
anisotropic properties
21
Non-Crystalline (Amorphous) Solids
In amorphous solids, there is no long-range order. But

amorphous does not mean random, in many cases there is
some form of short-range order.
Schematic picture of
amorphous SiO2 structure
Amorphous structure from

simulations by E. H. Brandt
22
Summary
! Allotropy
! Amorphous
! Anisotropy
! Atomic packing factor (APF)
! Body-centered cubic (BCC)
! Coordination number
! Crystal structure
! Crystalline
! Face-centered cubic (FCC)
! Grain
! Grain boundary
! Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
! Isotropic
! Lattice parameter
! Non-crystalline
! Polycrystalline
! Polymorphism
! Single crystal
! Unit cell
23
Chapter 4: Imperfections in Solids

Point defects (vacancies, interstitials)
Dislocations (edge, screw)
Grain boundaries (tilt, twist)
Weight and atomic composition

4.9 Microscopy
4.10 Grain size determination
24
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 4, Imperfections in solids
Chapter Outline
Crystals are like people, it is the defects in them which
tend to make them interesting! - Colin Humphreys.
Defects in Solids
! 0D, Point defects
" vacancies
" interstitials
" impurities, weight and atomic composition
! 1D, Dislocations
" edge
" screw
! 2D, Grain boundaries
" tilt
" twist
! 3D, Bulk or Volume defects
! Atomic vibrations
4.9 - 4.10 Microscopy & Grain size determination
Not Covered / Not Tested
1
Defects Introduction (I)
Real crystals are never perfect, there are always defects
Schematic drawing of a poly-crystal with many defects by

Helmut Fll, University of Kiel, Germany.
2
Defects Introduction (II)
Defects have a profound impact on the macroscopic

properties of materials
Bonding
+
Structure Properties
+
Defects
3
Defects Introduction (III)

The processing determines the defects
Composition
Bonding Crystal Structure
Thermomechanical
Processing
defects introduction and manipulation
Microstructure
4
Types of Defects
Defects may be classified into four categories depending on

their dimension:
! 0D, Point defects : atoms missing or in irregular places

in the lattice (vacancies, interstitials, impurities)
! 1D, Linear defects: groups of atoms in irregular

positions (e.g. screw and edge dislocations)
! 2D, Planar defects: the interfaces between

homogeneous regions of the material (grain boundaries,
external surfaces)
! 3D, Volume defects: extended defects (pores, cracks)
5
Point defects: vacancies & self-interstitials
Self-interstitials
Vacancy
Vacancy - a lattice position that is vacant because the atom

is missing.
Interstitial - an atom that occupies a place outside the
normal lattice position. It may be the same type of atom as
the others (self interstitial) or an impurity interstitial atom.
6
How many vacancies are there?

The equilibrium number of vacancies formed as a result of
thermal vibrations may be calculated from
thermodynamics:
N v = N s exp v
Q

k B
T
where Ns is the number of regular lattice sites, kB is the

Boltzmann constant, Qv is the energy needed to form a
vacant lattice site in a perfect crystal, and T the
temperature in Kelvin (note, not in oC or oF).
Using this equation we can estimate that at room

temperature in copper there is one vacancy per 1015 lattice
atoms, whereas at high temperature, just below the melting
point there is one vacancy for every 10,000 atoms.
Note, that the above equation gives the lower end estimation of
the number of vacancies, a large numbers of additional (non-
equilibrium) vacancies can be introduced in a growth process or
as a result of further treatment (plastic deformation, quenching
from high temperature to the ambient one, etc.)
7
Impurities
Impurities - atoms which are different from the host

! All real solids are impure. Very pure metals 99.9999%
- one impurity per 106 atoms
! May be intentional or unintentional

Examples: carbon added in small amounts to iron
makes steel, which is stronger than pure iron. Boron
added to silicon change its electrical properties.
! Alloys - deliberate mixtures of metals

Example: sterling silver is 92.5% silver 7.5% copper
alloy. Stronger than pure silver.
10
Solid Solutions
Solid solutions are made of a hos t (the solvent or
matrix) which dissolves the minor co mponent
(solute). The ability to dissolve is called solubility.
! Solvent: in an alloy, the element or compound
present in greater amount
! Solute: in an alloy, the element or compound
present in lesser amount
! Solid Solution:
" homogeneous
" maintain crystal structure
" contain randomly dispersed impurities
(substitutional or interstitial)
! Second Phase: as solute atoms are added, new
compounds / structures are formed, or solute forms
local precipitates (discussed in Chapter 9)
Whether the addition of impurities results in formation of

solid solution or second phase depends the nature of the
impurities, their concentration and temperature, pressure
11
Substitutional Solid Solutions
Ni
Cu
Factors for high solubility:

! Atomic size factor - atoms need to fit solute
and solvent atomic radii should be within ~ 15%
! Crystal structures of solute and solvent should be
the same
! Electronegativities of solute and solvent should be
comparable (otherwise new inter-metallic phases
are encouraged)
! Generally more solute goes into solution when it
has higher valency than solvent
12
Interstitial Solid Solutions
Carbon interstitial
atom in BCC iron
Interstitial solid solution of C in -Fe. The C atom is small

enough to fit, after introducing some strain into the BCC
lattice.
Factors for high solubility:

! For fcc, bcc, hcp structures the voids (or interstices)
between the host atoms are relatively small atomic
radius of solute should be significantly less than
solvent
Normally, max. solute concentration 10%, (2% for C-Fe)
13
Composition / Concentration
Composition can be expressed in
! weight percent, useful when making the solution
! atom percent, useful when trying to understand the
material at the atomic level
# Weight percent (wt %): weight of a particular element

relative to the total alloy weight. For two-component
system, concentration of element 1 in wt. % is
m1
C1 = 100
m1 + m 2
# Atom percent (at %): number of moles (atoms) of a
particular element relative to the total number of moles
(atoms) in alloy. For two-component system,
concentration of element 1 in at. % is
n m1
C =
'
100
n m1 + n m 2
1
where nm1 = m1/A1 m1 is weight in grams of element 1,

A1 is atomic weight of element 1)
14
Composition Conversions
Weight % to Atomic %:
C1A 2
C =
'
100
C1A 2 + C 2 A1
1
C 2 A1
C ='
100
C1A 2 + C 2 A1
2
Atomic % to Weight %:
C1' A1
C1 = ' 100
C1A1 + C 2 A 2
'
C '2 A 2
C2 = ' 100
C1A1 + C 2 A 2
'
Textbook, pp. 71-74
15
DislocationsLinear Defects
Dislocations are linear de fects: the interatomic bonds are
significantly distorted only in the immediate vicinity of the
dislocation line. This area is called the dislocation core.
Dislocations also create small elastic deformations of the
lattice at large distances.
Dislocations are very important in mechanical properties of

material (Chapters 6, 7, 8). Introduction/discovery of
dislocations in 1934 by Taylor, Orowan and Polyani
marked the beginning of our understanding of mechanical
properties of materials.
16
Description of DislocationsBurgers Vector

To describe the size and the direction of the main lattice
distortion caused by a dislocation we should introduce so-
called Burgers vector b . To find the Burgers vector, we
should make a circuit from from atom to atom counting the
same number of atomic distances in all directions. If the
circuit encloses a dislocation it will not close. The vector
that closes the loop is the Burgers vector b.
b
Dislocations shown above have Burgers vector directed

perpendicular to the dislocation line. These dislocations
are called edge dislocations.
17
Edge and screw dislocations

Dislocations shown in previous slide are edge dislocations,
have Burgers vector directed perpendicular to the
dislocation line.
There is a second basic type of dislocation, called screw
dislocation. The screw dislocation is parallel to the
direction in which the crystal is being displaced (Burgers
vector is parallel to the dislocation line).
Find the Burgers vector of a screw dislocation.

How a screw dislocation got its name?
18
Interfacial Defects
External Surfaces
Surface atoms have have unsatisfied atomic bonds, and
higher energies than the bulk atoms Surface energy,
(J/m2)
Surface areas tend to minimize (e.g. liquid drop)
Solid surfaces can reconstruct to satisfy atomic
bonds at surfaces.
Grain Boundaries
Polycrystalline material comprised of many small crystals
or grains. The grains have different crystallographic
orientation. There exist atomic mismatch within the
regions where grains meet. These regions are called grain
boundaries.
Surfaces and interfaces are reactive and impurities tend to

segregate there. Since energy is associated with interfaces,
grains tend to grow in size at the expense of smaller grains
to minimize energy. This occurs by diffusion (Chapter 5),
which is accelerated at high temperatures.
20
High and Low Angle Grain Boundaries

Depending on misalignments of atomic planes
between adjacent grains we can distinguish between
the low and high angle grain boundaries
21
Bulk or Volume Defects
! Pores - can greatly affect optical, thermal,

mechanical properties
! Cracks - can greatly affect mechanical properties
! Foreign inclusions - can greatly affect electrical,

mechanical, optical properties
A cluster of microcracks in a
melanin granule irradiated by
a short laser pulse. Computer
simulation by L. V. Zhigilei
and B. J. Garrison.
25
Summary
! Alloy
! Atom percent
! Atomic vibration
! Boltzmanns constant
! Burgers vector
! Composition
! Dislocation line
! Edge dislocation
! Grain size
! Imperfection
! Interstitial solid solution
! Microstructure
! Point defect
! Screw dislocation
! Self-Interstitial
! Solid solution
! Solute
! Solvent
! Substitutional solid solution
! Vacancy
! Weight percent
27
Chapter 5: Diffusion
Diffusion Mechanisms (vacancy, interstitial)
Steady-State Diffusion (Ficks first law)
Factors That Influence Diffusion
Other Diffusion Paths
Optional reading (Part that is not covered / not tested):

5.4 Nonsteady-state diffusion
28
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 5, Diffusion
Chapter Outline
Diffusion - how do atoms move through solids?
! Diffusion mechanisms
" Vacancy diffusion
" Interstitial diffusion
" Impurities
! The mathematics of diffusion

" Steady-state diffusion (Ficks first law)
" Nonsteady-State Diffusion (Ficks second law)
! Factors that influence diffusion

" Diffusing species
" Host solid
" Temperature
" Microstructure
5.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion Not Covered / Not Tested
1
What is diffusion?
Diffusion is material transport by atomic motion.
Inhomogeneous materials can become homogeneous by

diffusion. For an active diffusion to occur, the temperature
should be high enough to overcome energy barriers to
atomic motion.
2
Interdiffusion and Self-diffusion

Interdiffusion (or impurity diff usion) occurs in
response to a concentration gradient.
(Heat)
Before After
Self-diffusion is diffusion in one-component material,

when all atoms that exchange positions are of the same
type.
3
Diffusion Mechanisms (I)
Vacancy diffusion
Atom migration Vacancy migration
Before After
To jump from lattice site to lattice site, atoms need

energy to break bonds with neighbors, and to cause
the necessary lattice distortions during jump. This
energy comes from the thermal energy of atomic
vibrations (Eav ~ kT)
Materials flow (the atom) is opposite the vacancy flow

direction.
4
Diffusion Mechanisms (II)

Interstitial diffusion
Interstitial atom Interstitial atom
before diffusion after diffusion
Interstitial diffusion is generally faster than vacancy

diffusion because bonding of interstitials to the
surrounding atoms is normally weaker and there are
many more interstitial sites than vacancy sites to jump
to.
Requires small impurity atoms (e.g. C, H, O) to fit

into interstices in host.
5
Diffusion Flux
The flux of diffusing atoms, J, is used to quantify

how fast diffusion occurs. The flux is defined as
either in number of atoms diffusing through unit area
and per unit time (e.g., atoms/m2-second) or in terms
of the mass flux - mass of atoms diffusing through
unit area per unit time, (e.g., kg/m2-second).
J = M / At (1/A) (dM/dt) (Kg m-2 s-1)
where M is the mass of atoms diffusing through the

area A during time t.
J
A
6
Steady-State Diffusion
Steady state diffusion: the diffusion flux does not

change with time.
Concentration profile: concentration of
atoms/molecules of interest as function of position in
the sample.
Concentration gradient: dC/dx (Kg.m-3): the slope
at a particular point on concentration profile.
dC C C A C B
=
dx x x A x B
7
Steady-State Diffusion: Ficks first law

Ficks first law: the diffusion flux along direction x is
proportional to the concentration gradient
dC
J = D where D is the diffusion coefficient
dx
The concentration gradient is often called the driving force

in diffusion (but it is not a force in the mechanistic sense).
The minus sign in the equation means that diffusion is
down the concentration gradient.
8
Diffusion: Role of the microstructure (I)
Self-diffusion coefficients for Ag depend on the diffusion

path. In general the diffusivity if greater through less
restrictive structural regions grain boundaries, dislocation
cores, external surfaces.
17
Factors that Influence Diffusion: Summary
" Temperature - diffusion rate increas es very rapidly

with increasing temperature
" Diffusion mechanism - interstitial is usually faster

than vacancy
" Diffusing and host species - Do, Qd is different for

every solute, solvent pair
" Microstructure - diffusion faster in polycrystalline

vs. single crystal materials because of the accelerated
diffusion along grain boundaries and dislocation
cores.
19
Summary
" Activation energy
" Concentration gradient
" Diffusion
" Diffusion coefficient
" Diffusion flux
" Driving force
" Ficks first and second laws
" Interdiffusion
" Interstitial diffusion
" Self-diffusion
" Steady-state diffusion
" Vacancy diffusion
20
Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals
" Stress and Strain

# Tension
# Compression
# Shear
# Torsion
" Elastic deformation
" Plastic Deformation
# Yield Strength
# Tensile Strength
# Ductility
# Resilience
# Toughness
# Hardness
21
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
Chapter Outline
Mechanical Properties of Metals
How do metals respond to external loads?
! Stress and Strain

" Tension
" Compression
" Shear
" Torsion
! Elastic deformation
! Plastic Deformation
" Yield Strength
" Tensile Strength
" Ductility
" Toughness
" Hardness
Not tested: true stress-true stain relationships, resilience, details
of the different types of hardness tests, variability of material
properties
1
Introduction
To understand and describe how materials deform
(elongate, compress, twist) or break as a function of
applied load, time, temperature, and other conditions we
need first to discuss standard test methods and standard
language for mechanical properties of materials.
Stress, (MPa)
Strain, (mm / mm)

2
Types of Loading
Tensile
Compressive
Shear
Torsion
3
Concepts of Stress and Strain

(tension and compression)
To compare specimens of different sizes, the load is

calculated per unit area.
Engineering stress: = F / Ao
F is load applied perpendicular to speciment cross-
section; A0 is cross-sectional area (perpendicular to
the force) before application of the load.
Engineering strain: = l / lo (
100 %)
l is change in length, lo is the original length.
These definitions of stress and strain allow one to

compare test results for specimens of different cross-
sectional area A0 and of different length l0.
Stress and strain are positive for tensile loads, negative

for compressive loads
4
Concepts of Stress and Strain

(shear and torsion)
Shear stress: = F / Ao
F is load applied parallel to the upper and lower faces
each of which has an area A0.
Shear strain: = tg
(
100 %)
is strain angle
Torsion is variation of pure shear. A shear stress in

this case is a function of applied torque T, shear strain
is related to the angle of twist, .
Shear Torsion
5
Stress-Strain Behavior
Elastic Plastic Elastic deformation

Reversible: when the stress
is removed, the material
returns to the dimension it
had before the loading.
Usually strains are small
Stress
(except for the case of

plastics).
Plastic deformation
Irreversible: when the stress
is removed, the material
does not return to its
Strain previous dimension.
6
Stress-Strain Behavior: Elastic deformation

In tensile tests, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-
strain relationship is called Hooke's law:
= E
E is Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity , has the
same units as , N/m2 or Pa
Unload
Slope = modulus of
Stress
elasticity E
Load
Strain
Higher E higher stiffness
7
Elastic Deformation: Nonlinear elastic behavior
In some materials (many polymers, concrete...), elastic

deformation is not linear, but it is still reversible.
/ = tangent modulus at 2
Definitions of E
/ = secant modulus
between origin and 1
8
Elastic Deformation: Atomic scale picture

Chapter 2: the force-separation curve for interacting atoms
High
modulus Strongly
bonded
Force, F
Separation, r
Low
modulus
Weakly
bonded E ~ (dF/dr) at ro
(r0 equilibrium separation)
9
Elastic Deformation: Anelasticity

(time dependence of elastic deformation)
So far we have assumed that elastic deformation is

time independent (i.e. applied stress produces
instantaneous elastic strain)
However, in reality elastic deformation takes time

(finite rate of atomic/molecular deformation
processes) - continues after initial loading, and after
load release. This time dependent elastic behavior
is known as anelasticity.
The effect is normally small for metals but can be
significant for polymers (visco-elastic behavior).
10
Elastic Deformation: Poissons ratio
Unloaded Loaded
x y
= =
z z
Materials subject to tension shrink laterally. Those
subject to compression, bulge. The ratio of lateral and
axial strains is called the Poisson's ratio .
is dimensionless, sign shows that lateral strain is in

opposite sense to longitudinal strain
Theoretical value for isotropic material: 0.25
Maximum value: 0.50, Typical value: 0.24 - 0.30
11
Elastic Deformation: Shear Modulus
Zo
Unloaded
Loaded

Relationship of shear stress to shear strain:
= G , where: = tg = y / zo
G is Shear Modulus (Units: N/m2)
For isotropic material:
E = 2G(1+ ) G ~ 0.4E
(Note: single crystals are usually elastically
anisotropic: the elastic behavior varies with
crystallographic direction, see Chapter 3)
12
Stress-Strain Behavior: Plastic deformation
Plastic deformation:
stress and strain are not proportional
the deformation is not reversible
deformation occurs by breaking and re-arrangement of
atomic bonds (in crystalline materials primarily by
motion of dislocations, Chapter 7)
13
Tensile properties: Yielding
Elastic Plastic
Yield strength y - is chosen as

that causing a permanent strain
of 0.002
Stress
Yield point P - the strain deviates

from being proportional to the stress
(the proportional limit)
The yield stress is a measure of

resistance to plastic deformation
Strain
14
Tensile properties: Yielding
Stress
Strain
For a low-carbon steel, the stress vs. strain curve

includes both an upper and lower yield point. The
yield strength is defined in this case as the average
stress at the lower yield point.
15
Tensile Strength
If stress = tensile strength is maintained

then specimen will eventually break
Fracture
Strength
Stress,
Necking
Tensile strength: maximum

stress (~ 100 - 1000 MPa)
Strain,
For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a

more important property than the tensile strength, since
once the yield stress has passed, the structure has deformed
beyond acceptable limits.
16
Tensile properties: Ductility
Ductility is a measure of the deformation at fracture

lf l0
Defined by %EL = 100
percent elongation l0
or A0 Af
percent reduction in area %RA = 100
A0
17
Typical mechanical properties of metals
The yield strength and tensile strength vary with prior

thermal and mechanical treatment, impurity levels,
etc. This variability is related to the behavior of
dislocations in the material, Chapter 7. But elastic
moduli are relatively insensitive to these effects.
The yield and tensile strengths and modulus of

elasticity decrease with increasing temperature,
ductility increases with temperature.
18
Toughness
Toughness = the ability to absorb energy up to fracture =

the total area under the strain-stress curve up to fracture
Units: the energy per unit volume, e.g. J/m3
Can be measured by an impact test (Chapter 8).
19
True Stress and Strain
T = F/Ai T = ln(li/lo)
= F/Ao = (li-lo/lo)
True stress = load divided by actual area in the

necked-down region, continues to rise to the point of
fracture, in contrast to the engineering stress.
20
Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation
If a material is deformed plastically and the stress is then

released, the material ends up with a permanent strain.
If the stress is reapplied, the material again responds
elastically at the beginning up to a new yield point that is
higher than the original yield point.
The amount of elastic strain that it will take before
reaching the yield point is called elastic strain recovery.
21
Hardness (I)
Hardness is a measure of the mate rials resistance
to localized plastic deformation (e.g. dent or scratch)
A qualitative Mohs scale, determined by the ability of
a material to scratch another material: from 1 (softest
= talc) to 10 (hardest = diamond).
Different types of quantitative

hardness test has been designed
(Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, etc.).
Usually a small indenter (sphere,
cone, or pyramid) is forced into the
surface of a material under
conditions of controlled magnitude
and rate of loading. The depth or
size of indentation is measured.
The tests somewhat approximate,
but popular because they are easy
and non-destructive (except for the
small dent).
22
Hardness (II)
Tensile strength (MPa)
Tensile strength (103 psi)

Brinell hardness number
Both tensile strength and hardness may be regarded as

degree of resistance to plastic deformation.
Hardness is proportional to the tensile strength - but
note that the proportionality constant is different for
different materials.
23
What are the limits of safe deformation?

Stress
For practical engineering design,

the yield strength is usually the
important parameter
Strain
Design stress: d = Nc where c = maximum

anticipated stress, N is the design factor > 1. Want to
make sure that d < y
Safe or working stress: w = y/N where N is factor of

safety > 1.
24
Summary
" Anelasticity
" Ductility
" Elastic deformation
" Elastic recovery
" Engineering strain
" Engineering stress
" Hardness
" Modulus of elasticity
" Plastic deformation
" Poissons ratio
" Proportional limit
" Shear
" Tensile strength
" Toughness
" Yielding
" Yield strength
25

Chapter 7: Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms
" Dislocations and Plastic Deformation

# Motion of dislocations in response to stress
# Slip Systems
# Plastic deformation in
! single crystals
! polycrystalline materials
" Strengthening mechanisms
# Grain Size Reduction
# Solid Solution Strengthening
# Strain Hardening
" Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
Optional reading (Part that is not covered / not tested):
7.7 Deformation by twinning
In our discussion of slip systems, 7.4, we will not get into
direction and plane nomenclature
26
Introduction to Materials Science, Chapter 7, Dislocations and strengthening mechanisms
Chapter Outline
Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms
What is happening in material during plastic deformation?
! Dislocations and Plastic Deformation

" Motion of dislocations in response to stress
" Slip Systems
" Plastic deformation in
! single crystals
! polycrystalline materials
! Strengthening mechanisms
" Grain Size Reduction
" Solid Solution Strengthening
" Strain Hardening
! Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
Not tested: 7.7 Deformation by twinning,

Direction and plane nomenclature in 7.4.
1
Introduction
Why metals could be plastically deformed?
Why the plastic deformation properties could be changed
to a very large degree by forging without changing the
chemical composition?
Why plastic deformation occurs at stresses that are much
smaller than the theoretical strength of perfect crystals?
Plastic deformation the force to break all bonds in the

slip plane is much higher than the force needed to cause the
deformation. Why?
These questions can be answered based on the idea

proposed in 1934 by Taylor, Orowan and Polyani: Plastic
deformation is due to th e motion of a large number of
dislocations.
2
Dislocations allow deformation at much lower stress

than in a perfect crystal
If the top half of the crystal is slipping one plane at a time

then only a small fraction of the bonds are broken at any
given time and this would require a much smaller force.
The propagation of one dislocation across the plane causes
the top half of the crystal to move (to slip) with respect to
the bottom half but we do not have to break all the bonds
across the middle plane simultaneously (which would
require a very large force).
The slip plane the crystallographic plane of dislocation
motion.
3
Direction of the dislocation motion
Edge dislocation line moves parallel to applied stress
Screw dislocation line moves perpendicular to applied

stress
For mixed dislocations, direction of motion is in between

parallel and perpendicular to the applied shear stress
4
Strain field around dislocations
Dislocations have strain fields arising from

distortions at their cores - strain drops radially
with distance from dislocation core
Edge dislocations introduce compressive, tensile, and shear

lattice strains, screw dislocations introduce shear strain
only.
5
Interactions between Dislocations
The strain fields around dislocations cause them to

interact (exert force on each other). When they are
in the same plane, they repel if the y have the same
sign (direction of the Burgers vector) and
attract/annihilate if they have opposite signs.
6
Where do Dislocations Come From ?

The number of dislocations in a material is expressed as the
dislocation density - the total dislocation length per unit
volume or the number of dislocations intersecting a unit
area. Dislocation densities can vary from 105 cm-2 in
carefully solidified metal crystals to 1012 cm-2 in heavily
deformed metals.
Most crystalline materials, especially metals, have
dislocations in their as-formed state, mainly as a result of
stresses (mechanical, thermal...) associated with the
forming process.
The number of dislocations
increases dramatically
during plastic deformation.
Dislocations spawn from
existing dislocations, grain
boundaries and surfaces.
This picture is a snapshot from
simulation of plastic deformation
in a fcc single crystal (Cu) of
linear dimension 15 micrometers.
See animation at http://zig.onera.fr/lem/DisGallery/3D.html
7
Slip Systems
In single crystals there are preferred planes where
dislocations move (slip planes). Within the slip planes
there are preferred crystallographic directions for
dislocation movement (slip directions). The set of slip
planes and directions constitute slip systems.
The slip pl anes and directions are those of highest
packing density. Since the distance between atoms is shorter
than the average, the distance perpendicular to the plane has
to be longer than average. Being relatively far apart, the
planes can slip more easily relatively to each other.
BCC and FCC crystals have more slip systems as
compared to HCP, there are more ways for dislocation to
propagate FCC and BCC crystals are more ductile than
HCP crystals. Remember our discussion of close packed
planes in FCC and HCP, Chapter 3.

Slip in Single Crystals - Resolving the Applied

Stress onto the Slip System
Dislocations move in particular directions on particular
planes (the slip system) in response to shear stresses
applied along these planes and directions we need to
determine how the applied stress is resolved onto the slip
systems.
Let us define the resolved

shear stress, R, (which
produces plastic deformation)
that result from application of
a simple tensile stress, .
R = cos cos
9
Slip in Single Crystals - Critical Resolved Shear Stress
When the resolved shear stress becomes sufficiently large,

the crystal will start to yield (dislocations start to move
along the most favorably oriented slip system). The onset
of yielding corresponds to the yield stress, y (Chapter 6).
The minimum shear stress required to initiate slip is termed
the critical resolved shear stress:
CRSS = y (cos cos )MAX
CRSS
y =
(cos cos )MAX
Maximum value of (cos cos) corresponds to
= = 45o cos cos = 0.5 y = 2CRSS
Slip will occur first in slip systems oriented close to this

angle ( = = 45o) with respect to the applied stress
10
Slip in a Single Crystal
Each step (shear band) result from the

generation of a large number of
dislocations and their propagation in Zn
the slip system with maximum resolved
shear stress.
11
Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials
Grain orientations with respect to applied stress are

random.
The dislocation motion occurs along the slip systems with
favorable orientation (i.e. that with highest resolved shear
stress).
Cu
12
Larger plastic deformation corresponds to elongation of

grains along direction of applied stress.
Before After
13
# Slip directions vary from crystal to crystal Some

grains are unfavorably oriented with respect to the
applied stress (i.e. cos cos low)
# Even those grains for which cos cos is high may be
limited in deformation by adjacent grains which cannot
deform so easily
# Dislocations cannot easily cross grain boundaries
because of changes in direction of slip plane and
disorder at grain boundary
# As a result, polycrystalline metals are stronger than
single crystals (the exception is the perfect single
crystal without any defects, as in whiskers)
14
Strengthening
The ability of a metal to deform depends on the

ability of dislocations to move
Restricting dislocation motion ma kes the ma terial
stronger
Mechanisms of strengthening in single-phase metals:

# grain-size reduction
# solid-solution alloying
# strain hardening
Ordinarily, strengthening reduces ductility
15
Strengthening by grain-size reduction (I)
Grain boundary barrier to dislocation motion: slip plane

discontinues or change orientation.
Small angle grain boundaries are not very effective in

blocking dislocations.
High-angle grain boundaries block slip and increase
strength of the material. A stress concentration at end of a
slip plane may trigger new dislocations in an adjacent
grain.
16
Strengthening by grain-size reduction (II)

The finer the grains, the larger the area of grain boundaries
that impedes dislocation motion. Grain-size reduction
usually improves toughness as well. Usually, the yield
strength varies with grain size d according to Hall-Petch
equation:
y = 0 + k y d
where o and ky are constants for a particular material, d is
the average grain diameter.
70 Cu - 30 Zn
brass alloy
Grain size d can be controlled by the rate of solidification,

by plastic deformation and by appropriate heat treatment.
17
Solid-Solution Strengthening (I)
Alloys are usually stronger than pure metals of the

solvent.
Interstitial or substitutional impurities in a solution

cause lattice strain. As a result, these impurities
interact with dislocation strain fields and hinder
dislocation motion.
Impurities tend to diffuse and segregate around the

dislocation core to find atomic sites more suited to
their radii. This reduces the overall strain energy and
anchor the dislocation.
Motion of the dislocation core away from the

impurities moves it to a region of lattice where the
atomic strains are greater (i.e. the dislocation strains
are no longer compensated by the impurity atoms).
18
Solid-Solution Strengthening (II)
Smaller and larger substitutional impurities tend to diffuse

into strained regions around the dislocation leading to
partial cancellation of impurity-dislocation lattice strains.
19
Solid-Solution Strengthening (III)
20
Strengthening by increase of dislocation density

(Strain Hardening = Work Hardening = Cold Working)
Ductile metals become stronger when they are deformed

plastically at temperatures well below the melting point.
The reason for strain hardening is the increase of

dislocation density with plastic d eformation. The
average distance between dislocations decreases and
dislocations start blocking the motion of each other.
The percent cold work (%CW) is often used to express the

degree of plastic deformation:
A0 Ad
%CW = 100
A0
where A0 is the original cross-section area, Ad is the area
after deformation.
%CW is just another measure of the degree of plastic

deformation, in addition to strain.
21
Strain Hardening (II)
New yield strength y 0 is higher than the initial yield
strength, yi . The reason for this effect - strain hardening.
22
Strain Hardening (III)
Yield strength and hardness are increasing as a result of

strain hardening but ductility is decreasing (material
becomes more brittle).
23
Strain Hardening (IV)
24
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
# Plastic deformation increases dislocation density

(single and polycrystalline materials) and changes
grain size distributions (polycrystalline materials).
# This corresponds to stored strain energy in the system

(dislocation strain fields and grain distortions).
# When applied external stress is removed - most of the

dislocations, grain distortions and associated strain
energy are retained.
# Restoration to the state before cold-work can be done by

heat-treatment and involves two processes: recovery
and recrystallization. These may be followed by grain
growth.
25
Recovery
Heating increased diffusion enhanced dislocation

motion decrease in dislocation density by
annihilation, formation of low-energy dislocation
configurations relieve of the internal strain energy
Some of the mechanisms of dislocation annihilation:
Edge dislocation
slip plane
vacancies
26
Recrystallization (I)
# Even after recovery the grains can be strained. These

strained grains of cold-worked metal can be replaced,
upon heating, by strain-free grains with low density of
dislocations.
# This occurs through recrystallization nucleation

and growth of new grains.
# The driving force for recrystallization is the difference

in internal energy between strained and unstrained
material.
# Grain growth involves short-range diffusion the

extend of recrystallization depends on both temperature
and time.
# Recristallization is slower in alloys as compared to pure

metals
27
Recrystallization (II)
Recrystallization temperature: the temperature at which
the process is complete in one hour. It is typically 1/3 to
1/2 of the melting temperature (can be as high as 0.7 Tm in
some alloys).
Recrystallization decreases as the %CW is increased.
Below a "critical deformation", recrystallization does not
occur.
28
Recrystallization (III)

Grain Growth
# If deformed polycrystalline material is maintained at
annealing temperature following complete
recrystallization, then further grain growth occurs.
# Driving force is reduction of grain boundary area and
hence energy Big grains grow at the expense of the
small ones.
# Grain growth during annealing occurs in all
polycrystalline materials (i.e. they do not have to be
deformed or undergo recrystallization first).
# Boundary motion occurs by short range diffusion of
atoms across the grain boundary strong temperature
dependence of the grain growth.
30
Summary
# Cold working
# Critical resolved shear stress
# Dislocation density
# Grain growth
# Lattice strain
# Recovery
# Recrystallization
# Recrystallization temperature
# Resolved shear stress
# Slip
# Slip system
# Strain hardening
# Solid-solution strengthening
31
Chapter 8: Failure
# Mechanisms of brittle vs. ductile fracture
# Impact fracture testing

# Fatigue (cyclic stresses)
# Crack initiation and propagation
# Creep (time dependent deformation)

Part of 8.5 Principles of fracture mechanics (pp. 189 198)
8.10 Crack propagation rate
8.15 Data extrapolation methods
32
Introduction to Materials Science, Chapter 8, Failure
Chapter Outline: Failure

How do Materials Break?
! Ductile vs. brittle fracture

! Principles of fracture mechanics
" Stress concentration
! Impact fracture testing
! Fatigue (cyclic stresses)
" Cyclic stresses, the SN curve
" Crack initiation and propagation
" Factors that affect fatigue behavior
! Creep (time dependent deformation)
" Stress and temperature effects
"Alloys for high-temperature use
Not tested: 8.10 Crack propagation rate

8.15 Data extrapolation methods
1
Fracture
Fracture: separation of a body into pieces due to stress, at
temperatures below the melting point.
Steps in fracture:
# crack formation
# crack propagation
Depending on the ability of material to undergo plastic

deformation before the fracture two fracture modes can be
defined - ductile or brittle
Ductile fracture - most metals (not too cold):

# Extensive plastic deformation ahead of crack
# Crack is stable: resists further extension unless
applied stress is increased
Brittle fracture - ceramics, ice, cold metals:
# Relatively little plastic deformation
# Crack is unstable: propagates rapidly without
increase in applied stress
Ductile fracture is preferred in most applications
2
Brittle vs. Ductile Fracture
Ductile materials - extensive plastic deformation and

energy absorption (toughness) before fracture
Brittle materials - little plastic deformation and low
energy absorption before fracture
3
Brittle vs. Ductile Fracture
A B C
A. Very ductile, soft metals (e.g. Pb, Au) at room

temperature, other metals, polymers, glasses at high
temperature.
B. Moderately ductile fracture, typical for ductile metals
C. Brittle fracture, cold metals, ceramics.
4
Ductile Fracture (Dislocation Mediated)
Crack
grows
90o to
applied
stress
45O -
maximum
shear
stress
(a) Necking, (b) Cavity Formation,

(c) Cavity coalescence to form a crack,
(d) Crack propagation, (e) Fracture
5
Ductile Fracture
(Cap-and-cone fracture in Al
Scanning Electron Microscopy: Fractographic studies at

high resolution. Spherical dimples correspond to
micro-cavities that initiate crack formation.
6
Brittle Fracture (Limited Dislocation Mobility)

# No appreciable plastic deformation
# Crack propagation is very fast
# Crack propagates nearly perpendicular to the
direction of the applied stress
# Crack often propagates by cleavage - breaking
of atomic bonds along specific
crystallographic planes (cleavage planes).
Brittle fracture in a mild steel
7
Brittle Fracture
A. Transgranular fracture: Fracture cracks pass through

grains. Fracture surface have faceted texture because
of different orientation of cleavage planes in grains.
B. Intergranular fracture: Fracture crack propagation is
along grain boundaries (grain boundaries are weakened
or embrittled by impurities segregation etc.)
A B
8
Stress Concentration
Fracture strength of a brittle solid is related to the cohesive
forces between atoms. One can estimate that the
theoretical cohesive strength of a brittle material should be
~ E/10. But experimental fracture strength is normally
E/100 - E/10,000.
This much lower fracture strength is explained by the
effect of stress concentration at microscopic flaws. The
applied stress is amplified at the tips of micro-cracks,
voids, notches, surface scratches, corners, etc. that are
called stress raisers. The magnitude of this amplification
depends on micro-crack orientations, geometry and
dimensions.
Figure by
N. Bernstein &
D. Hess, NRL
9
Stress Concentration
For a long crack oriented perpendicular to the applied

stress the maximum stress near the crack tip is: 1/ 2
a
m 2 0
t
where 0 is the applied external stress, a is the half-length
of the crack, and t the radius of curvature of the crack tip.
(note that a is half-length of the internal flaw, but the full
length for a surface flaw). 1/ 2
m a
The stress concentration factor is: K t = 2
0 t
10
Impact Fracture Testing

(testing fracture characteristics under high strain rates)
Two standard tests, the Charpy and Izod, measure the
impact energy (the energy required to fracture a test piece
under an impact load), also called the notch toughness.
Izod Charpy
h
h
Energy ~ h - h
11
Ductile-to-brittle transition
As temperature decreases a ductile material can become
brittle - ductile-to-brittle transition
Alloying usually increases the ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature. FCC metals remain ductile down to very low
temperatures. For ceramics, this type of transition occurs
at much higher temperatures than for metals.
The ductile-to-brittle transition can be measured by impact
testing: the impact energy needed for fracture drops
suddenly over a relatively narrow temperature range
temperature of the ductile-to-brittle transition.

Fatigue
(Failure under fluctuating / cyclic stresses)
Under fluctuating / cyclic stresses, failure can occur at
loads considerably lower than tensile or yield strengths of
material under a static load: Fatigue
Estimated to causes 90% of all failures of metallic

structures (bridges, aircraft, machine components, etc.)
Fatigue failure is brittle-like (relatively little plastic

deformation) - even in normally ductile materials. Thus
sudden and catastrophic!
Applied stresses causing fatigue may be axial (tension or

compression), flextural (bending) or torsional (twisting).
Fatigue failure proceeds in three distinct stages: crack

initiation in the areas of stress concentration (near stress
raisers), incremental crack propagation, final catastrophic
failure.
14
Fatigue: Cyclic Stresses (I)
Periodic and
symmetrical
about zero
stress
Periodic and
asymmetrical
about zero
stress
Random
stress
fluctuations
15
Fatigue: Cyclic Stresses (II)

Cyclic stresses are characterized by maximum, minimum
and mean stress, the range of stress, the stress amplitude,
and the stress ratio
Mean stress: m = (
max + min) / 2
Range of stress: r = (
max - min)
Stress amplitude: a = r/2 = (
max - min) / 2
Stress ratio: R = min / max
Remember the convention that tensile stresses are positive,

compressive stresses are negative
16
Fatigue: SN curves (I)

(stress-number of cycles to failure)
Fatigue properties of a material (S-N curves) are tested in

rotating-bending tests in fatigue testing apparatus:
Result is commonly plotted as S (stress) vs. N (number of

cycles to failure)
Low cycle fatigue: high loads, plastic and elastic

deformation
High cycle fatigue: low loads, elastic deformation (N >
105)
17
Fatigue: SN curves (II)
Fatigue limit (endurance limit) occurs for some materials

(some Fe and Ti allows). In this case, the SN curve
becomes horizontal at large N. The fatigue limit is a
maximum stress amplitude below which the material never
fails, no matter how large the number of cycles is.
18
Fatigue: SN curves (III)
In most alloys, S decreases continuously with N. In this

cases the fatigue properties are described by
Fatigue strength: stress at which fracture occurs after
specified number of cycles (e.g. 107)
Fatigue life: Number of cycles to fail at specified stress
level
19
Fatigue: Crack initiation and propagation (I)
Three stages of fatigue failure:

1. crack initiation in the areas of stress concentration
(near stress raisers)
2. incremental crack propagation
3. final rapid crack propagation after crack reaches
critical size
The total number of cycles to failure is the sum of cycles at

the first and the second stages:
Nf = Ni + Np
Nf : Number of cycles to failure
Ni : Number of cycles for crack initiation
Np : Number of cycles for crack propagation
High cycle fatigue (low loads): Ni is relatively high. With

increasing stress level, Ni decreases and Np dominates
20
Fatigue: Crack initiation and propagation (II)

! Crack initiation at the sites of stress concentration
(microcracks, scratches, indents, interior corners,
dislocation slip steps, etc.). Quality of surface is
important.
! Crack propagation
# Stage I: initial slow
propagation along crystal
planes with high resolved
shear stress. Involves just a
few grains, and has flat
fracture surface
# Stage II: faster propagation
perpendicular to the applied
stress. Crack grows by
repetitive blunting and
sharpening process at crack
tip. Rough fracture surface.
! Crack eventually reaches critical dimension and

propagates very rapidly
21
Factors that affect fatigue life
! Magnitude of stress (mean, amplitude...)
! Quality of the surface (scratches, sharp transitions and

edges).
Solutions:
# Polishing (removes machining flaws etc.)
# Introducing compressive stresses (compensate for
applied tensile stresses) into thin surface layer by Shot
Peening- firing small shot into surface to be treated.
High-tech solution - ion implantation, laser peening.
# Case Hardening - create C- or N- rich outer layer in
steels by atomic diffusion from the surface. Makes
harder outer layer and also introduces compressive
stresses
# Optimizing geometry - avoid internal corners, notches
etc.
22
Factors that affect fatigue life: environmental effects
! Thermal Fatigue. Thermal cycling causes expansion

and contraction, hence thermal stress, if component is
restrained.
Solutions:
# eliminate restraint by design
# use materials with low thermal expansion
coefficients
! Corrosion fatigue. Chemical reactions induce pits

which act as stress raisers. Corrosion also enhances
crack propagation.
Solutions:
# decrease corrosiveness of medium, if possible
# add protective surface coating
# add residual compressive stresses
23
Creep
Creep is a time-dependent and permanent deformation
of materials when subjected to a constant load at a high
temperature (> 0.4 Tm). Examples: turbine blades, steam
generators.
Creep testing:
Furnace
24
Stages of creep
1. Instantaneous deformation, mainly elastic.

2. Primary/transient creep. Slope of strain vs. time
decreases with time: work-hardening
3. Secondary/steady-state creep. Rate of straining is
constant: balance of work-hardening and recovery.
4. Tertiary. Rapidly accelerating strain rate up to failure:
formation of internal cracks, voids, grain boundary
separation, necking, etc.
25
Parameters of creep behavior
The stage secondary/steady-state creep is of longest

duration and the steady-state creep rate & s = / t.
is the most important parameter of the creep behavior
in long-life applications.
Another parameter, especially important in short-life creep

situations, is time to rupture, or the rupture lifetime, tr.
t
/
tr
26
Creep: stress and temperature effects
With increasing stress or temperature:

# The instantaneous strain increases
# The steady-state creep rate increases
# The time to rupture decreases
27
Creep: stress and temperature effects

The stress/temperature dependence of the steady-state
creep rate can be described by
Q
& s = K 2 n exp c
RT
where Qc is the activation energy for creep, K2 and n
are material constants.
(Remember the Arrhenius dependence on temperature for
thermally activated processes that we discussed for diffusion?)
28
Mechanisms of Creep
Different mechanisms are responsible for creep in different
materials and under different loading and temperature
conditions. The mechanisms include
# Stress-assisted vacancy diffusion
# Grain boundary diffusion
# Grain boundary sliding
# Dislocation motion
Different mechanisms result in different values of n, Qc.
Grain boundary diffusion Dislocation glide and climb
29
Alloys for high-temperature use

(turbines in jet engines, hypersonic airplanes, nuclear
reactors, etc.)
Creep is generally minimized in materials with:

" High melting temperature
" High elastic modulus
" Large grain sizes (inhibits grain boundary sliding)
Following materials (discussed in Chapter 12) are

especially resilient to creep:
" Stainless steels
" Refractory metals (containing elements of high
melting point, like Nb, Mo, W, Ta)
" Superalloys (Co, Ni based: solid solution
hardening and secondary phases)
30
Summary
# Brittle fracture
# Charpy test
# Corrosion fatigue
# Creep
# Ductile fracture
# Ductile-to-brittle transition
# Fatigue
# Fatigue life
# Fatigue limit
# Fatigue strength
# Fracture toughness
# Impact energy
# Intergranular fracture
# Izod test
# Stress raiser
# Thermal fatigue
# Transgranular fracture
31
Chapter 9: Phase diagrams
# Fundamental concepts and language

# Phases and microstructure
# Binary isomorphous systems (complete solid solubility)
# Binary eutectic systems (limited solid solubility)
# Binary systems with intermediate phases/compounds
# The iron-carbon system (steel and cast iron)

8.15 The Gibbs Phase Rule
32
Introduction to Materials Science, Chapter 9, Phase Diagrams
Chapter Outline: Phase Diagrams
Microstructure and Phase Transformations in

Multicomponent Systems
Definitions and basic concepts

Phases and microstructure
Binary isomorphous systems (complete solid solubility)
Binary eutectic systems (limited solid solubility)
Binary systems with intermediate phases/compounds
The iron-carbon system (steel and cast iron)
Not tested: 8.12 The Gibbs Phase Rule
1
Definitions: Components and Phases
Component - chemically recognizable species (Fe and C

in carbon steel, H2 O and NaCl in salted water). A binary
alloy contains two components, a ternary alloy three, etc.
Phase a portion of a system that has uniform physical

and chemical characteristics. Two distinct phases in a
system have distinct physical or chemical characteristics
(e.g. water and ice) and are separated from each other by
definite phase boundaries. A phase may contain one or
more components.
A single-phase system is called homogeneous,

systems with two or more phases are mixtures or
heterogeneous systems.
2
Definitions: Solubility Limit
Solvent - host or major component in solution, solute -

minor component (Chapter 4).
Solubility Limit of a component in a phase is the

maximum amount of the component that can be dissolved
in it (e.g. alcohol has unlimited solubility in water, sugar
has a limited solubility, oil is insoluble). The same
concepts apply to solid phases: Cu and Ni are mutually
soluble in any amount (unlimited solid solubility), while C
has a limited solubility in Fe.
3
Microstructure
The properties of an alloy depend not only on proportions
of the phases but also on how they are arranged structurally
at the microscopic level. Thus, the microstructure is
specified by the number of phases, their proportions, and
their arrangement in space.
Microstructure of cast Iron
This is an alloy of Fe with 4 wt.% C. There are several

phases. The long gray regions are flakes of graphite. The
matrix is a fine mixture of BCC Fe and Fe3 C compound.
Phase diagrams will help us to understand and predict
microstructures like the one shown in this page
4
Equilibrium and Metastable States
A system is at equilibrium if at constant temperature,
pressure and composition the system is stable, not
changing with time.
Equilibrium is the state that is achieved given sufficient

time. But the time to achieve equilibrium may be very long
(the kinetics can be slow) that a state along the path to the
equilibrium may appear to be stable. This is called a
metastable state.
In thermodynamics the equilibrium is described as the state of

system that corresponds to the minimum of thermodynamic
function called the free energy. Thermodynamics tells us that
Under conditions of a constant temperature and pressure and
composition, the direction of any spontaneous change is
toward a lower free energy.
The state of stable thermodynamic
equilibrium
Free Energy
equilibrium is the one with

minimum free energy.
A system at a metastable state is
trapped in a local minimum of free
energy that is not the global one .
metastable
5
Phase diagram
A phase diagram - graphical representation of the
combinations of temperature, pressure, composition, or
other variables for which specific phases exist at
equilibrium.
For H2 O, a typical diagram shows the temperature and

pressure at which ice (solid),water (liquid) and steam (gas)
exist.

Phase diagram
A phase diagrams show what phases exist at equilibrium
and what phase transformations we can expect when we
change one of the parameters of the system (T, P,
composition).
We will discuss phase diagrams for binary alloys only and

will assume pressure to be constant at one atmosphere.
Phase diagrams for materials with more than two
components are complex and difficult to represent.
7
Binary Isomorphous Systems (I)

Isomorphous system - complete solid solubility of the two
components (both in the liquid and solid phases).
+L
Three phase region can be identified on the phase diagram:

Liquid (L) , solid + liquid ( +L), solid ( )
Liquidus line separates liquid from liquid + solid
Solidus line separates solid from liquid + solid
8
Binary Isomorphous Systems (II)

Example of isomorphous system: Cu-Ni (the complete
solubility occurs because both Cu and Ni have the same
crystal structure, FCC, similar radii, electronegativity and
valence).

Binary Isomorphous Systems (III)

In one-component system melting occurs at a well-defined
melting temperature.
In multi-component systems melting occurs over the range

of temperatures, between the solidus and liquidus lines.
Solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium in this
temperature range.
L Liquid solution
+L
Liquid solution
+
Crystallites of
Solid solution
Polycrystal
Solid solution
10
Interpretation of Phase Diagrams
For a given temperature and composition we can use phase

diagram to determine:
1) The phases that are present
2) Compositions of the phases
3) The relative fractions of the phases
Finding the composition in a two phase region:

1. Locate composition and temperature in diagram
2. In two phase region draw the tie line or isotherm
3. Note intersection with phase boundaries. Read
compositions at the intersections.
The liquid and solid phases have these compositions.
11
The Lever Rule
Finding the amounts of phases in a two phase region:

1. Locate composition and temperature in diagram
2. In two phase region draw the tie line or isotherm
3. Fraction of a phase is determined by taking the
length of the tie line to the phase boundary for the
other phase, and dividing by the total length of tie
line
The lever rule is a mechanical

analogy to the mass balance
calculation. The tie line in the
two-phase region is analogous to
a lever balanced on a fulcrum.
12
The Lever Rule
Mass fractions: WL = S / (R+S) = (C - Co) / (C - CL)
W = R / (R+S) = (Co - CL) / (C - CL)
13
Derivation of the lever rule
1) All material must be in one phase or the other:

W + WL = 1
2) Mass of a component that is present in both phases

equal to the mass of the component in one phase +
mass of the component in the second phase:
WC + WLCL = Co
3) Solution of these equations gives us the Lever rule.
WL = (C - Co) / (C - CL)
W = (Co - CL) / (C - CL)
14
Phase compositions and amounts. An example.
Co = 35 wt. %, CL = 31.5 wt. %, C = 42.5 wt. %
Mass fractions: WL = (C - Co) / (C - CL) = 0.68
W = (Co - CL) / (C - CL) = 0.32

15
Development of microstructure in isomorphous alloys

Equilibrium (very slow) cooling


Equilibrium (very slow) cooling
Solidification in the solid + liquid phase occurs

gradually upon cooling from the liquidus line.
The composition of the solid and the liquid change

gradually during cooling (as can be determined by the
tie-line method.)
Nuclei of the solid phase form and they grow to

consume all the liquid at the solidus line.
17

Non-equilibrium cooling

Non-equilibrium cooling
Compositional changes require diffusion in solid and
liquid phases
Diffusion in the solid state is very slow. The new

layers that solidify on top of the existing grains have the
equilibrium composition at that temperature but once
they are solid their composition does not change.
Formation of layered (cored) grains and the invalidity of
the tie-line method to determine the composition of the
solid phase.
The tie-line method still works for the liquid phase,
where diffusion is fast. Average Ni content of solid
grains is higher. Application of the lever rule gives
us a greater proportion of liquid phase as compared to
the one for equilibrium cooling at the same T.
Solidus line is shifted to the right (higher Ni contents),
solidification is complete at lower T, the outer part of
the grains are richer in the low-melting component (Cu).
Upon heating grain boundaries will melt first. This can
lead to premature mechanical failure.
19
Mechanical properties of isomorphous alloys
Solid solution strengthening
20
Binary Eutectic Systems (I)
alloys with limited solubility

Temperature, C
21
Binary Eutectic Systems (II)
Copper Silver phase diagram
Three single phase regions ( - solid solution of Ag in Cu

matrix, = solid solution of Cu in Ag marix, L - liquid)
Three two-phase regions ( + L, +L, +)
Solvus line separates one solid solution from a mixture of
solid solutions. Solvus line shows limit of solubility
22
Binary Eutectic Systems (III)
Lead Tin phase diagram
Invariant or eutectic point
Eutectic isotherm
Eutectic or invariant point - Liquid and two solid phases

co-exist in equilibrium at the eutectic composition CE and
the eutectic temperature T E.
Eutectic isotherm - the horizontal solidus line at T E.
23
Binary Eutectic Systems (IV)
Eutectic reaction transition between liquid and mixture

of two solid phases, + at eutectic concentration CE.
The melting point of the eutectic alloy is lower than that of

the components (eutectic = easy to melt in Greek).
At most two phases can be in equilibrium within a phase

field. Three phases (L, , ) may be in equilibrium only
only at a few points along the eutectic isotherm. Single-
phase regions are separated by 2-phase regions.
24
Binary Eutectic Systems (V)

Compositions and relative amounts of phases are
determined from the same tie lines and lever rule, as for
isomorphous alloys
For points A, B, and C calculate the compositions (wt. %)

and relative amounts (mass fractions) of phases present.
25
Development of microstructure in eutectic alloys (I)

Several different types of microstructure can be formed in
slow cooling an different compositions.
Lets consider cooling of liquid lead tin system at
different compositions.
In this case of lead-rich

alloy (0-2 wt. % of tin)
solidification proceeds in
the same manner as for
isomorphous alloys (e.g.
Cu-Ni) that we discussed
earlier.
L +L
26
Development of microstructure in eutectic alloys (II)

At compositions between the room temperature solubility
limit and the maximum solid solubility at the eutectic
temperature, phase nucleates as the solid solubility is
exceeded upon crossing the solvus line.
+L
27
Development of microstructure in eutectic alloys (III)

Solidification at the eutectic composition (I)
No changes above the eutectic temperature TE. At TE the

liquid transforms to and phases (eutectic reaction).
L +
28
Development of microstructure in eutectic alloys (IV)

Solidification at the eutectic composition (II)
Compositions of and phases are very different

eutectic reaction involves redistribution of Pb and Sn atoms
by atomic diffusion. This simultaneous formation of and
phases result in a layered (lamellar) microstructure that is
called eutectic structure.
Formation of the eutectic structure in the lead-tin system.

In the micrograph, the dark layers are lead-reach phase, the
light layers are the tin-reach phase.
29
Development of microstructure in eutectic alloys (V)
Compositions other than eutectic but within the range of
the eutectic isotherm
Primary phase is formed in the + L region, and the
eutectic structure that includes layers of and phases
(called eutectic and eutectic phases) is formed upon
crossing the eutectic isotherm.
L + L +
30
Development of microstructure in eutectic alloys (VI)

Microconstituent element of the microstructure having a
distinctive structure. In the case described in the previous
page, microstructure consists of two microconstituents,
primary phase and the eutectic structure.
Although the eutectic structure consists of two phases, it is

a microconstituent with distinct lamellar structure and
fixed ratio of the two phases.
31
How to calculate relative amounts of microconstituents?
Eutectic microconstituent forms from liquid having eutectic

composition (61.9 wt% Sn)
We can treat the eutectic as a separate phase and apply the
lever rule to find the relative fractions of primary phase
(18.3 wt% Sn) and the eutectic structure (61.9 wt% Sn):
We = P / (P+Q) (eutectic) W = Q / (P+Q) (primary)

How to calculate the total amount of phase (both eutectic

and primary)?
Fraction of phase determined by application of the lever

rule across the entire + phase field:
W = (Q+R) / (P+Q+R) ( phase)
W = P / (P+Q+R) ( phase)

Phase Diagrams with Intermediate Phases

Eutectic systems that we have studied so far have only
two solid phases ( and ) that exist near the ends of
phase diagrams. These phases are called terminal solid
solutions.
Some binary alloy systems have intermediate solid
solution phases. In phase diagrams, these phases are
separated from the composition extremes (0% and 100%).
Example: in Cu-Zn, and are terminal solid solutions,
, , , , are intermediate solid solutions.

Phase Diagrams with Intermetallic Compounds

Besides solid solutions, intermetallic compounds, that
have precise chemical compositions can exist in some
systems.
When using the lever rules, intermetallic compounds are
treated like any other phase, except they appear not as a
wide region but as a vertical line.
intermetallic
compound
This diagram can be thought of as two joined eutectic

diagrams, for Mg-Mg2Pb and Mg2Pb-Pb. In this case
University
compound Mg2ofPb
Virginia,
can be Dept.considered
of Materials Science
as a and Engineering
component. 35
Eutectoid Reactions (I)

The eutectoid (eutectic-like in Greek) reaction is similar to
the eutectic reaction but occurs from one solid phase to two
new solid phases.
Invariant point (the eutectoid) three solid phases are in

equilibrium.
Upon cooling, a solid phase transforms into two other solid

phases ( + in the example below)
Looks as V on top of a horizontal tie line (eutectoid
isotherm) in the phase diagram.
Cu-Zn
Eutectoid

Eutectoid Reactions (II)
The above phase diagram contains both an eutectic

reaction and its solid-state analog, an eutectoid
reaction
37
Peritectic Reactions
A peritectic reaction - solid phase and liquid phase will
together form a second solid phase at a particular
temperature and composition upon cooling - e.g. L +
These reactions are rather slow as the product phase will
form at the boundary between the two reacting phases thus
separating them, and slowing down any further reaction.
Peritectics are not as common as eutectics and eutectiods,

but do occur in some alloy systems. There is one in the Fe-
C system that we will consider later.
38
Congruent Phase Transformations

A congruent transformation involves no change in
composition (e.g., allotropic transformation such as -Fe to
-Fe or melting transitions in pure solids).
For an incongruent transformation, at least one phase
changes composition (e.g. eutectic, eutectoid, peritectic
reactions).
Congruent Ni-Ti
melting of

The IronIron Carbide (FeFe3C) Phase Diagram
In their simplest form, steels are alloys of Iron (Fe) and

Carbon (C). The Fe-C phase diagram is a fairly complex
one, but we will only consider the steel part of the diagram,
up to around 7% Carbon.
40
Phases in FeFe3C Phase Diagram
-ferrite - solid solution of C in BCC Fe

Stable form of iron at room temperature.
The maximum solubility of C is 0.022 wt%
Transforms to FCC -austenite at 912 C
-austenite - solid solution of C in FCC Fe
The maximum solubility of C is 2.14 wt %.
Transforms to BCC -ferrite at 1395 C
Is not stable below the eutectic temperature
(727 C) unless cooled rapidly (Chapter 10)
-ferrite solid solution of C in BCC Fe
The same structure as -ferrite
Stable only at high T, above 1394 C
Melts at 1538 C
Fe3C (iron carbide or cementite)
This intermetallic compound is metastable, it
remains as a compound indefinitely at room T, but
decomposes (very slowly, within several years)
into -Fe and C (graphite) at 650 - 700 C
Fe-C liquid solution
A few comments on FeFe3C system
C is an interstitial impurity in Fe. It forms a solid solution

with , , phases of iron
Maximum solubility in BCC -ferrite is limited (max.
0.022 wt% at 727 C) - BCC has relatively small interstitial
positions
Maximum solubility in FCC austenite is 2.14 wt% at 1147
C - FCC has larger interstitial positions
Mechanical properties: Cementite is very hard and brittle -
can strengthen steels. Mechanical properties also depend
on the microstructure, that is, how ferrite and cementite are
mixed.
Magnetic properties: -ferrite is magnetic below 768 C,

austenite is non-magnetic
Classification. Three types of ferrous alloys:

Iron: less than 0.008 wt % C in ferrite at room T
Steels: 0.008 - 2.14 wt % C (usually < 1 wt % )
-ferrite + Fe3C at room T (Chapter 12)
Cast iron: 2.14 - 6.7 wt % (usually < 4.5 wt %)
42
Eutectic and eutectoid reactions in FeFe3C

Eutectic: 4.30 wt% C, 1147 C
L + Fe3C
Eutectoid: 0.76 wt%C, 727 C

(0.76 wt% C) (0.022 wt% C) + Fe3C
Eutectic and eutectoid reactions are very important in

heat treatment of steels
Development of Microstructure in Iron - Carbon alloys

Microstructure depends on composition (carbon
content) and heat treatment. In the discussion below we
consider slow cooling in which equilibrium is maintained.
Microstructure of eutectoid steel (I)

Microstructure of eutectoid steel (II)

When alloy of eutectoid composition (0.76 wt % C) is
cooled slowly it forms perlite, a lamellar or layered
structure of two phases: -ferrite and cementite (Fe3C)
The layers of alternating phases in pearlite are formed for
the same reason as layered structure of eutectic structures:
redistribution C atoms between ferrite (0.022 wt%) and
cementite (6.7 wt%) by atomic diffusion.
Mechanically, pearlite has properties intermediate to soft,
ductile ferrite and hard, brittle cementite.
In the micrograph, the dark areas are
Fe3C layers, the light phase is -
ferrite

Microstructure of hypoeutectoid steel (I)
Compositions to the left of eutectoid (0.022 - 0.76 wt % C)

hypoeutectoid (less than eutectoid -Greek) alloys.
+ + Fe3C

Microstructure of hypoeutectoid steel (II)

Hypoeutectoid alloys contain proeutectoid ferrite (formed
above the eutectoid temperature) plus the eutectoid perlite
that contain eutectoid ferrite and cementite.

Microstructure of hypereutectoid steel (I)
Compositions to the right of eutectoid (0.76 - 2.14 wt % C)

hypereutectoid (more than eutectoid -Greek) alloys.
+ Fe3C + Fe3C

Microstructure of hypereutectoid steel (II)

Hypereutectoid alloys contain proeutectoid cementite
(formed above the eutectoid temperature) plus perlite that
contain eutectoid ferrite and cementite.

How to calculate the relative amounts of proeutectoid

phase ( or Fe3C) and pearlite?
Application of the lever rule with tie line that extends from
the eutectoid composition (0.75 wt% C) to ( + Fe3 C)
boundary (0.022 wt% C) for hypoeutectoid alloys and to (
+ Fe3C) Fe3C boundary (6.7 wt% C) for hipereutectoid
alloys.
Fraction of phase is determined by application of the

University
lever rule across of Virginia,
the entireDept. (
of Materials
+ Fe3C) Science and Engineering
phase field: 50
Example for hypereutectoid alloy with composition C1
Fraction of pearlite:
WP = X / (V+X) = (6.7 C1) / (6.7 0.76)
Fraction of proeutectoid cementite:
WFe3C = V / (V+X) = (C1 0.76) / (6.7 0.76)

Summary
Austenite Microconstituent
Cementite Pearlite
Component Peritectic reaction
Congruent transformation Phase
Equilibrium Phase diagram
Eutectic phase Phase equilibrium
Eutectic reaction Primary phase
Eutectic structure Proeutectoid cementite
Eutectoid reaction Proeutectoid ferrite
Ferrite Solidus line
Hypereutectoid alloy Solubility limit
Hypoeutectoid alloy Solvus line
Intermediate solid solution System
Intermetallic compound Terminal solid solution
Invariant point Tie line
Isomorphous
Lever rule
Liquidus line
Metastable
52
Chapter 10: Phase Transformations in Metals
Kinetics of phase transformations

Multiphase Transformations
Phase transformations in Fe-C alloys
Isothermal Transformation Diagrams
Mechanical Behavior
Tempered Martensite

10.6 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams
53
Chapter 10: Phase Transformations in Metals

Multiphase Transformations
Phase transformations in Fe-C alloys
Isothermal Transformation Diagrams
Mechanical Behavior
Tempered Martensite

53
Introduction to Materials Science, Chapter 10, Phase Transformations in Metals
Chapter Outline: Phase Transformations in Metals
Heat Treatment (time and temperature)

Microstructure Mechanical Properties
! Kinetics of phase transformations

! Multiphase Transformations
! Phase transformations in Fe-C alloys
! Isothermal Transformation Diagrams
! Mechanical Behavior
! Tempered Martensite
Not tested:
1
Phase transformations. Kinetics.

Phase transformations (change of the microstructure) can
be divided into three categories:
! Diffusion-dependent with no change in phase

composition or number of phase s present (e.g.
melting, solidification of pure metal, allotropic
transformations, recrystallization, etc.)
! Diffusion-dependent with changes in phase

compositions and/or number of phases (e.g. eutectoid
transformations)
! Diffusionless phase transforma tion - produces a

metastable phase by cooperative small displacements of
all atoms in structure (e.g. martensitic transformation
discussed in later in this chapter)
Phase transformations do not occur instantaneously.

Diffusion-dependent phase transformations can be rather
slow and the final structure often depend on the rate of
cooling/heating.
We need to consider the time dependence or
kinetics of the phase transformations.
2

Most phase transformations involve change in composition
redistribution of atoms via diffusion is required.
The process of phase transformation involves:
! Nucleation of of the new phase - formation of stable
small particles (nuclei) of the new phase. Nuclei are
often formed at grain boundaries and other defects.
! Growth of new phase at the expense of the original

phase.
S-shape curve: percent of

material transformed vs.
the logarithm of time.

Nucleation
A nucleus is only stable if further growth reduces the

energy of the system. For r > rc the nucleus is stable.
4
Rate of phase transformations
Rate of transformation can be defined as reciprocal of time

for transformation to proceed halfway to completion:
r = 1 / t0.5
Rate increases with temperature according to Arrhenius
equation, characteristic for thermally activated processes:
r = A exp (-QA/kT) = A exp (-Qm/ RT)
Per atom Per mole
Percent recrystallization of pure copper at different T
5
Superheating / supercooling
! Upon crossing a phase boundary on the composition-

temperature phase diagram phase transformation
towards equilibrium state is induced.
! But the transition to the equilibrium structure takes time
and transformation is delayed.
! During cooling, transformations occur at temperatures
less than predicted by phase diagram: supercooling.
! During heating, transformations occur at temperatures
greater than predicted by phase diagram: superheating.
! Degree of supercooling/superheating increases with rate
of cooling/heating.
! Metastable states can be formed as a result of fast
temperature change. Microstructure is strongly affected
by the rate of cooling.
! Below we will consider the effect of time on phase
transformations using iron-carbon alloy as an example.
6
Let us consider eutectoid reaction as an example
eutectoid reaction:
(0.76 wt% C)

(0.022 wt% C)
+
Fe3C
The S-shaped curves are shifted to longer times at higher T

showing that the transformation is dominated by nucleation
(nucleation rate increases with supercooling) and not by
University
diffusion (which of Virginia,
occursDept. of Materials
faster at higherScienceT).
and Engineering 7
Isothermal Transformation (or TTT) Diagrams
(Temperature, Time, and % Transformation)

TTT Diagrams
Eutectoid
Austenite (stable) temperature
ferrite Coarse pearlite
Fe3C
Fine pearlite
Austenite pearlite
Denotes that a transformation
transformation is occurring
The thickness of the ferrite and cementite layers in pearlite

is ~ 8:1. The absolute layer thickness depends on the
temperature of the transformation. The higher the
temperature, the thicker the layers.
9
TTT Diagrams
! The family of S-shaped curves at different T are used to
construct the TTT diagrams.
! The TTT diagrams are for the isothermal (constant T)
transformations (material is cooled quickly to a given
temperature before the transformation occurs, and then
keep it at that temperature).
! At low temperatures, the transformation occurs sooner
(it is controlled by the rate of nucleation) and grain
growth (that is controlled by diffusion) is reduced.
! Slow diffusion at low temperatures leads to fine-grained
microstructure with thin-layered structure of pearlite
(fine pearlite).
! At higher temperatures, high diffusion rates allow for
larger grain growth and formation of thick layered
structure of pearlite (coarse pearlite).
! At compositions other than eutectoid, a proeutectoid
phase (ferrite or cementite) coexist with pearlite.
Additional curves for proeutectoid transformation must
be included on TTT diagrams.
10
Formation of Bainite Microstructure (I)
If transformation temperature is low enough (540C)

bainite rather than fine pearlite forms.
11
Formation of Bainite Microstructure (II)
! For T ~ 300-540C, upper bainite consists of needles of

ferrite separated by long cementite particles
! For T ~ 200-300C, lower bainite consists of thin plates
of ferrite containing very fine rods or blades of cementite
! In the bainite region, transformation rate is controlled by
microstructure growth (diffusion) rather than nucleation.
Since diffusion is slow at low temperatures, this phase has
a very fine (microscopic) microstructure.
! Pearlite and bainite transformations are competitive;
transformation between pearlite and bainite not possible
without first reheating to form austenite
Upper bainite Lower bainite

Spheroidite
Annealing of pearlitic or bainitic microstructures at
elevated temperatures just below eutectoid (e.g. 24 h at
700 C) leads to the formation of new microstructure
spheroidite - spheres of cementite in a ferrite matrix.
Composition or relative amounts of ferrite and cementite
are not changing in this transformation, only shape of
the cementite inclusions is changing.
Transformation proceeds by C diffusion needs high T.
Driving force for the trancsformation - reduction in total
ferrite - cementite boundary area

Martensite (I)
Martensite forms when austenite is rapidly cooled
(quenched) to room T.
It forms nearly instantaneously when the required low
temperature is reached. The austenite-martensite does
not involve diffusion no thermal activation is needed,
this is called an athermal transformation.
Each atom displaces a small (sub-atomic) distance to
transform FCC -Fe (austenite) to martensite which has
a Body Centered Tetragonal (BCT) unit cell (like BCC,
but one unit cell axis is longer than the other two).
Martensite is metastable - can persist indefinitely at
room temperature, but will transform to equilibrium
phases on annealing at an elevated temperature.
Martensite can coexist with other phases and/or
microstructures in Fe-C system
Since martensite is metastable non-equilibrium phase, it
does not appear in phase Fe-C phase diagram
14
TTT Diagram including Martensite
A: Austenite P: Pearlite
B: Bainite M: Martensite
Austenite-to-martensite is diffusionless and very fast. The

amountUniversity of Virginia,formed
of martensite Dept. of Materials
depends Science
onand Engineering only.
temperature 15
Time-temperature path microstructure

Mechanical Behavior of Fe-C Alloys (I)

Cementite is harder and more brittle than ferrite -
increasing cementite fraction therefore makes harder, less
ductile material.

Mechanical Behavior of Fe-C Alloys (II)

The strength and hardness of the different microstructures
is inversely related to the size of the microstructures (fine
structures have more phase boundaries inhibiting
dislocation motion).
Mechanical properties of bainite, pearlite, spheroidite

Considering microstructure we can predict that
! Spheroidite is the softest
! Fine pearlite is harder and stronger than coarse pearlite
! Bainite is harder and stronger than pearlite
Mechanical properties of martensite

Of the various microstructures in steel alloys
! Martensite is the hardest, strongest and the most brittle
The strength of martensite is not related to microstructure.
Rather, it is related to the interstitial C atoms hindering
dislocation motion (solid solution hardening, Chapter 7)
and to the small number of slip systems.
18
Mechanical Behavior of Fe-C Alloys (III)

Tempered Martensite (I)

Martensite is so brittle that it needs to be modified for
practical applications. This is done by heating it to
250-650 oC for some time (tempering) which produces
tempered martensite, an extremely fine-grained and
well dispersed cementite grains in a ferrite matrix.
! Tempered martensite is less hard/strong as

compared to regular martensite but has enhanced
ductility (ferrite phase is ductile).
! Mechanical properties depend upon cementite
particle size: fewer, larger particles means less
boundary area and softer, more ductile material -
eventual limit is spheroidite.
! Particle size increases with higher tempering
temperature and/or longer time (more C diffusion)
- therefore softer, more ductile material.
20
Tempered Martensite (II)
Higher temperature &

time: spheroidite (soft)
Electron micrograph of tempered martensite

Summary of austenite transformations
Austenite
Slow Rapid
cooling quench
Moderate
cooling
Pearlite (
+ Fe3C) + Bainite Martensite
a proeutectoid phase + Fe3C)
( (BCT phase)
Reheat
Tempered martensite
+ Fe3C)
(
Solid lines are diffusional transformations, dashed is

diffusionless martensitic transformation
22
Summary
! Alloy steel
! Athermal transformation
! Bainite
! Coarse pearlite
! Fine pearlite
! Isothermal transformation diagram
! Kinetics
! Martensite
! Nucleation
! Phase transformation
! Plain carbon steel
! Spheroidite
! Supercooling
! Superheating
! Tempered martensite
! Thermally activated transformation
! Transformation rate
23
Chapter 11: Thermal Processing of Metal Alloys

! Process Annealing, Stress Relief
! Heat Treatment of Steels
! Precipitation Hardening
24
Introduction to Materials Science, Chapter 11, Thermal Processing of Metal Alloys
Chapter Outline: Thermal Processing of Metal Alloys
In this chapter we will learn more on how different

thermal processing techniques can be used to control
microstructure of metal alloys and their mechanical
properties
Annealing, Stress Relief

More on Heat Treatment of Steels
Precipitation Hardening
1
Annealing
Annealing - heat treatment in which a material is taken to

an elevated temperature, kept there for some time and then
cooled.
Stages of annealing:
Heating to required temperature
Holding (soaking) at constant temperature
Cooling
The time at the high temperature (soaking time) is long
enough to allow the desired transformation to occur.
Cooling is done slowly to avoid warping/cracking of due to
the thermal gradients and thermo-elastic stresses within the
or even cracking the metal piece.
Purposes of annealing:
Relieve internal stresses
Increase ductility, toughness, softness
Produce specific microstructure
2
Examples of heat treatment
Process Annealing - used to revert effects of work-

hardening (by recovery and recrystallization) and to
increase ductility. Heating is usually limited to avoid
excessive grain growth and oxidation.
Stress Relief Annealing used to eliminate/minimize

stresses arising from
o Plastic deformation during machining
o Nonuniform cooling
o Phase transformations between phases with
different densities
Stress relief annealing allows these stresses to relax.
Annealing temperatures are relatively low so that
useful effects of cold working are not eliminated.
3
Annealing of Fe-C Alloys (I)
Lower critical temperature A1 below which

austenite does not exist
Upper critical temperature lines, A3 and Acm
above which all material is austenite
4
Annealing of Fe-C Alloys (II)
Normalizing: an annealing heat treatment just above the

upper critical temperature to reduce grain sizes (of pearlite
and proeutectoid phase) and make more uniform size
distributions. After complete transformation to austenite
(austenitizing) the treatment is completed by cooling to the
required microstructure.
5
Annealing of Fe-C Alloys (III)
Full annealing: austenizing and slow cooling (several

hours). Produces coarse pearlite (and possible proeutectoid
phase) that is relatively soft and ductile. Is used to soften
pieces which have been hardened by plastic deformation,
and which need to undergo subsequent machining/forming.
Spheroidizing: prolonged heating just below the eutectoid
temperature, which results in the soft spheroidite structure
discussed in Sect. 10.5. This achieves maximum softness
needed University
in subsequent
of Virginia,forming operations.
Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 6
Heat Treatment of Steels
Martensite has the strongest microstructure and can be

made more ductile by tempering. Therefore the optimum
properties of quenched and tempered steel are realized
if high content of martensite is produced.
Problem: difficult to maintain same conditions throughout

volume of steel during cooling: surface cools more quickly
than interior, producing range of microstructures through
volume. The martensitic content, and the hardness, will
drop from a high value at the surface to a lower value in
the interior of the piece.
Production of uniform martensitic structure depends on

composition
quenching conditions
size + shape of specimen
7
Hardenability
Hardenability is the ability of the Fe-C alloy to be hardened

by forming martensite.
Hardenability is not hardness. It is a qualitative

measure of the rate at which hardness decreases with
distance from the surface because of decreased
martensite content.
High hardenability means the ability of the alloy to

produce a high martensite content throughout the volume
of specimen.
Hardenability is measured by the Jominy end-quench test

performed for standard cylindrical specimen, standard
austenitization conditions, and standard quenching
conditions (jet of water at specific flow rate and
temperature).
8
Jominy end-quench test of Hardenability
Hardenability curve is the dependence of hardness on

distance from the quenched end.
9
Hardenability Curve
Less Martensite
Quenched end cools most rapidly and contains most

martensite
Cooling rate decreases with distance from quenched end:
greater C diffusion, more pearlite/bainite, lower
hardness
High hardenability means that the hardness curve is
relatively flat.
10
Influence of Quenching Medium, Specimen Size,

and Geometry on Hardenability
Quenching medium: Cooling is faster in water then oil,
slow in air. Fast cooling brings the danger of warping and
formation of cracks, since it is usually accompanied by
large thermal gradients.
The shape and size of the piece: Cooling rate depends

upon extraction of heat to specimen surface. Thus the
greater the ration of surface area to volume, the deeper the
hardening effect. Spheres cool slowest, irregularly shaped
objects fastest.
Radial
hardness
profiles of
cylindrical
steel bars

Precipitation Hardening
Small inclusions of secondary phases strengthen material

Lattice distortions around these secondary phases impede
dislocation motion
The precipitates form when the solubility limit is
exceeded
Precipitation hardening is also called age hardening

because it involves the hardening of the material over a
prolonged time.
12
Heat Treatment for Precipitation Hardening (I)
Solution heat treatment: at To, all the solute atoms A

are dissolved to form a single-phase () solution.
Rapid cooling across the solvus line to exceed the
solubility limit. This leads to a metastable supersaturated
solid solution at T1. Equilibrium structure is +, but
limited diffusion does not allow to form.
Precipitation heat treatment: the supersaturated
solution is heated to T2 where diffusion is appreciable -
phaseUniversity
starts to form as
of Virginia, finely
Dept. dispersed
of Materials particles:
Science and ageing.13
Engineering
Heat Treatment for Precipitation Hardening (II)
Discs of Cu atoms 1 or 2
monolayers thick
Lattice Distortions No Lattice Distortions
University of V 14
Strength and ductility during precipitation hardening

Summary
Annealing
Austenitizing
Full annealing
Hardenability
Jominy end-quench test
Overaging
Precipitation hardening
Precipitation heat treatment
Process annealing
Solution heat treatment
Spheroidizing
Stress relief
16
Skip Chapter 12: Metal Alloys
Chapter 13: Structure and Properties of Ceramics

Crystal Structures
Silicate Ceramics
Carbon
Imperfections in Ceramics
Optional reading: 13.6 13.10
Chapter 14: Applications and Processing of Ceramics

Short review of glass/ceramics applications and
processing (14.1 - 14.7)
17
Introduction to Materials Science, Chapter 13, Structure and Properties of Ceramics
Chapter Outline: Ceramics
Chapter 13: Structure and Properties of Ceramics

Crystal Structures
Silicate Ceramics
Carbon
Imperfections in Ceramics
1
Ceramics
keramikos - burnt stuff in Greek - desirable properties
of ceramics are normally achieved through a high-
temperature heat treatment process (firing).
Usually a compound between metallic and non-

metallic elements
Always composed of more than one element (e.g.,

Al2 O3 , NaCl, SiC, SiO2)
Bonds are partially or totally ionic, can have
combination of ionic and covalent bonding
Generally hard and brittle

Generally electrical and thermal insulators
Can be optically opaque, semi-transparent, or
transparent
Traditional ceramics based on clay (china, bricks,

tiles, porcelain), glasses.
New ceramics for electronic, computer, aerospace
industries.
2
Bonding in Ceramics (Review of Chapter 2)
Electronegativity - a measure of how willing atoms are to

accept electrons (subshells with one electron - low
electronegativity; subshells with one missing electron -
high electronegativity). Electronegativity increases from
left to right.
The atomic bonding in

ceramics is mixed, ionic and
covalent, the degree of ionic
character depends on the
difference of electronegativity
between the cations (+) and
anions (-).
3
Crystal Structures in Ceramics

with predominantly ionic bonding
Crystal structure is defined by
Magnitude of the electrical charge on each ion. Charge
balance dictates chemical formula (Ca2+ and F- form
CaF2).
Relative sizes of the cations and anions. Cations wants
maximum possible number of anion nearest neighbors
and vice-versa.
Stable ceramic crystal structures: anions surrounding a

cation are all in contact with that cation. For a specific
coordination number there is a critical or minimum cation-
anion radius ratio rC/rA for which this contact can be
maintained.

C.N. rC/rA Geometry
2 <0.155
The critical ratio can
be determined by
simple geometrical
analysis 3 0.155-0225
4 0.225-0.414
30
6 0.414-0.732
Cos 30= 0.866
= R/(r+R)

r/R = 0.155
8 0.732-1.0
5
Crystal Structures in Ceramics

Example: Rock Salt Structure
NaCl structure: rC = rNa = 0.102 nm, rA = rCl = 0.181 nm
rC/rA = 0.56
From the table for stable geometries we see that C.N. = 6
Two interpenetrating FCC lattices
NaCl, MgO, LiF, FeO have this crystal structure
6
Density computation
(similar to Chapter 3.5 for metals)
= n(AC + AA) / (VcNA)
n: number of formula units in unit cell (all ions that are
included in the chemical formula of the compound
= formula unit)
AC: sum of atomic weights of cations in the formula unit
AA: sum of atomic weights of anions in the formula unit
Vc: volume of the unit cell
NA: Avogadros number, 6.0231023 (formula
units)/mol
Example: NaCl
n = 4 in FCC lattice
AC = ANa = 22.99 g/mol
AA = ACl = 35.45 g/mol
Vc = a3 = (2rNa+2rCl)3 =
= (20.10210-7 + 20.18110-7)3 cm3
10
Silicate Ceramics
Composed mainly of silicon and oxygen, the two most

abundant elements in earths crust (rocks, soils, clays,
sand)
Basic building block: SiO44- tetrahedron
Si-O bonding is largely covalent, but overall SiO4
block has charge of 4
Various silicate structures different ways to arrange
SiO4-4 blocks
11
Silica = silicon dioxide = SiO2
Every oxygen atom is shared by adjacent tetrahedra
Silica can be crystalline (e.g., quartz) or amorphous, as

in glass (fused or vitreous silica)
3D network of SiO4 tetrahedra in cristobalite

High melting temperature of 1710 C
12
Window glasses
Most common window glasses are produced by adding
other oxides (e.g. CaO, Na2 O) whose cations are
incorporated within SiO4 network. The cations break the
tetrahedral network and glasses melt at lower temperature
than pure amorphous SiO2 because. A lower melting point
makes it easy to form glass to make, for instance, bottles.
Some other oxides (TiO2, Al2 O3) substitute for silicon and
become part of the network
13
Carbon
Carbon is not a ceramic
Carbon exists in various polymorphic forms: sp3 diamond
and amorphous carbon, sp2 graphite and
fullerenes/nanotubes, one dimensional sp carbon
14
Carbon: Diamond
Has diamond-cubic structure (like Si, Ge)
One of the strongest/hardest material known
High thermal conductivity (unlike ceramics)
Transparent in the visible and infrared, with high index
of refraction, looks nice, costs $$$
Semiconductor (can be doped to make electronic
devices)
Metastable (transforms to carbon when heated)
Hydrogenated diamond {111}

surface with the dangling
bonds or radicals terminated
by hydrogen atoms
Diamond turning into

graphite at elevated
temperature
University
Figures from of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
http://www.people.virginia.edu/~lz2n/Diamond.html 15
Carbon: Graphite
Layered structure with strong bonding within the planar
layers and weak, van der Waals bonding between layers
Easy interplanar cleavage, applications as a lubricant
and for writing (pencils)
Good electrical conductor
Chemically stable even at high temperatures
Applications include furnaces, rocket nozzles, welding
electrodes
16
Carbon: buckyballs and nanotubes

Buckminsterfullerenes (buckyballs) and carbon nanotubes
are expected to play an important role in future
nanotechnology applications (nanoscale materials, sensors,
machines, and computers).
Carbon nanotube T-junction Nanotubes as reinforcing

fibers in nanocomposites
Nano-gear Nanotube holepunching/etching
University
Figures of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
from http://www.nas.nasa.gov/Groups/SciTech/nano/ 17
Imperfections in Ceramics (I)
Point defects in ionic crystals are charged. The Coulombic
forces are very large and any charge imbalance has a strong
tendency to balance itself. To maintain charge neutrality
several point defects can be created:
Frenkel defect is a pair of cation (positive ion) vacancy
and a cation interstitial. It may also be an anion (negative
ion) vacancy and anion interstitial. However anions are
larger than cations and it is not easy for an anion interstitial
to form.
Schottky defect is a pair of anion and cation vacancies
Schottky defect
Frenkel defect
18
Imperfections in Ceramics (II)
Frenkel and Schottky defects do not change ratio of
cations to anions the compound is stoichiometric
Non-stoichiometry (composition deviates from the one
predicted by chemical formula) may occur when one ion
type can exist in two valence states, e.g. Fe2+, Fe3+
For example, in FeO, usual Fe valence state is 2+. If
two Fe ions are in 3+ state, then a Fe vacancy is
required to maintain charge neutrality fewer Fe ions
non-stoichiometry
19
Impurities in Ceramics
Impurity atoms can exist as either substitutional or

interstitial solid solutions
Substitutional ions substitute for ions of like type
Interstitial ions are small compared to host structure
formation of anion interstitials is unlikely
Solubilities higher if ion radii and charges match closely
Incorporation of ion with different charge state requires
compensation by point defects
Interstitial impurity atom
Substitutional impurity ions

Mechanical Properties of Ceramics
Ceramics are brittle. For brittle fracture stress

concentrators are very important. (Chapter 8:
measured fracture strengths are significantly
smaller than theoretical predictions for perfect
materials due to the stress risers)
Fracture strength of ceramic may be greatly
enhanced by creating compressive stresses in the
surface region (similar to shot peening, case
hardening in metals, chapter 8)
The compressive strength is typically ten times the
tensile strength. This makes ceramics good structural
materials under compression (e.g., bricks in houses,
stone blocks in the pyramids).
21
Plastic Deformation in Ceramics
Crystalline ceramics: Slip (dislocation motion)

is very difficult. This is because ions of like
charge have to be brought into close proximity of
each other large barrier for dislocation motion.
In ceramics with covalent bonding slip is not easy
as well (covalent bonds are strong) ceramics
are brittle.
Non-crystalline ceramic: there is no regular
crystalline structure no dislocations. Materials
deform by viscous flow, i.e. by breaking and
reforming atomic bonds, allowing ions/atoms to
slide past each other (like in a liquid).
Viscosity is a measure of glassy materials
resistance to deformation.
22
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a non-crystalline (glass or liquid)
materials resistance to deformation. High-viscosity fluids
resist flow; low-viscosity fluids flow easily.
How readily a moving layer of fluid molecules drags

adjacent layers of molecules along with it determines its
viscosity.
Units are Pa-s, or Poises (P)

1 P = 0.1 Pa-s
Viscosity of water at room temp is ~ 10-3 P

Viscosity of typical glass at room temp >> 1016 P
FA
= =
dv dy dv dy
23
Summary
Anion
Cation
Defect structure
Frenkel defect
Electroneutrality
Schottky defect
Stoichiometry
Viscosity
24

Optional reading: 14.3, 14.5 14.18
25
Introduction to Materials Science, Chapter 14, Applications and Processing of Ceramics
Chapter Outline:
Applications and Processing of Ceramics

Optional reading: 14.3, 14.5 14.18
1
Formation and processing of Ceramics
Ceramic materials have relatively high melting

temperature and they are brittle casting and
processing based on plastic deformation (e.g. strain
hardening) that we discussed for metals cannot be
applied for ceramics.
Some ceramics are formed by powder pressing,
involve drying and firing,
Sintering: powder pressing + firing below melting T
Cements are formed from a fluid paste that hardens as

a result of chemical reactions.
Glasses (non-crystalline silicates) are produced by

complete melting of the raw ingredients.
2
Applications of Ceramics
The compressive strength is typically ten times the

tensile strength. In structures, designs must be done
for compressive loads.
The transparency to light of many ceramics optical

applications (windows, photographic cameras,
telescopes, etc)
Good thermal insulation use in ovens, the exterior

tiles of the Shuttle orbiter, etc.
Good electrical isolation ceramics are used to

support conductors in electrical and electronic
applications.
Good chemical inertness applications in reactive

environments.
3
Silicate Glasses
Silicate Glasses - noncrystalline silicates (SiO2) containing
other oxides (CaO, NaO2, K2 O, Al2 O3)
Containers, windows, lenses, fiberglass, etc.
Example:
Container/window
glasses contain
~ 30 wt% oxides
(CaO, Na2O)
whose cations are
incorporated within
SiO4 network:
network modifiers.
4
Properties of Glasses (I)

Solidification is gradual, through a viscous stage
(viscosity is increasing with decreasing T), without a
clear melting temperature
The specific volume does not have an abrupt transition

at a fixed temperature but rather shows a change in
slope at the glass-transition temperature

Viscosity (from Chapter 13)

Viscosity is a measure of a non-crystalline (glass or liquid)
materials resistance to deformation. High-viscosity fluids
resist flow; low-viscosity fluids flow easily.
How readily a moving layer of fluid molecules drags

adjacent layers of molecules along with it determines its
viscosity.
Units are Pa-s, or Poises (P)

1 P = 0.1 Pa-s
Viscosity of water at room temp is ~ 10-3 P

Viscosity of typical glass at room temp >> 1016 P
FA
= =
dv dy dv dy
6
Properties of Glasses (II)

Important temperatures in glasses are defined in terms of
viscosity
Melting point: viscosity = 100 P, below this
temperature glass is liquid
Working point: viscosity = 104 P, glass is easily
deformed
Softening point: viscosity = 4107 P, maximum T at
which a glass piece maintains shape for a long time
Annealing point : viscosity = 1013 P, relax internal
stresses (diffusion)
Strain point: viscosity = 3x1014 P, above this
viscosity, fracture occurs before plastic deformation
Glass forming operations - between softening and working

points
7
Properties of Glasses (III)
8
Heat treatment of Glasses
Annealing at elevated temperatures is used to remove

thermal stresses that result from inhomogeneous
temperatures during cooling (similar to annealing of
metals)
Tempering - heating the glass above the glass transition

temperature but below the softening point and then
quenched in an air jet or oil bath.
The interior, which cools later than the outside, tries to
contract while in a plastic state after the exterior has
already become rigid. This causes residual compressive
stresses on the surface and tensile stresses inside.
In fracture, a crack has first to overcome the residual
compressive stress, making tempered glass less susceptible
to fracture. Tempering is used in automobile windshields,
glass doors, eyeglass lenses, etc.
9
Summary
Glass tempering
Glass transition temperature
Melting point (glass)
10
Chapter 15: Polymer Structures

Hydrocarbon and Polymer Molecules
Chemistry of Polymer Molecules
Molecular Weight and Shape
Molecular Structure and Configurations
Copolymers
Polymer Crystals
Optional reading: none
11
Introduction to Materials Science, Chapter 15, Polymer Structures
Chapter Outline: Polymer Structures
Hydrocarbon and Polymer Molecules

Chemistry of Polymer Molecules
Molecular Weight and Shape
Molecular Structure and Configurations
Copolymers
Polymer Crystals
Optional reading: none
1
Polymers: Introduction
Polymer - a large molecule consisting of (at least five)
repeated chemical units (`mers') joined together, like
beads on a string. Polymers usually contain many more
than five monomers, and some may contain hundreds or
thousands of monomers in each chain.
Polymers may be natural, such as cellulose or DNA, or

synthetic, such as nylon or polyethylene.
Silk fibre is produced by

silk worms in a cocoon,
to protect the silkworm
while it metamorphoses
in a moth.
Many of the most important current research problems involve

polymers. Living organisms are mainly composed of
polymerized amino acids (proteins) nucleic acids (RNA and
DNA), and other biopolymers. The most powerful computers -
our brains - are mostly just a complex polymer material soaking
in salty water! We are just making first small steps towards
University
understanding ofofbiological
Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
systems. 2
Hydrocarbon molecules (I)
Most polymers are organic, and formed from

hydrocarbon molecules
Each C atom has four e- that participate in bonds,

each H atom has one bonding e-
Examples of saturated (all bonds are single ones)

hydrocarbon molecules:
Methane, CH4 Ethane, C 2H6 Propane, C 3H8
3
Hydrocarbon molecules (II)

Double and triple bonds can exist between C atoms
(sharing of two or three electron pairs). These bonds
are called unsaturated bonds. Unsaturated
molecules are more reactive
H-CC-H
Ethylene, C 2H4 Acetylene, C2H2
Isomers are molecules that contain the same atoms but in a

different arrangement. An example is butane and
isobutane:
Butane C4H10 Isobutane
4
Hydrocarbon molecules (III)
Many other organic groups can be involved in

polymer molecules. In table above R represent
radical, an organic group of atoms that remain as a
unit and maintain their identity during chemical
reactions (e.g.of Virginia,
University CH3, C 2Hof5,Materials
Dept. C6H5)Science and Engineering 5
Polymer molecules
Polymer molecules are very large: macromolecules

Most polymers consist of long and flexible chains with
a string of C atoms as a backbone.
Side-bonding of C atoms to H atoms or radicals
Double bonds possible in both chain and side bonds
Repeat unit in a polymer chain (unit cell) is a mer
A single mer is called a monomer
6
Chemistry of polymer molecules (I)

Ethylene (C2 H4) is a gas at room temp and pressure
Ethylene transform to polyethylene (solid) by forming
active mer through reaction with initiator or catalytic
radical (R.)
(.) denotes unpaired electron (active site)
Polymerization:
1. Initiation reaction:
2. Rapid propagation ~1000 mer units in 1-10 ms:
3. Termination when two active chain ends meet each other

or active chain end meet with initiator or other species
with single active bond:

Chemistry of polymer molecules (II)
Replace hydrogen atoms

in polyethylene: make
polytetraflouroethylene
(PTFE) Teflon
Replace every fourth

hydrogen atom in
polyethylene with Cl
atom: polyvinyl
chloride
Replace every fourth

hydrogen atom in
polyethylene with CH3
methyl group:
polyproplylene
8
Chemistry of polymer molecules (III)
When all the mers are the same, the molecule is called a
homopolymer
When there is more than one type of mer present, the
molecule is a copolymer
Mer units that have 2 active bonds to connect with
other mers are called bifunctional
Mer units that have 3 active bonds to connect with
other mers are called trifunctional. They form three-
dimensional molecular network structures.
Polyethilene
Phenol-formaldehyde
(bifunctional)
(trifunctional)
9
Molecular weight (I)
Final molecular weight (chain length) is controlled by
relative rates of initiation, propagation, termination
steps of polymerization
Formation of macromolecules during polymerization
results in distribution of chain lengths and molecular
weights
The average molecular weight can be obtained by
averaging the masses with the fraction of times they
appear (number-average molecular weight ) or with
the mass fraction of the molecules (weight-average
molecular weight).
number-average:
Mn = x i M i
weight-average:
Mw = w i Mi
wi is weight fraction of chains of length i

xi is number fraction of chains of length i
10
Molecular weight (II)
Alternative way to express average polymer chain size

is degree of polymerization - the average number of
mer units in a chain:
number-average: weight-average:
Mn Mw
nn = nw =
m m
m is the mer molecular weight
Melting / softening temperatures increase with

molecular weight (up to ~ 100,000 g/mol)
At room temperature, short chain polymers (molar

weight ~ 100 g/mol) are liquids or gases, intermediate
length polymers (~ 1000 g/mol) are waxy solids, solid
polymers have molecular weights of 104 - 107 g/mol
11
Molecular shape
The angle between the singly bonded carbon atoms is

~109o carbon atoms form a zigzag pattern in a
polymer molecule.
Moreover, while maintaining
the 109o angle between bonds
polymer chains can rotate
around single C-C bonds
(double and triple bonds are
very rigid).
Random kinks and coils

lead to entanglement, like
in the spaghetti structure:

Molecular shape
Molecular chains may thus bend, coil and kink

Neighboring chains may intertwine and entangle
Large elastic extensions of rubbers correspond to
unraveling of these coiled chains
Mechanical / thermal characteristics depend on the
ability of chain segments to rotate
13
Molecular structure
The physical characteristics of polymer material depend
not only on molecular weight and shape, but also on
molecular structure:
1 Linear polymers: Van der Waals bonding between

chains. Examples: polyethylene, nylon.
2 Branched polymers: Chain packing efficiency is

reduced compared to linear polymers - lower density
14
Molecular structure
3 Cross-linked polymers: Chains are connected by
covalent bonds. Often achieved by adding atoms or
molecules that form covalent links between chains.
Many rubbers have this structure.
4 Network polymers: 3D networks made from

trifunctional mers. Examples: epoxies, phenol-
formaldehyde
15
Isomerism
Isomerism: Hydrocarbon compounds with same

composition may have different atomic arrangements.
Physical properties may depend on isomeric state
(e.g. boiling temperature of normal butane is -0.5 oC,
of isobutane -12.3 oC)
Butane C4H10 Isobutane
Two types of isomerism are possible:

stereoisomerism and geometrical isomerism
16
Stereoisomerism
Stereoisomerism: atoms are linked together in the
same order, but can have different spatial arrangement
1 Isotactic configuration: all side groups R are on

the same side of the chain.
2 Syndiotactic configuration: side groups R

alternate sides of the chain.
3 Atactic configuration: random orientations of

groups R along the chain.
17
Geometrical isomerism
Geometrical isomerism: consider two carbon atoms

bonded by a double bond in a chain. H atom or radical R
bonded to these two atoms can be on the same side of the
chain (cis structure) or on opposite sides of the chain
(trans structure).
Cis-polyisoprene
Trans-polyisoprene
18
Summary: Size Shape -Structure
19
Copolymers (composed of different mers)

Copolymers, polymers with at least two different types of
mers, can differ in the way the mers are arranged:
Random copolymer
Alternating copolymer
Block copolymer
Graft copolymer
Synthetic rubbers are copolymers
20
Polymer Crystallinity (I)
Atomic arrangement
in polymer crystals
is more complex
than in metals or
ceramics (unit cells
are typically large
and complex).
Polyethylene
Polymer molecules are often

partially crystalline (semi-
crystalline), with crystalline
regions dispersed within
amorphous material.
U 21
Polymer Crystallinity (II)

Degree of crystallinity is determined by:
Rate of cooling during solidification : time is
necessary for chains to move and align into a crystal
structure
Mer complexity: crystallization less likely in complex
structures, simple polymers, such as polyethylene,
crystallize relatively easily
Chain configuration: linear polymers crystallize
relatively easily, branches inhibit crystallization,
network polymers almost completely amorphous, cross-
linked polymers can be both crystalline and amorphous
Isomerism: isotactic, syndiotactic polymers crystallize
relatively easily - geometrical regularity allows chains
to fit together, atactic difficult to crystallize
Copolymerism: easier to crystallize if mer
arrangements are more regular - alternating, block can
crystallize more easily as compared to random and graft
More crystallinity: higher density, more strength, higher

resistance to dissolution and softening by heating
22
Polymer Crystallinity (III)

Crystalline polymers are denser than amorphous polymers,
so the degree of crystallinity can be obtained from the
measurement of density:
c ( s a )
% crystallin ity = 100
s ( c a )
c: Density of perfect crystalline polymer

a: Density of completely amorphous polymer
s: Density of partially crystalline polymer that we
are analyzing
23
Polymer Crystals
Thin crystalline platelets grown from solution - chains fold
back and forth: chain-folded model
Polyethylene
The average chain length is much greater than the

thickness of the crystallite
24
Polymer Crystals
Spherulites: Aggregates of lamellar crystallites ~ 10 nm
thick, separated by amorphous material. Aggregates
approximately spherical in shape.
Photomicrograph of
spherulite structure
of polyethylene 25
Five Bakers Dancing
26
Number Eighty Eight
HUMAN APOLIPOPROTEIN A-I.

Biopolymers can be complex and nice
27
His bark is worse than his bite
CHAPERONE/STRUCTURAL PROTEIN
Authors: D. Choudhury, A. Thompson, A. Thompson, V. Stojanoff, S.
Langerman, J. Pinkner, S. J. Hultgren, S. Knight
28
Summary
Alternating copolymer Mer

Atactic configuration Molecular chemistry
Bifunctional mer Molecular structure
Block copolymer Molecular weight
Branched polymer Monomer
Chain-folded model Network polymer
Cis (structure) Polymer
Copolymer Polymer crystallinity
Crosslinked polymer Random copolymer
Crystallite Saturated
Degree of polymerization Spherulite
Graft copolymer Stereoisomerism
Homopolymer Syndiotactic configuration
Isomerism Trans (structure)
Isotactic configuration Trifunctional mer
Linear polymer Unsaturated
Macromolecule
29
Chapter 16: Characteristics, Applications, and

Processing of Polymers
Mechanical properties
Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers
Crystallization, Melting, Glass Transition
Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers
Viscoelasticity
Deformation and Elastomers
Fracture of Polymers
Polymerization
Elastomers
Optional reading: 16.10, 16.12-16.14, 16.16-16.18
30
Introduction to Materials Science, Chapter 16, Applications and Processing of Polymers
Chapter Outline: Characteristics, Applications, and

Processing of Polymers
Mechanical properties
Viscoelasticity
Deformation and Elastomers
Polymerization
Elastomers
Optional reading: 16.10, 16.12-16.14, 16.16-16.18
1
Stress Strain Behavior (I)
The description of stress-strain behavior is similar to
that of metals
A: Brittle Polymer
B: Plastic Polymer
C: Elastomer
The stress-strain behavior can be brittle (A), plastic (B),

and highly elastic (C)
Deformation shown by curve C is totally elastic (rubber-
like elasticity). This class of polymers - elastomers
2
Stress Strain Behavior (II)
Characteristics of stress-strain behavior:
Modulus of elasticity defined as for metals
Ductility (%EL) defined as for metals
Yield strength - For plastic polymers (B), yield
strength is defined by the maximum on curve just after
the elastic region (different from metals)
Tensile strength is defined at the fracture point and can
be lower than the yield strength (different from metals)
3
Stress Strain Behavior (III)
Moduli of elasticity for polymers are ~ 10 MPa - 4 GPa

(compare to metals ~ 50 - 400 GPa)
Tensile strengths are ~ 10 - 100 MPa (compare to

metals, hundreds of MPa to several GPa)
Elongation can be up to 1000 % in some cases (< 100%
for metals)
Mechanical properties of polymers change dramatically

with temperature, going from glass-like brittle behavior
at low temperatures to a rubber-like behavior at high
temperatures.
Polymers are also very sensitive to the rate of
deformation (strain rate). Decreasing rate of
deformation has the same effect as increasing T.
4
Stress Strain Behavior (IV)
Temperature increase leads to:

Decrease in elastic modulus
Reduction in tensile strength
Increase in ductility
polymethyl methacrylate
(PMMA)
5
Semi-crystalline polymers:
crystalline regions separated
by amorphous material
(Chapter 15)
Elastic deformation:
Basic mechanism of elastic deformation is elongation
(straightening) of chain molecules in the direction of the
applied stress. Elastic modulus is defined by elastic
properties of amorphous and crystalline regions and by the
microstructure.
6
Plastic Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers

Plastic deformation is defined by the interaction
between crystalline and amorphous regions and is
partially reversible.
Stages of plastic deformation:
1. elongation of amorphous tie chains
2. tilting of lamellar crystallites towards the tensile axis
3. separation of crystalline block segments
4. stretching of crystallites and amorphous regions
along tensile axis
Initial
structure
1 2 3 4
Plastic Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers
The macroscopic deformation involves necking. Neck

gets stronger since the deformation aligns the chains
and increases local strength in the neck region (up to
2-5 times) neck is expanding along the specimen.
Chains in neck align

along elongation
direction: strengthening
Elongation
by extension
of neck
Different from ductile metals where the deformation is

confined in the initial neck region.
8
Factors that Influence Mechanical properties (I)
Temperature and strain rate (already discussed)

Chain entanglement, strong intermolecular bonding
(van der Waals, cross-links) increase strength
Drawing, analog of work hardening in metals,
corresponds to the neck extension. Is used in production
of fibers and films. Molecular chains become highly
oriented properties of drawn material are anisotropic
(perpendicular to the chain alignment direction strength
is reduced)
Heat treatment - changes in crystallite size and order
undrawn material: Increasing annealing temperature
leads to
increase in elastic modulus
increase in yield/tensile strength
decrease in ductility
Note that these changes are opposite from metals
drawn material: opposite changes (due to
recrystallization and loss of chain orientation)
9
Factors that Influence Mechanical properties (II)
Tensile strength increases with molecular weight

effect of entanglement
Higher degree of crystallinity stronger secondary
bonding - stronger and more brittle material
10
Crystallization, Melting, Glass Transition (I)

Crystallization: crystalline nuclei form and grow, chains
align and order. Crystallization rates can be defined from
the same type of S-curves we saw in the case of metals.
Nucleation becomes slower at higher temperatures.
Glass transition: polymer become rigid solids (viscosity is

increasing) upon cooling yet retain the disordered
molecular structure characteristic for liquids
11
Crystallization, Melting, Glass Transition (II)

Melting behavior of semicrystalline polymers is
intermediate between that of crystalline materials (sharp
density change at a melting temperature) and that of a pure
amorphous material (melting can be only defined from
viscosity).
The glass transition temperature is between 0.5 and 0.8 of

the melting temperature.
12

The melting temperature increases with the rate of heating,
thickness of the lamellae, and depends on history of
material, especially crystallization temperature.
Melting involves breaking of the inter-chain bonds,

therefore the glass and melting temperatures depend on:
chain stiffness (e.g., single vs. double bonds) - rigid

chains have higher melting temperatures
size/weight of molecule - increasing molecular weight
increases T m (range of M produces range of T m)
size, shape of side groups, side branches, cross-
linking, defects, etc.
Essentially the same molecular characteristics rise and

lower both melting and glass transition temperatures.
13
Dependence of melting and glass transition temperatures

and polymer properties on molecular weight
14
Thermoplastic polymers (thermoplasts): soften

reversibly when heated (harden when cooled)
At elevated temperatures inter-chain bonding is weakened
allowing deformation at low stresses. Most thermoplasts
are linear polymers and some branched structures
Thermosetting polymers (thermosets): harden

permanently when heated.
Covalent crosslinks (~ 10 - 50% of mers) formed during
heating. Cross-linking hinder bending and rotations.
Thermosets are harder, more dimensionally stable, and
more brittle than thermoplasts. Examples: vulcanized
rubber, epoxies, resins.
15
Viscoelasticity (I)
Amorphous polymer: glass at low temperatures, rubber
at intermediate temperatures, viscous liquid at high T.
Low temperatures: elastic deformation at small strains

( = E). Deformation is instantaneous when load is
applied. Deformation is reversible.
High temperatures: viscous behavior. Deformation is

time dependent and not reversible.
Intermediate temperatures: viscoelastic behavior.

Instantaneous elastic strain followed by viscous time
dependent strain.
Viscoelastic behavior is determined by rate of strain

(elastic for rapidly applied stress, viscous for slowly
applied stress)
Rate dependence of viscoelastic properties in a silicone

polymerUniversity
(Silly ofPutty).
Virginia,Picture
Dept. of Materials
by Geon Science and Engineering
Corp. 16
Viscoelasticity (II)
Elastic
Viscoelastic
Viscous
Load is applied at ta and released at tr
17
Viscoelasticity (III)
Viscoelasticity can be characterized by the viscoelastic
relaxation modulus:
Sample is strained rapidly to pre-determined strain
Stress required to maintain this strain over time is
measured at constant T
Stress decreases with time due to molecular relaxation
processes
Relaxation modulus can
be defined as
Er(t) = (t)/e0
Er(t) is also a function
of temperature

Log time,t18
Viscoelasticity (IV)
To show the influence of temperature, the relaxation
modulus can be plotted at a fixed time for different T:
Glassy (elastic) region.

Chains are frozen
Leathery/glass transition region

Deformation is time dependent
and not fully recoverable
Rubbery plateau
Rubbery flow
(increasing chain motion)
Viscous flow (motion

of chains largely independent)

Viscoelasticity (V)
Temperature dependence for different polymer structures
A : Largely crystalline isotactic polystyrene. Glass transition

region limited small amount of amorphous material
B: Lightly cross-linked atactic polystyrene - leathery
region extends to decomposition temperature: no melting
C: Amorphous
University ofpolystyrene
Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 20
Viscoelastic Creep
Many polymers susceptible to time-dependent

deformation under constant load viscoelastic creep
Creep may be significant even at room temperature
and under moderately low stresses (below yield
strength)
Results of creep tests are described by time dependent
creep modulus:
Ec(t) = o / (t)
Amount of creep decreases as crystallinity increases
21
Elastomers
Elastomers can be deformed to very large strains and then
spring back elastically to the original length, a behavior
first observed in natural rubber. To be elastomeric, the
polymer needs to meet several criteria:
Resistance to crystallization (elastomers are amorphous)
Relatively free chain rotations (unstressed elastomers
have coiled/twisted structure uncoil during
deformation)
Certain degree of cross-linking (achieved by
vulcanization) that increases resistance to plastic
deformation
Temperature is above the glass transition temperature
(below T g elastomer becomes brittle)

Elastomers: Vulcanization (I)

Croslinking is one of the requirements of in for
elastomeric behavior.
It can be achieved by vulcanization - an irreversible
chemical reaction usually at high temperatures, and
usually involving the addition of sulfur compounds.
Sulfur atoms bond with double-bonded C in chain
backbones and form the bridge cross-links.
Unvulcanized rubber suffers from softening at high ambient

temperatures and hardening at low temperatures. Ways were sought to
overcome this by treating the rubber with all sorts of chemicals,
eventually (in 1839) Charles Goodyear found vulcanization by
accidentally heating sulphur-coated rubber which he observed became
firm and was stable under heating and cooling.
23
Elastomers: Vulcanization (II)
Because they are cross-linked, elastomeric

materials are thermosetting polymers
Elastic modulus, tensile strength, oxidation
resistance increased by vulcanization - magnitude
of E proportional to number of cross-links. Too
many cross-links reduces extensibility

Fracture strengths of polymers are low compared to

metals and ceramics
Brittle fracture occurs in thermosetting polymers.

Fracture is initiated at stress concentrators (scratches,
notches, etc). Covalent bonds are severed during
fracture
In thermoplastic polymers, both ductile and brittle

fracture are possible. Brittle fracture is favored at
lower temperatures, higher strain rates, and at stress
concentrators
Brittle to ductile transition often occurs with increasing

temperature
25
Fracture of Polymers: Crazing
Fracture of glassy thremoplasts often proceeds through

crazing. Crazing occurs when localized regions yield,
forming an interconnected array of microvoids.
Fibrillar bridges of of oriented molecular chains form
between voids.
At high enough tensile loads, these bridges elongate

and break, enabling crack propagation
Crazing absorbs fracture energy and increases fracture

toughness
26
Polymerization
Polymerization is the synthesis of high polymers from raw
materials like oil or coal. It may occur by:
1. Addition (chain-reaction) polymerization, where
monomer units are attached one at a time (discussed in
Chapter 15). Has three distinct stages: initiation,
propagation, and termination.
2. Condensation (step reaction) polymerization, by
stepwise intermolecular chemical reactions that
produce the mer units.
Usually there is small by-product that is then
eliminated
Significantly slower than addition
polymerization
Often form trifunctional molecules that can
form cross-linked and network polymers

Glossary
A Alloy steel. A ferrous (or iron- moment cancellation occurs as a

Abrasive. A hard and wear-resis- based) alloy that contains appre- result of antiparallel coupling of
tant material (commonly a ceramic) ciable concentrations of alloying adjacent atoms or ions. The macro-
that is used to wear, grind, or cut elements (other than C and residual scopic solid possesses no net mag-
away other material. amounts of Mn, Si, S, and P). These netic moment.
Absorption. The optical phenome- alloying elements are usually added Articial aging. For precipitation
non whereby the energy of a photon to improve mechanical and corro- hardening, aging above room tem-
of light is assimilated within a sion resistance properties. perature.
substance, normally by electronic Alternating copolymer. A copoly- Atactic. A type of polymer chain
polarization or by an electron exci- mer in which two different mer units conguration wherein side groups
tation event. alternate positions along the molec- are randomly positioned on one
Acceptor level. For a semiconduc- ular chain. side of the chain or the other.
tor or insulator, an energy level ly- Amorphous. Having a noncrystal- Athermal transformation. A reac-
ing within yet near the bottom of line structure. tion that is not thermally activated,
the energy band gap, which may ac- Anelastic deformation. Time-de- and usually diffusionless, as with the
cept electrons from the valence pendent elastic (nonpermanent) de- martensitic transformation. Nor-
band, leaving behind holes. The formation. mally, the transformation takes
level is normally introduced by an Anion. A negatively charged, non- place with great speed (i.e., is inde-
impurity atom. metallic ion. pendent of time), and the extent of
Activation energy (Q). The energy Anisotropic. Exhibiting different reaction depends on temperature.
required to initiate a reaction, such values of a property in different Atomic mass unit (amu). A mea-
as diffusion. crystallographic directions. sure of atomic mass; one twelfth of
Activation polarization. The con- Annealing. A generic term used to the mass of an atom of C12.
dition wherein the rate of an elec- denote a heat treatment wherein Atomic number (Z). For a chemi-
trochemical reaction is controlled the microstructure and, conse- cal element, the number of protons
by the one slowest step in a se- quently, the properties of a material within the atomic nucleus.
quence of steps that occur in series. are altered. Annealing fre- Atomic packing factor (APF). The
Addition (or chain reaction) poly- quently refers to a heat treatment fraction of the volume of a unit cell
merization. The process by which whereby a previously cold-worked that is occupied by hard sphere
bifunctional monomer units are metal is softened by allowing it to atoms or ions.
attached one at a time, in chainlike recrystallize. Atomic vibration. The vibration of
fashion, to form a linear polymer Annealing point (glass). That tem- an atom about its normal position
macromolecule. perature at which residual stresses in a substance.
Adhesive. A substance that bonds in a glass are eliminated within Atomic weight (A). The weighted
together the surfaces of two other about 15 min; this corresponds to average of the atomic masses of an
materials (termed adherends). a glass viscosity of about 1012 Pa-s atoms naturally occurring isotopes.
Age hardening. See Precipitation (1013 P). It may be expressed in terms of
hardening. Anode. The electrode in an elec- atomic mass units (on an atomic
Allotropy. The possibility of exis- trochemical cell or galvanic couple basis), or the mass per mole of
tence of two or more different that experiences oxidation, or gives atoms.
crystal structures for a substance up electrons. Atom percent (at%). Concentra-
(generally an elemental solid). Antiferromagnetism. A phenome- tion specication on the basis of the
Alloy. A metallic substance that is non observed in some materials number of moles (or atoms) of a
composed of two or more elements. (e.g., MnO); complete magnetic particular element relative to the
828
Glossary 829
total number of moles (or atoms) Braggs law. A relationship (Equa- alloy, the carbon content of which
of all elements within an alloy. tion 3.9) which stipulates the condi- is greater than the maximum solu-
Austenite. Face-centered cubic iron; tion for diffraction by a set of crytal- bility in austenite at the eutectic
also iron and steel alloys that have lographic planes. temperature. Most commercial cast
the FCC crystal structure. Branched polymer. A polymer irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5
Austenitizing. Forming austenite having a molecular structure of sec- wt% C, and between 1 and 3 wt% Si.
by heating a ferrous alloy above its ondary chains that extend from the Cathode. The electrode in an elec-
upper critical temperatureto primary main chains. trochemical cell or galvanic couple
within the austenite phase region Brass. A copper-rich copperzinc at which a reduction reaction oc-
from the phase diagram. alloy. curs; thus the electrode that re-
Brazing. A metal joining technique ceives electrons from an external
B that uses a molten ller metal alloy circuit.
Bainite. An austenitic transforma- having a melting temperature Cathodic protection. A means of
tion product found in some steels greater than about 425C (800F). corrosion prevention whereby elec-
and cast irons. It forms at tempera- Brittle fracture. Fracture that oc- trons are supplied to the structure
tures between those at which pearl- curs by rapid crack propagation and to be protected from an external
ite and martensite transformations without appreciable macroscopic source such as another more reac-
occur. The microstructure consists deformation. tive metal or a dc power supply.
of -ferrite and a ne dispersion Bronze. A copper-rich coppertin Cation. A positively charged me-
of cementite. alloy; aluminum, silicon, and nickel tallic ion.
Band gap energy (Eg). For semi- bronzes are also possible. Cement. A substance (often a ce-
conductors and insulators, the ener- Burgers vector (b). A vector that ramic) that by chemical reaction
gies that lie between the valence denotes the magnitude and direc- binds particulate aggregates into a
and conduction bands; for intrinsic tion of lattice distortion associated cohesive structure. With hydraulic
materials, electrons are forbidden with a dislocation. cements the chemical reaction is
to have energies within this range. one of hydration, involving water.
Bifunctional. Designating mono- C Cementite. Iron carbide (Fe3C).
mer units that have two active bond- Calcination. A high-temperature Ceramic. A compound of metallic
ing positions. reaction whereby one solid material and nonmetallic elements, for
Block copolymer. A linear copoly- dissociates to form a gas and an- which the interatomic bonding is
mer in which identical mer units are other solid. It is one step in the pro- predominantly ionic.
clustered in blocks along the molec- duction of cement. Ceramic-matrix composite (CMC).
ular chain. Capacitance (C). The charge-stor- A composite for which both matrix
Body-centered cubic (BCC). A ing ability of a capacitor, dened as and dispersed phases are ceramic
common crystal structure found in the magnitude of charge stored on materials. The dispersed phase is
some elemental metals. Within the either plate divided by the applied normally added to improve frac-
cubic unit cell, atoms are located at voltage. ture toughness.
corner and cell center positions. Carbon-carbon composite. A com- Cermet. A composite material con-
Bohr atomic model. An early posite that is composed of continu- sisting of a combination of ceramic
atomic model, in which electrons ous bers of carbon that are imbed- and metallic materials. The most
are assumed to revolve around the ded in a carbon matrix. The matrix common cermets are the cemented
nucleus in discrete orbitals. was originally a polymer resin that carbides, composed of an extremely
Bohr magneton (B). The most was subsequently pyrolyzed to hard ceramic (e.g., WC, TiC),
fundamental magnetic moment, of form carbon. bonded together by a ductile metal
magnitude 9.27 1024 A-m2. Carburizing. The process by which such as cobalt or nickel.
Boltzmanns constant (k). A ther- the surface carbon concentration of Chain-folded model. For crystal-
mal energy constant having the a ferrous alloy is increased by diffu- line polymers, a model that de-
value of 1.38 1023 J/atom-K sion from the surrounding envi- scribes the structure of platelet
(8.62 105 eV/atom-K). See also ronment. crystallites. Molecular alignment is
Gas constant. Case hardening. Hardening of the accomplished by chain folding that
Bonding energy. The energy re- outer surface (or case) of a steel occurs at the crystallite faces.
quired to separate two atoms that component by a carburizing or ni- Charpy test. One of two tests (see
are chemically bonded to each triding process; used to improve also Izod test) that may be used to
other. It may be expressed on a per- wear and fatigue resistance. measure the impact energy or notch
atom basis, or per mole of atoms. Cast iron. Generically, a ferrous toughness of a standard notched
830 Glossary
specimen. An impact blow is im- bound together in a solid body by Coulombic force. A force between
parted to the specimen by means of a cement. charged particles such as ions; the
a weighted pendulum. Condensation (or step reaction) po- force is attractive when the particles
Cis. For polymers, a prex denot- lymerization. The formation of are of opposite charge.
ing a type of molecular structure. polymer macromolecules by an in- Covalent bond. A primary in-
For some unsaturated carbon chain termolecular reaction involving at teratomic bond that is formed by
atoms within a mer unit, a side atom least two monomer species, usually the sharing of electrons between
or group may be situated on one with the production of a by-product neighboring atoms.
side of the chain or directly opposite of low molecular weight, such as Creep. The time-dependent per-
at a 180 rotation position. In a cis water. manent deformation that occurs un-
structure, two such side groups Conduction band. For electrical in- der stress; for most materials it is
within the same mer reside on the sulators and semiconductors, the important only at elevated tempera-
same side (e.g., cis-isoprene). lowest lying electron energy band tures.
Coarse pearlite. Pearlite for which that is empty of electrons at 0 K. Crevice corrosion. A form of cor-
the alternating ferrite and cement- Conduction electrons are those that rosion that occurs within narrow
ite layers are relatively thick. have been excited to states within crevices and under deposits of dirt
Coercivity (or coercive eld, this band. or corrosion products (i.e., in re-
Hc). The applied magnetic eld Conductivity, electrical (). The gions of localized depletion of oxy-
necessary to reduce to zero the mag- proportionality constant between gen in the solution).
netic ux density of a magnetized current density and applied electric Critical resolved shear stress
ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic ma- eld; also a measure of the ease with (crss). That shear stress, resolved
terial. which a material is capable of con- within a slip plane and direction,
Cold working. The plastic defor- ducting an electric current. which is required to initiate slip.
mation of a metal at a temperature Congruent transformation. A trans- Crosslinked polymer. A polymer in
below that at which it recrystallizes. formation of one phase to another which adjacent linear molecular
Color. Visual perception that is of the same composition. chains are joined at various posi-
stimulated by the combination of Continuous cooling transformation tions by covalent bonds.
wavelengths of light that are trans- (CCT) diagram. A plot of tempera- Crystalline. The state of a solid ma-
mitted to the eye. ture versus the logarithm of time for terial characterized by a periodic
Colorant. An additive that imparts a steel alloy of denite composition. and repeating three-dimensional
a specic color to a polymer. Used to indicate when transforma- array of atoms, ions, or molecules.
Component. A chemical consti- tions occur as the initially austenit- Crystallinity. For polymers, the
tuent (element or compound) of an ized material is continuously cooled state wherein a periodic and re-
alloy, which may be used to specify at a specied rate; in addition, the peating atomic arrangement is
its composition. nal microstructure and mechanical achieved by molecular chain
Composition (Ci). The relative characteristics may be predicted. alignment.
content of a particular element or Coordination number. The num- Crystallite. A region within a crys-
constituent (i) within an alloy, usu- ber of atomic or ionic nearest talline polymer in which all the mo-
ally expressed in weight percent or neighbors. lecular chains are ordered and
atom percent. Copolymer. A polymer that con- aligned.
Concentration. See Composition. sists of two or more dissimilar mer Crystal structure. For crystalline
Concentration gradient (dC/dx). units in combination along its mo- materials, the manner in which
The slope of the concentration pro- lecular chains. atoms or ions are arrayed in space.
le at a specic position. Corrosion. Deteriorative loss of a It is dened in terms of the unit cell
Concentration polarization. The metal as a result of dissolution envi- geometry and the atom positions
condition wherein the rate of an ronmental reactions. within the unit cell.
electrochemical reaction is limited Corrosion fatigue. A type of failure Crystal system. A scheme by which
by the rate of diffusion in the so- that results from the simultaneous crystal structures are classied ac-
lution. action of a cyclic stress and chemi- cording to unit cell geometry. This
Concentration prole. The curve cal attack. geometry is specied in terms of the
that results when the concentration Corrosion penetration rate (CPR). relationships between edge lengths
of a chemical species is plotted ver- Thickness loss of material per unit and interaxial angles. There are
sus position in a material. of time as a result of corrosion; usu- seven different crystal systems.
Concrete. A composite material ally expressed in terms of mils per Curie temperature (Tc). That tem-
consisting of aggregate particles year or millimeters per year. perature above which a ferromag-
Glossary 831
netic or ferrimagnetic material be- Diffusion ux (J). The quantity of and tubing. Deformation is accom-
comes paramagnetic. mass diffusing through and perpen- plished by pulling the material
dicular to a unit cross-sectional area through a die by means of a tensile
D of material per unit time. force applied on the exit side.
Defect structure. Relating to the Diode. An electronic device that Drawing (polymers). A deforma-
kinds and concentrations of vacan- recties an electrical currenti.e., tion technique wherein polymer
cies and interstitials in a ceramic allows current ow in one direc- bers are strengthened by elon-
compound. tion only. gation.
Degradation. A term used to de- Dipole (electric). A pair of equal Driving force. The impetus behind
note the deteriorative processes yet opposite electrical charges that a reaction, such as diffusion, grain
that occur with polymeric materials. are separated by a small distance. growth, or a phase transformation.
These processes include swelling, Dislocation. A linear crystalline Usually attendant to the reaction is
dissolution, and chain scission. defect around which there is atomic a reduction in some type of energy
Degree of polymerization. The av- misalignment. Plastic deformation (e.g., free energy).
erage number of mer units per poly- corresponds to the motion of dislo- Ductile fracture. A mode of frac-
mer chain molecule. cations in response to an applied ture that is attended by extensive
Design stress (d ). Product of the shear stress. Edge, screw, and mixed gross plastic deformation.
calculated stress level (on the basis dislocations are possible. Ductile iron. A cast iron that is al-
of estimated maximum load) and a Dislocation density. The total dis- loyed with silicon and a small con-
design factor (which has a value location length per unit volume of centration of magnesium and/or
greater than unity). Used to protect material; alternately, the number of cerium and in which the free graph-
against unanticipated failure. dislocations that intersect a unit ite exists in nodular form. Some-
Devitrication. The process in area of a random surface section. times called nodular iron.
which a glass (noncrystalline or vit- Dislocation line. The line that ex- Ductile-to-brittle transition. The
reous solid) transforms to a crystal- tends along the end of the extra transition from ductile to brittle be-
line solid. half-plane of atoms for an edge dis- havior with a decrease in tempera-
Diamagnetism. A weak form of in- location, and along the center of the ture exhibited by BCC alloys; the
duced or nonpermanent magnetism spiral of a screw dislocation. temperature range over which the
for which the magnetic susceptibil- Dispersed phase. For composites transition occurs is determined by
ity is negative. and some two-phase alloys, the dis- Charpy and Izod impact tests.
Dielectric. Any material that is continuous phase that is sur- Ductility. A measure of a materi-
electrically insulating. rounded by the matrix phase. als ability to undergo appreciable
Dielectric constant (r). The ratio Dispersion strengthening. A means plastic deformation before fracture;
of the permittivity of a medium to of strengthening materials wherein it may be expressed as percent elon-
that of a vacuum. Often called the very small particles (usually less gation (%EL) or percent reduction
relative dielectric constant or rela- than 0.1 m) of a hard yet inert in area (%RA) from a tensile test.
tive permittivity. phase are uniformly dispersed
Dielectric displacement (D). The within a load-bearing matrix phase. E
magnitude of charge per unit area Domain. A volume region of a fer- Edge dislocation. A linear crystal-
of capacitor plate. romagnetic or ferrimagnetic mate- line defect associated with the
Dielectric (breakdown) strength. rial in which all atomic or ionic lattice distortion produced in the
The magnitude of an electric eld magnetic moments are aligned in vicinity of the end of an extra half-
necessary to cause signicant cur- the same direction. plane of atoms within a crystal. The
rent passage through a dielectric Donor level. For a semiconductor Burgers vector is perpendicular to
material. or insulator, an energy level lying the dislocation line.
Diffraction (x-ray). Constructive within yet near the top of the energy Elastic deformation. Deformation
interference of x-ray beams that are band gap, and from which electrons that is nonpermanent, that is, totally
scattered by atoms of a crystal. may be excited into the conduction recovered upon release of an ap-
Diffusion. Mass transport by band. It is normally introduced by plied stress.
atomic motion. an impurity atom. Elastic recovery. Nonpermanent
Diffusion coefcient (D). The con- Doping. The intentional alloying of deformation that is recovered or re-
stant of proportionality between semiconducting materials with con- gained upon the release of a me-
the diffusion ux and the concentra- trolled concentrations of donor or chanical stress.
tion gradient in Ficks rst law. Its acceptor impurities. Elastomer. A polymeric material
magnitude is indicative of the rate Drawing (metals). A forming tech- that may experience large and re-
of atomic diffusion. nique used to fabricate metal wire versible elastic deformations.
832 Glossary
Electrical conductivity. See Con- Engineering stress. See Stress, en- subjected to uctuating and cyclic
ductivity, electrical. gineering. stresses.
Electric dipole. See Dipole (elec- Equilibrium (phase). The state of Fatigue life (Nf ). The total number
tric). a system where the phase character- of stress cycles that will cause a fa-
Electric eld (EE ). The gradient of istics remain constant over inde- tigue failure at some specied
voltage. nite time periods. At equilibrium stress amplitude.
Electroluminescence. The emis- the free energy is a minimum. Fatigue limit. For fatigue, the maxi-
sion of visible light by a pn junc- Erosioncorrosion. A form of cor- mum stress amplitude level below
tion across which a forward-biased rosion that arises from the com- which a material can endure an es-
voltage is applied. bined action of chemical attack and sentially innite number of stress
Electrolyte. A solution through mechanical wear. cycles and not fail.
which an electric current may be Eutectic phase. One of the two Fatigue strength. The maximum
carried by the motion of ions. phases found in the eutectic stress level that a material can sus-
Electromotive force (emf) se- structure. tain, without failing, for some speci-
ries. A ranking of metallic ele- Eutectic reaction. A reaction ed number of cycles.
ments according to their standard wherein, upon cooling, a liquid Fermi energy (Ef ). For a metal, the
electrochemical cell potentials. phase transforms isothermally and energy corresponding to the highest
Electron conguration. For an reversibly into two intimately mixed lled electron state at 0 K.
atom, the manner in which possible solid phases. Ferrimagnetism. Permanent and
electron states are lled with elec- Eutectic structure. A two-phase large magnetizations found in some
trons. microstructure resulting from the ceramic materials. It results from
Electronegative. For an atom, hav- solidication of a liquid having the antiparallel spin coupling and in-
ing a tendency to accept valence eutectic composition; the phases ex- complete magnetic moment cancel-
electrons. Also, a term used to de- ist as lamellae that alternate with lation.
scribe nonmetallic elements. one another. Ferrite (ceramic). Ceramic oxide
Electron energy band. A series of Eutectoid reaction. A reaction materials composed of both diva-
electron energy states that are very wherein, upon cooling, one solid lent and trivalent cations (e.g., Fe2
closely spaced with respect to phase transforms isothermally and and Fe3), some of which are ferri-
energy. reversibly into two new solid phases magnetic.
Electroneutrality. The state of hav- that are intimately mixed. Ferrite (iron). Body-centered cu-
ing exactly the same numbers of Excited state. An electron energy bic iron; also iron and steel alloys
positive and negative electrical state, not normally occupied, to that have the BCC crystal structure.
charges (ionic and electronic), that which an electron may be promoted Ferroelectric. A dielectric material
is, of being electrically neutral. (from a lower energy state) by the that may exhibit polarization in the
Electron state (level). One of a set absorption of some type of energy absence of an electric eld.
of discrete, quantized energies that (e.g., heat, radiative). Ferromagnetism. Permanent and
are allowed for electrons. In the Extrinsic semiconductor. A semi- large magnetizations found in
atomic case each state is specied conducting material for which the some metals (e.g., Fe, Ni, and Co),
by four quantum numbers. electrical behavior is determined which result from the parallel align-
Electron volt (eV). A convenient by impurities. ment of neighboring magnetic mo-
unit of energy for atomic and sub- Extrusion. A forming technique ments.
atomic systems. It is equivalent to whereby a material is forced, by Ferrous alloy. A metal alloy for
the energy acquired by an electron compression, through a die orice. which iron is the prime constituent.
when it falls through an electric po- Fiber. Any polymer, metal, or ce-
tential of 1 volt. ramic that has been drawn into a
Electropositive. For an atom, hav- F long and thin lament.
ing a tendency to release valence Face-centered cubic (FCC). A Fiber-reinforced composite. A com-
electrons. Also, a term used to de- crystal structure found in some of posite in which the dispersed phase
scribe metallic elements. the common elemental metals. is in the form of a ber (i.e., a la-
Endurance limit. See Fatigue limit. Within the cubic unit cell, atoms are ment that has a large length-to-
Energy band gap. See Band gap located at all corner and face-cen- diameter ratio).
energy. tered positions. Fiber reinforcement. Strengthen-
Engineering strain. See Strain, en- Fatigue. Failure, at relatively low ing or reinforcement of a relatively
gineering. stress levels, of structures that are weak material by embedding a
Glossary 833
strong ber phase within the weak pate in the electrical conduction Grain growth. The increase in av-
matrix material. process. erage grain size of a polycrystalline
Ficks rst law. The diffusion ux Free energy. A thermodynamic material; for most materials, an ele-
is proportional to the concentration quantity that is a function of both vated-temperature heat treatment
gradient. This relationship is em- the internal energy and entropy is necessary.
ployed for steady-state diffusion sit- (or randomness) of a system. At Grain size. The average grain di-
uations. equilibrium, the free energy is at ameter as determined from a ran-
Ficks second law. The time rate of a minimum. dom cross section.
change of concentration is propor- Frenkel defect. In an ionic solid, Gray cast iron. A cast iron alloyed
tional to the second derivative of a cationvacancy and cation with silicon in which the graphite
concentration. This relationship is interstitial pair. exists in the form of akes. A frac-
employed in nonsteady-state diffu- Full annealing. For ferrous alloys, tured surface appears gray.
sion situations. austenitizing, followed by cooling Green ceramic body. A ceramic
Filler. An inert foreign substance slowly to room temperature. piece, formed as a particulate aggre-
added to a polymer to improve or gate, that has been dried but not
modify its properties. G red.
Fine pearlite. Pearlite for which the Galvanic corrosion. The preferen- Ground state. A normally lled
alternating ferrite and cementite tial corrosion of the more chemi- electron energy state from which
layers are relatively thin. cally active of two metals that are electron excitation may occur.
Firing. A high temperature heat electrically coupled and exposed to
treatment that increases the density an electrolyte. H
and strength of a ceramic piece. Galvanic series. A ranking of met- Hall effect. The phenomenon
Flame retardant. A polymer addi- als and alloys as to their relative whereby a force is brought to bear
tive that increases ammability re- electrochemical reactivity in sea- on a moving electron or hole by a
sistance. water. magnetic eld that is applied
Flexural strength (fs). Stress at Gas constant (R). Boltzmanns perpendicular to the direction of
fracture from a bend (or exure) constant per mole of atoms. R motion. The force direction is per-
test. 8.31 J/mol-K (1.987 cal/mol-K). pendicular to both the magnetic
Fluorescence. Luminescence that Gibbs phase rule. For a system at eld and the particle motion direc-
occurs for times much less than a equilibrium, an equation (Equation tions.
second after an electron excitation 9.16) that expresses the relationship Hardenability. A measure of the
event. between the number of phases pres- depth to which a specic ferrous
Foam. A polymer that has been ent and the number of externally alloy may be hardened by the for-
made porous (or spongelike) by the controllable variables. mation of martensite upon quench-
incorporation of gas bubbles. Glassceramic. A ne-grained crys- ing from a temperature above the
Forging. Mechanical forming of a talline ceramic material that was upper critical temperature.
metal by heating and hammering. formed as a glass and subsequently Hard magnetic material. A ferri-
Forward bias. The conducting bias devitried (or crystallized). magnetic or ferromagnetic material
for a pn junction rectier such that Glass transition temperature (Tg). that has large coercive eld and re-
electron ow is to the n side of That temperature at which, upon manence values, normally used in
the junction. cooling, a noncrystalline ceramic or permanent magnet applications.
Fracture mechanics. A technique polymer transforms from a super- Hardness. The measure of a mate-
of fracture analysis used to deter- cooled liquid to a rigid glass. rials resistance to deformation by
mine the stress level at which preex- Graft copolymer. A copolymer surface indentation or by abrasion.
isting cracks of known size will wherein homopolymer side Heat capacity (Cp , Cv). The quan-
propagate, leading to fracture. branches of one mer type are tity of heat required to produce a
Fracture toughness (Kc). Critical grafted to homopolymer main unit temperature rise per mole of
value of the stress intensity factor chains of a different mer. material.
for which crack extension occurs. Grain. An individual crystal in a Hexagonal close-packed (HCP). A
Free electron. An electron that has polycrystalline metal or ceramic. crystal structure found for some
been excited into an energy state Grain boundary. The interface sep- metals. The HCP unit cell is of hex-
above the Fermi energy (or into the arating two adjoining grains having agonal geometry and is generated
conduction band for semiconduc- different crystallographic orienta- by the stacking of close-packed
tors and insulators) and may partici- tions. planes of atoms.
834 Glossary
High polymer. A solid polymeric I ate phase that exists over a very nar-
material having a molecular weight Impact energy (notch tough- row range of compositions.
greater than about 10,000 g/mol. ness). A measure of the energy Interstitial diffusion. A diffusion
High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) absorbed during the fracture of a mechanism whereby atomic motion
steels. Relatively strong, low-car- specimen of standard dimensions is from interstitial site to intersti-
bon steels, with less than about 10 and geometry when subjected to tial site.
wt% total of alloying elements. very rapid (impact) loading. Charpy Interstitial solid solution. A solid
Hole (electron). For semiconduc- and Izod impact tests are used to solution wherein relatively small
tors and insulators, a vacant elec- measure this parameter, which is solute atoms occupy interstitial po-
tron state in the valence band that important in assessing the ductile- sitions between the solvent or
behaves as a positive charge carrier to-brittle transition behavior of a host atoms.
in an electric eld. material. Intrinsic semiconductor. A semi-
Homopolymer. A polymer having Imperfection. A deviation from conductor material for which the
a chain structure in which all mer perfection; normally applied to electrical behavior is characteristic
units are of the same type. crystalline materials wherein there of the pure material; that is, electri-
Hot working. Any metal forming is a deviation from atomic/molecu- cal conductivity depends only on
operation that is performed above lar order and/or continuity. temperature and the band gap
a metals recrystallization temper- Index of refraction (n). The ratio energy.
ature. of the velocity of light in a vacuum Invariant point. A point on a bi-
Hybrid composite. A composite to the velocity in some medium. nary phase diagram at which three
that is ber reinforced by two or Inhibitor. A chemical substance phases are in equilibrium.
more types of bers (e.g., glass that, when added in relatively low Ionic bond. A coulombic in-
and carbon). concentrations, retards a chemical teratomic bond that exists between
Hydrogen bond. A strong second- reaction. two adjacent and oppositely
ary interatomic bond that exists be- Insulator (electrical). A nonmetal- charged ions.
tween a bound hydrogen atom (its lic material that has a lled valence Isomerism. The phenomenon where-
unscreened proton) and the elec- band at 0 K and a relatively wide by two or more polymer molecules
trons of adjacent atoms. energy band gap. Consequently, the or mer units have the same compo-
Hydrogen embrittlement. The loss room-temperature electrical con- sition but different structural ar-
or reduction of ductility of a metal ductivity is very low, less than about rangements and properties.
alloy (often steel) as a result of the 1010 (-m)1. Isomorphous. Having the same
diffusion of atomic hydrogen into Integrated circuit. Thousands of structure. In the phase diagram
the material. electronic circuit elements (transis- sense, isomorphicity means having
Hydroplastic forming. The mold- tors, diodes, resistors, capacitors, the same crystal structure or com-
ing or shaping of clay-based ceram- etc.) incorporated on a very small plete solid solubility for all composi-
ics that have been made plastic and silicon chip. tions (see Figure 9.2a).
pliable by adding water. Interdiffusion. Diffusion of atoms Isotactic. A type of polymer chain
Hypereutectoid alloy. For an alloy of one metal into another metal. conguration wherein all side
system displaying a eutectoid, an Intergranular corrosion. Preferen- groups are positioned on the same
alloy for which the concentration of tial corrosion along grain boundary side of the chain molecule.
solute is greater than the eutec- regions of polycrystalline materials. Isothermal. At a constant temper-
toid composition. Intergranular fracture. Fracture of ature.
Hypoeutectoid alloy. For an alloy polycrystalline materials by crack Isothermal transformation (T
system displaying a eutectoid, an propagation along grain bound- TT ) diagram. A plot of tempera-
alloy for which the concentration of aries. ture versus the logarithm of time for
solute is less than the eutectoid Intermediate solid solution. A a steel alloy of denite composition.
composition. solid solution or phase having a Used to determine when transfor-
Hysteresis (magnetic). The irre- composition range that does not ex- mations begin and end for an iso-
versible magnetic ux density- tend to either of the pure compo- thermal (constant-temperature)
versus-magnetic eld strength nents of the system. heat treatment of a previously aus-
(B-versus-H) behavior found for Intermetallic compound. A com- tenitized alloy.
ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic pound of two metals that has a dis- Isotopes. Atoms of the same ele-
materials; a closed BH loop is tinct chemical formula. On a phase ment that have different atomic
formed upon eld reversal. diagram it appears as an intermedi- masses.
Glossary 835
Isotropic. Having identical values imposed by crystalline defects such Magnetic induction (B). See Mag-
of a property in all crystallo- as dislocations, and interstitial and netic ux density.
graphic directions. impurity atoms. Magnetic susceptibility (m). The
Izod test. One of two tests (see also Lever rule. Mathematical expres- proportionality constant between
Charpy test) that may be used to sion, such as Equation 9.1b or Equa- the magnetization M and the mag-
measure the impact energy of a tion 9.2b, whereby the relative netic eld strength H.
standard notched specimen. An im- phase amounts in a two-phase alloy Magnetization (M). The total mag-
pact blow is imparted to the speci- at equilibrium may be computed. netic moment per unit volume of
men by a weighted pendulum. Linear coefcient of thermal expan- material. Also, a measure of the
sion. See Thermal expansion coef- contribution to the magnetic ux by
J cient, linear. some material within an H eld.
Jominy end-quench test. A stan- Linear polymer. A polymer in Malleable cast iron. White cast iron
dardized laboratory test that is used which each molecule consists of bi- that has been heat treated to con-
to assess the hardenability of fer- functional mer units joined end to vert the cementite into graphite
rous alloys. end in a single chain. clusters; a relatively ductile cast
Junction transistor. A semicon- Liquid crystal polymer (LCP). A iron.
ducting device composed of appro- group of polymeric materials having Martensite. A metastable iron
priately biased npn or pnp extended and rod-shaped mole- phase supersaturated in carbon that
junctions, used to amplify an electri- cules, which, structurally, do not is the product of a diffusionless (ath-
cal signal. fall within traditional liquid, amor- ermal) transformation from aus-
phous, crystalline, or semicrystal- tenite.
K line classications. They are used Matrix phase. The phase in a com-
Kinetics. The study of reaction in digital displays and a variety of posite or two-phase alloy micro-
rates and the factors that affect applications in electronics and med- structure that is continuous or
them. ical equipment industries. completely surrounds the other (or
Liquidus line. On a binary phase dispersed) phase.
L diagram, that line or boundary sep- Matthiessens rule. The total elec-
Laminar composite. A series of arating liquid and liquid solid trical resistivity of a metal is equal
two-dimensional sheets, each hav- phase regions. For an alloy, the liq- to the sum of temperature-, impu-
ing a preferred high-strength direc- uidus temperature is that tempera- rity-, and cold work-dependent con-
tion, fastened one on top of the ture at which a solid phase rst tributions.
other at different orientations; forms under conditions of equilib- Melting point (glass). The temper-
strength in the plane of the laminate rium cooling. ature at which the viscosity of a glass
is highly isotropic. Longitudinal direction. The length- material is 10 Pa-s (100 P).
Large-particle composite. A type wise dimension. For a rod or ber, Mer. The group of atoms that con-
of particle-reinforced composite in the direction of the long axis. stitutes a polymer chain repeat unit.
wherein particle-matrix interac- Lower critical temperature. For a Metal. The electropositive ele-
tions cannot be treated on an atomic steel alloy, the temperature below ments and alloys based on these ele-
level; the particles reinforce the ma- which, under equilibrium condi- ments. The electron band structure
trix phase. tions, all austenite has transformed of metals is characterized by a par-
Laser. Acronym for light ampli- to ferrite and cementite phases. tially lled electron band.
cation by stimulated emission of Luminescence. The emission of Metallic bond. A primary inter-
radiationa source of light that is visible light as a result of electron atomic bond involving the nondi-
coherent. decay from an excited state. rectional sharing of nonlocalized
Lattice. The regular geometrical valence electrons (sea of elec-
arrangement of points in crystal M trons) that are mutually shared by
space. Macromolecule. A huge molecule all the atoms in the metallic solid.
Lattice parameters. The combina- made up of thousands of atoms. Metal-matrix composite (MMC ).
tion of unit cell edge lengths and Magnetic eld strength (H). The A composite material which has a
interaxial angles that denes the intensity of an externally applied metal or metal alloy as the matrix
unit cell geometry. magnetic eld. phase. The dispersed phase may be
Lattice strains. Slight displace- Magnetic ux density (B). The particulates, bers, or whiskers that
ments of atoms relative to their magnetic eld produced in a sub- normally are stiffer, stronger, and/
normal lattice positions, normally stance by an external magnetic eld. or harder than the matrix.
836 Glossary
Metastable. Nonequilibrium state Molecule. A group of atoms that scribed by lines constructed from
that may persist for a very long are bound together by primary in- centers of adjacent spheres.
time. teratomic bonds. Ohms law. The applied voltage is
Microconstituent. An element of Monomer. A molecule consisting equal to the product of the current
the microstructure that has an iden- of a single mer. and resistance; equivalently, the
tiable and characteristic structure. MOSFET. Metal-oxide-silicon eld current density is equal to the prod-
It may consist of more than one effect transistor, an integrated cir- uct of the conductivity and electric
phase such as with pearlite. cuit element. eld intensity.
Microscopy. The investigation of Opaque. Being impervious to the
microstructural elements using N transmission of light as a result of
some type of microscope. n-Type semiconductor. A semicon- absorption, reection, and/or scat-
Microstructure. The structural fea- ductor for which the predominant tering of incident light.
tures of an alloy (e.g., grain and charge carriers responsible for elec- Overaging. During precipitation
phase structure) that are subject to trical conduction are electrons. hardening, aging beyond the point
observation under a microscope. Normally, donor impurity atoms at which strength and hardness are
Miller indices. A set of three inte- give rise to the excess electrons. at their maxima.
gers (four for hexagonal) that desig- Natural aging. For precipitation Oxidation. The removal of one or
nate crystallographic planes, as hardening, aging at room temper- more electrons from an atom, ion,
determined from reciprocals of ature. or molecule.
fractional axial intercepts. Network polymer. A polymer com-
Mixed dislocation. A dislocation posed of trifunctional mer units that P
that has both edge and screw com- form three-dimensional molecules. Paramagnetism. A relatively weak
ponents. Nodular iron. See Ductile iron. form of magnetism that results from
Mobility (electron, e , and hole, Noncrystalline. The solid state the independent alignment of
h ). The proportionality constant wherein there is no long-range atomic dipoles (magnetic) with an
between the carrier drift velocity atomic order. Sometimes the terms applied magnetic eld.
and applied electric eld; also, a amorphous, glassy, and vitreous are Particle-reinforced composite. A
measure of the ease of charge car- used synonymously. composite for which the dispersed
rier motion. Nonferrous alloy. A metal alloy for phase is equiaxed.
Modulus of elasticity (E). The ratio which iron is not the prime con- Passivity. The loss of chemical re-
of stress to strain when deformation stituent. activity, under particular environ-
is totally elastic; also a measure of Nonsteady-state diffusion. The dif- mental conditions, by some active
the stiffness of a material. fusion condition for which there is metals and alloys.
Molarity (M). Concentration in a some net accumulation or depletion Pauli exclusion principle. The pos-
liquid solution, in terms of the num- of diffusing species. The diffusion tulate that for an individual atom,
ber of moles of a solute dissolved ux is dependent on time. at most two electrons, which neces-
in 106 mm3 (103 cm3) of solution. Normalizing. For ferrous alloys, sarily have opposite spins, can oc-
Molding (plastics). Shaping a plas- austenitizing above the upper criti- cupy the same state.
tic material by forcing it, under cal temperature, then cooling in air. Pearlite. A two-phase microstruc-
pressure and at an elevated temper- The objective of this heat treatment ture found in some steels and cast
ature, into a mold cavity. is to enhance toughness by rening irons; it results from the transforma-
Mole. The quantity of a substance the grain size. tion of austenite of eutectoid com-
corresponding to 6.023 1023 atoms Nucleation. The initial stage in a position and consists of alternating
or molecules. phase transformation. It is evi- layers (or lamellae) of -ferrite
Molecular chemistry (polymer). denced by the formation of small and cementite.
With regard only to composition, particles (nuclei) of the new phase, Periodic table. The arrangement of
not the structure of a mer. which are capable of growing. the chemical elements with increas-
Molecular structure (polymer). ing atomic number according to the
With regard to atomic arrange- O periodic variation in electron struc-
ments within and interconnections Octahedral position. The void ture. Nonmetallic elements are po-
between polymer molecules. space among close-packed, hard sitioned at the far right-hand side
Molecular weight. The sum of the sphere atoms or ions for which there of the table.
atomic weights of all the atoms in are six nearest neighbors. An octa- Peritectic reaction. A reaction
a molecule. hedron (double pyramid) is circum- wherein, upon cooling, a solid and a
Glossary 837
liquid phase transform isothermally Pitting. A form of very localized tively and negatively charged re-
and reversibly to a solid phase hav- corrosion wherein small pits or gions.
ing a different composition. holes form, usually in a vertical di- Polarization (P). The total electric
Permeability (magnetic, ). The rection. dipole moment per unit volume of
proportionality constant between B Plain carbon steel. A ferrous alloy dielectric material. Also, a measure
and H elds. The value of the per- in which carbon is the prime alloy- of the contribution to the total di-
meability of a vacuum (0) is ing element. electric displacement by a dielec-
1.257 106 H/m. Plancks constant (h). A universal tric material.
Permittivity (). The proportional- constant that has a value of 6.63 Polarization (corrosion). The dis-
ity constant between the dielectric 1034 J-s. The energy of a photon placement of an electrode potential
displacement D and the electric of electromagnetic radiation is the from its equilibrium value as a result
eld E. The value of the permittiv- product of h and the radiation fre- of current ow.
ity 0 for a vacuum is 8.85 1012 quency. Polarization (electronic). For an
F/m. Plane strain. The condition, impor- atom, the displacement of the cen-
Phase. A homogeneous portion of tant in fracture mechanical analy- ter of the negatively charged elec-
a system that has uniform physical ses, wherein, for tensile loading, tron cloud relative to the positive
and chemical characteristics. there is zero strain in a direction nucleus, which is induced by an
Phase diagram. A graphical repre- perpendicular to both the stress axis electric eld.
sentation of the relationships be- and the direction of crack propaga- Polarization (ionic). Polarization
tween environmental constraints tion; this condition is found in thick as a result of the displacement of
(e.g., temperature and sometimes plates, and the zero-strain direction anions and cations in opposite di-
pressure), composition, and regions is perpendicular to the plate rections.
of phase stability, ordinarily under surface. Polarization (orientation). Polar-
conditions of equilibrium. Plane strain fracture toughness ization resulting from the alignment
Phase equilibrium. See Equilib- (KIc). The critical value of the (by rotation) of permanent electric
rium (phase). stress intensity factor (i.e., at which dipole moments with an applied
Phase transformation. A change in crack propagation occurs) for the electric eld.
the number and/or character of the condition of plane strain. Polycrystalline. Referring to crys-
phases that constitute the micro- Plastic. A solid material the pri- talline materials that are composed
structure of an alloy. mary ingredient of which is an or- of more than one crystal or grain.
Phonon. A single quantum of vi- ganic polymer of high molecular Polymer. A solid, nonmetallic
brational or elastic energy. weight; it may also contain additives (normally organic) compound of
Phosphorescence. Luminescence such as llers, plasticizers, ame re- high molecular weight the structure
that occurs at times greater than on tardants, and the like. of which is composed of small re-
the order of a second after an elec- Plastic deformation. Deformation peat (or mer) units.
tron excitation event. that is permanent or nonrecover- Polymer-matrix composite (PMC).
Photoconductivity. Electrical con- able after release of the applied A composite material for which the
ductivity that results from photon- load. It is accompanied by perma- matrix is a polymer resin, and hav-
induced electron excitations in nent atomic displacements. ing bers (normally glass, carbon,
which light is absorbed. Plasticizer. A low molecular weight or aramid) as the dispersed phase.
Photomicrograph. The photograph polymer additive that enhances Polymorphism. The ability of a
made with a microscope, which re- exibility and workability and re- solid material to exist in more than
cords a microstructural image. duces stiffness and brittleness. one form or crystal structure.
Photon. A quantum unit of electro- Point defect. A crystalline defect Powder metallurgy (P/M). The
magnetic energy. associated with one or, at most, sev- fabrication of metal pieces having
Piezoelectric. A dielectric material eral atomic sites. intricate and precise shapes by the
in which polarization is induced by Poissons ratio (). For elastic de- compaction of metal powders, fol-
the application of external forces. formation, the negative ratio of lat- lowed by a densication heat
PillingBedworth ratio (PB ra- eral and axial strains that result treatment.
tio). The ratio of metal oxide vol- from an applied axial stress. Precipitation hardening. Harden-
ume to metal volume; used to pre- Polar molecule. A molecule in ing and strengthening of a metal
dict whether or not a scale that which there exists a permanent elec- alloy by extremely small and uni-
forms will protect a metal from fur- tric dipole moment by virtue of the formly dispersed particles that pre-
ther oxidation. asymmetrical distribution of posi- cipitate from a supersaturated solid
838 Glossary
solution; sometimes also called mally, acceptor impurity atoms give dium into another; the velocity of
age hardening. rise to the excess holes. light differs in the two media.
Precipitation heat treatment. A Refractory. A metal or ceramic
heat treatment used to precipitate Q that may be exposed to extremely
a new phase from a supersaturated Quantum mechanics. A branch of high temperatures without deterio-
solid solution. For precipitation physics that deals with atomic and rating rapidly or without melting.
hardening, it is termed articial subatomic systems; it allows only Reinforced concrete. Concrete that
aging. discrete values of energy that are is reinforced (or strengthened in
Prepreg. Continuous ber rein- separated from one another. By tension) by the incorporation of
forcement preimpregnated with a contrast, for classical mechanics, steel rods, wires, or mesh.
polymer resin that is then par- continuous energy values are per- Relative magnetic permeability
tially cured. missible. ( r ). The ratio of the magnetic per-
Prestressed concrete. Concrete in- Quantum numbers. A set of four meability of some medium to that
to which compressive stresses have numbers, the values of which are of a vacuum.
been introduced using steel wires used to label possible electron Relaxation frequency. The recip-
or rods. states. Three of the quantum num- rocal of the minimum reorientation
Primary bonds. Interatomic bonds bers are integers, which also specify time for an electric dipole within an
that are relatively strong and for the size, shape, and spatial orienta- alternating electric eld.
which bonding energies are relation of an electrons probability Relaxation modulus [Er (t)]. For
tively large. Primary bonding types density; the fourth number desig- viscoelastic polymers, the time-de-
are ionic, covalent, and metallic. nates spin orientation. pendent modulus of elasticity. It is
Primary phase. A phase that exists determined from stress relaxation
in addition to the eutectic structure. R measurements as the ratio of stress
Principle of combined action. The Random copolymer. A polymer in (taken at some time after the load
supposition, often valid, that new which two different mer units are applicationnormally 10 s) to
properties, better properties, better randomly distributed along the mo- strain.
property combinations, and/or a lecular chain. Remanence (remanent induction,
higher level of properties can be Recovery. The relief of some of the Br ). For a ferromagnetic or fer-
fashioned by the judicious combina- internal strain energy of a pre- rimagnetic material, the magni-
tion of two or more distinct mate- viously cold-worked metal, usually tude of residual ux density that
rials. by heat treatment. remains when a magnetic eld is
Process annealing. Annealing of Recrystallization. The formation removed.
previously cold-worked products of a new set of strain-free grains Residual stress. A stress that per-
(commonly steel alloys in sheet or within a previously cold-worked sists in a material that is free of
wire form) below the lower critical material; normally an annealing external forces or temperature gra-
(eutectoid) temperature. heat treatment is necessary. dients.
Proeutectoid cementite. Primary Recrystallization temperature. For Resilience. The capacity of a mate-
cementite that exists in addition to a particular alloy, the minimum rial to absorb energy when it is elas-
pearlite for hypereutectoid steels. temperature at which complete re- tically deformed.
Proeutectoid ferrite. Primary fer- crystallization will occur within ap- Resistivity (). The reciprocal of
rite that exists in addition to pearlite proximately one hour. electrical conductivity, and a mea-
for hypoeutectoid steels. Rectifying junction. A semicon- sure of a materials resistance to the
Property. A material trait ex- ductor pn junction that is con- passage of electric current.
pressed in terms of the measured ductive for a current ow in one Resolved shear stress. An applied
response to a specic imposed direction and highly resistive for the tensile or compressive stress re-
stimulus. opposite direction. solved into a shear component
Proportional limit. The point on a Reduction. The addition of one or along a specic plane and direction
stressstrain curve at which the more electrons to an atom, ion, or within that plane.
straight line proportionality be- molecule. Reverse bias. The insulating bias
tween stress and strain ceases. Reection. Deection of a light for a pn junction rectier; elec-
p-Type semiconductor. A semicon- beam at the interface between trons ow into the p side of the
ductor for which the predominant two media. junction.
charge carriers responsible for elec- Refraction. Bending of a light Rolling. A metal-forming opera-
trical conduction are holes. Nor- beam upon passing from one me- tion that reduces the thickness of
Glossary 839
sheet stock; also elongated shapes graphical map of the specimen sur- Single crystal. A crystalline solid
may be fashioned using grooved cir- face (on a nanometer scale) is pro- for which the periodic and repeated
cular rolls. duced. atomic pattern extends throughout
Rule of mixtures. The properties of Schottky defect. In an ionic solid, its entirety without interruption.
a multiphase alloy or composite ma- a defect consisting of a cation Sintering. Particle coalescence of a
terial are a weighted average (usu- vacancy and anionvacancy pair. powdered aggregate by diffusion
ally on the basis of volume) of the Scission. A polymer degradation that is accomplished by ring at an
properties of the individual constit- process whereby molecular chain elevated temperature.
uents. bonds are ruptured by chemical re- Slip. Plastic deformation as the re-
Rupture. Failure that is accompa- actions or by exposure to radiation sult of dislocation motion; also, the
nied by signicant plastic deforma- or heat. shear displacement of two adjacent
tion; often associated with creep Screw dislocation. A linear crys- planes of atoms.
failure. talline defect associated with the Slip casting. A forming technique
lattice distortion created when nor- used for some ceramic materials. A
S mally parallel planes are joined to- slip, or suspension of solid particles
Sacricial anode. An active metal gether to form a helical ramp. The in water, is poured into a porous
or alloy that preferentially corrodes Burgers vector is parallel to the dis- mold. A solid layer forms on the
and protects another metal or alloy location line. inside wall as water is absorbed by
to which it is electrically coupled. Secondary bonds. Interatomic and the mold, leaving a shell (or ulti-
Safe stress (w ). A stress used for intermolecular bonds that are rela- mately a solid piece) having the
design purposes; for ductile metals, tively weak and for which bonding shape of the mold.
it is the yield strength divided by a
energies are relatively small. Nor- Slip system. The combination of a
factor of safety.
mally atomic or molecular dipoles crystallographic plane and, within
Sandwich panel. A type of struc-
are involved. Secondary bonding that plane, a crystallographic direc-
tural composite consisting of two
types are van der Waals and hy- tion along which slip (i.e., disloca-
stiff and strong outer faces that are
drogen. tion motion) occurs.
separated by a lightweight core ma-
Selective leaching. A form of cor- Softening point (glass). The max-
terial.
rosion wherein one element or imum temperature at which a glass
Saturated. A term describing a car-
constituent of an alloy is preferen- piece may be handled without
bon atom that participates in only
tially dissolved. permanent deformation; this corre-
single covalent bonds with four
Self-diffusion. Atomic migration in sponds to a viscosity of approxi-
other atoms.
Saturation magnetization, ux den- pure metals. mately 4 106 Pa-s (4 107 P).
sity (Ms , Bs ). The maximum mag- Self-interstitial. A host atom or ion Soft magnetic material. A ferro-
netization (or ux density) for a that is positioned on an interstitial magnetic or ferrimagnetic mat-
ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic ma- lattice site. erial having a small B versus H
terial. Semiconductor. A nonmetallic ma- hysteresis loop, which may be mag-
Scanning electron microscope terial that has a lled valence band netized and demagnetized with rel-
(SEM). A microscope that pro- at 0 K and a relatively narrow en- ative ease.
duces an image by using an electron ergy band gap. The room tempera- Soldering. A technique for joining
beam that scans the surface of a ture electrical conductivity ranges metals using a ller metal alloy that
specimen; an image is produced by between about 106 and 104 (- has a melting temperature less than
reected electron beams. Examina- m)1. about 425C (800F). Leadtin
tion of surface and/or microstruc- Shear. A force applied so as to alloys are common solders.
tural features at high magnications cause or tend to cause two adjacent Solid solution. A homogeneous
is possible. parts of the same body to slide rela- crystalline phase that contains two
Scanning probe microscope tive to each other, in a direction par- or more chemical species. Both sub-
(SPM). A microscope that does not allel to their plane of contact. stitutional and interstitial solid solu-
produce an image using light radia- Shear strain (). The tangent of the tions are possible.
tion. Rather, a very small and sharp shear angle that results from an ap- Solid-solution strengthening. Hard-
probe raster scans across the speci- plied shear load. ening and strengthening of metals
men surface; out-of-surface plane Shear stress (). The instantaneous that result from alloying in which a
deections in response to electronic applied shear load divided by the solid solution is formed. The pres-
or other interactions with the probe original cross-sectional area across ence of impurity atoms restricts dis-
are monitored, from which a topo- which it is applied. location mobility.
840 Glossary
Solidus line. On a phase diagram, bers are spun as molten material is a corrosion environment; it occurs
the locus of points at which solidi- forced through many small orices. at lower stress levels than are re-
cation is complete upon equilibrium Stabilizer. A polymer additive that quired when the corrosion environ-
cooling, or at which melting begins counteracts deteriorative processes. ment is absent.
upon equilibrium heating. Stainless steel. A steel alloy that is Stress, engineering (). The instan-
Solubility limit. The maximum highly resistant to corrosion in a taneous load applied to a specimen
concentration of solute that may be variety of environments. The pre- divided by its cross-sectional area
added without forming a new phase. dominant alloying element is chro- before any deformation.
Solute. One component or element mium, which must be present in a Stress intensity factor (K). A factor
of a solution present in a minor con- concentration of at least 11 wt%; used in fracture mechanics to spec-
centration. It is dissolved in the other alloy additions, to include ify the stress intensity at the tip of
solvent. nickel and molybdenum, are also a crack.
Solution heat treatment. The pro- possible. Stress raiser. A small aw (inter-
cess used to form a solid solution Standard half-cell. An electro- nal or surface) or a structural dis-
by dissolving precipitate particles. chemical cell consisting of a pure continuity at which an applied
Often, the solid solution is super- metal immersed in a 1M aqueous tensile stress will be amplied and
saturated and metastable at ambi- solution of its ions, which is electri- from which cracks may propa-
ent conditions as a result of rapid cally coupled to the standard hydro- gate.
cooling from an elevated temper- gen electrode. Stress relief. A heat treatment for
ature. Steady-state diffusion. The diffu- the removal of residual stresses.
Solvent. The component of a solu- sion condition for which there is no Stress, true. See True stress.
tion present in the greatest amount. net accumulation or depletion of Structural clay products. Ceramic
It is the component that dissolves diffusing species. The diffusion ux products made principally of clay
a solute. is independent of time. and used in applications where
Solvus line. The locus of points on Stereoisomerism. Polymer isomer- structural integrity is important
a phase diagram representing the ism in which side groups within mer (e.g., bricks, tiles, pipes).
limit of solid solubility as a function units are bonded along the molecu- Structural composite. A composite
of temperature. lar chain in the same order, but in the properties of which depend on
Specic heat (cp , cv ). The heat ca- different spatial arrangements. the geometrical design of the struc-
pacity per unit mass of material. Stoichiometry. For ionic com- tural elements. Laminar composites
Specic modulus (specic stiffness). pounds, the state of having exactly and sandwich panels are two sub-
The ratio of elastic modulus to spe- the ratio of cations to anions speci- classes.
cic gravity for a material. ed by the chemical formula. Structure. The arrangement of the
Specic strength. The ratio of ten- Strain, engineering (). The change internal components of matter:
sile strength to specic gravity for in gauge length of a specimen (in electron structure (on a subatomic
a material. the direction of an applied stress) level), crystal structure (on an
Spheroidite. Microstructure found divided by its original gauge length. atomic level), and microstructure
in steel alloys consisting of sphere- Strain hardening. The increase in (on a microscopic level).
like cementite particles within an - hardness and strength of a ductile Substitutional solid solution. A
ferrite matrix. It is produced by an metal as it is plastically deformed solid solution wherein the solute
appropriate elevated-temperature below its recrystallization temper- atoms replace or substitute for the
heat treatment of pearlite, bainite, ature. host atoms.
or martensite, and is relatively soft. Strain point (glass). The maximum Superconductivity. A phenomenon
Spheroidizing. For steels, a heat temperature at which glass fractures observed in some materials: the dis-
treatment carried out at a tempera- without plastic deformation; this appearance of the electrical resis-
ture just below the eutectoid in corresponds to a viscosity of about tivity at temperatures approaching
which the spheroidite microstruc- 3 1013 Pa-s (3 1014 P). 0 K.
ture is produced. Strain, true. See True strain. Supercooling. Cooling to below a
Spherulite. An aggregate of rib- Stress concentration. The concen- phase transition temperature with-
bonlike polymer crystallites radiat- tration or amplication of an ap- out the occurrence of the transfor-
ing from a common center, which plied stress at the tip of a notch or mation.
crystallites are separated by amor- small crack. Superheating. Heating to above a
phous regions. Stress corrosion (cracking). A form phase transition temperature with-
Spinning. The process by which - of failure that results from the com- out the occurrence of the transfor-
bers are formed. A multitude of - bined action of a tensile stress and mation.
Glossary 841
Syndiotactic. A type of polymer are introduced by uctuating ther- is indicated by the total area under
chain conguration in which side mal stresses. the materials tensile stressstrain
groups regularly alternate positions Thermal shock. The fracture of a curve.
on opposite sides of the chain. brittle material as a result of stresses Trans. For polymers, a prex de-
System. Two meanings are possi- that are introduced by a rapid tem- noting a type of molecular struc-
ble: (1) a specic body of material perature change. ture. To some unsaturated carbon
that is being considered, and (2) a Thermal stress. A residual stress chain atoms within a mer unit, a
series of possible alloys consisting introduced within a body resulting single side atom or group may be
of the same components. from a change in temperature. situated on one side of the chain, or
Thermal tempering. Increasing the directly opposite at a 180 rotation
T strength of a glass piece by the intro- position. In a trans structure, two
Temper designation. A letterdigit duction of residual compressive such side groups within the same
code used to designate the mechani- stresses within the outer surface us- mer reside on opposite chain sides
cal and/or thermal treatment to ing an appropriate heat treatment. (e.g., trans-isoprene).
which a metal alloy has been sub- Thermally activated transforma- Transformation rate. The recipro-
jected. tion. A reaction that depends on cal of the time necessary for a
Tempered martensite. The micro- atomic thermal uctuations; the reaction to proceed halfway to its
structural product resulting from a atoms having energies greater than completion.
tempering heat treatment of a mar- an activation energy will spontane- Transgranular fracture. Fracture of
tensitic steel. The microstructure ously react or transform. The rate of polycrystalline materials by crack
consists of extremely small and uni- this type of transformation depends propagation through the grains.
formly dispersed cementite parti- on temperature according to Equa- Translucent. Having the property
cles embedded within a continuous tion 10.3. of transmitting light only diffusely;
-ferrite matrix. Toughness and Thermoplastic (polymer). A poly- objects viewed through a translu-
ductility are enhanced signicantly meric material that softens when cent medium are not clearly distin-
by tempering. heated and hardens upon cooling. guishable.
Tempering (glass). See Thermal While in the softened state, articles Transmission electron microscope
tempering. may be formed by molding or ex- (TEM). A microscope that pro-
Tensile strength (TS). The maxi- trusion. duces an image by using electron
mum engineering stress, in tension, Thermoplastic elastomer (TPE). A beams that are transmitted (pass
that may be sustained without frac- copolymeric material that exhibits through) the specimen. Examina-
ture. Often termed ultimate (ten- elastomeric behavior yet is thermo- tion of internal features at high
sile) strength. plastic in nature. At the ambient magnications is possible.
Terminal solid solution. A solid so- temperature, domains of one mer Transparent. Having the property
lution that exists over a composition type form at molecular chain ends of transmitting light with relatively
range extending to either composi- that act as physical crosslinks. little absorption, reection, and
tion extremity of a binary phase di- Thermosetting (polymer). A poly- scattering, such that objects viewed
agram. meric material that, once having through a transparent medium can
Tetrahedral position. The void cured (or hardened) by a chemical be distinguished readily.
space among close-packed, hard reaction, will not soften or melt Transverse direction. A direction
sphere atoms or ions for which there when subsequently heated. that crosses (usually perpendicu-
are four nearest neighbors. Tie line. A horizontal line con- larly) the longitudinal or length-
Thermal conductivity (k). For structed across a two-phase region wise direction.
steady-state heat ow, the propor- of a binary phase diagram; its inter- Trifunctional mer. Designating
tionality constant between the heat sections with the phase boundaries mer units that have three active
ux and the temperature gradient. on either end represent the equilib- bonding positions.
Also, a parameter characterizing rium compositions of the respective True strain (T ). The natural loga-
the ability of a material to con- phases at the temperature in rithm of the ratio of instantaneous
duct heat. question. gauge length to original gauge
Thermal expansion coefcient, lin- Timetemperaturetransformation length of a specimen being de-
ear ( l). The fractional change in (TTT) diagram. See Isothermal formed by a uniaxial force.
length divided by the change in tem- transformation diagram. True stress (T ). The instanta-
perature. Toughness. A measure of the neous applied load divided by the
Thermal fatigue. A type of fatigue amount of energy absorbed by a instantaneous cross-sectional area
failure wherein the cyclic stresses material as it fractures. Toughness of a specimen.
842 Glossary
U shell, which participate in in- Welding. A technique for joining

Ultimate (tensile) strength. See teratomic bonding. metals in which actual melting of
Tensile strength. van der Waals bond. A secondary the pieces to be joined occurs in the
Ultrahigh molecular weight poly- interatomic bond between adjacent vicinity of the bond. A ller metal
ethylene (UHMWPE). A polyeth- molecular dipoles, which may be may be used to facilitate the
ylene polymer that has an extremely permanent or induced. process.
high molecular weight (approxi- Viscoelasticity. A type of defor- Whisker. A very thin, single crystal
mately 4 106 g/mol). Distinctive mation exhibiting the mechanical of high perfection that has an ex-
characteristics of this material in- characteristics of viscous ow and tremely large length-to-diameter
clude high impact and abrasion re- elastic deformation. ratio. Whiskers are used as the rein-
sistance, and a low coefcient of Viscosity (). The ratio of the mag- forcing phase in some composites.
friction. nitude of an applied shear stress to White cast iron. A low-silicon and
Unit cell. The basic structural unit the velocity gradient that it pro- very brittle cast iron, in which the
of a crystal structure. It is generally duces; that is, a measure of a non- carbon is in combined form as ce-
dened in terms of atom (or ion) crystalline materials resistance to mentite; a fractured surface ap-
positions within a parallelepiped permanent deformation. pears white.
volume. Vitrication. During ring of a Whiteware. A clay-based ceramic
Unsaturated. A term describing ceramic body, the formation of a product that becomes white after
carbon atoms that participate in liquid phase that upon cooling be- high-temperature ring; white-
double or triple covalent bonds and, comes a glass-bonding matrix. wares include porcelain, china, and
therefore, do not bond to a maxi- Vulcanization. Nonreversible chem- plumbing sanitary ware.
mum of four other atoms. ical reaction involving sulfur or Working point (glass). The tem-
Upper critical temperature. For a other suitable agent wherein cross- perature at which a glass is easily
steel alloy, the minimum tempera- links are formed between molecular deformed, which corresponds to a
ture above which, under equilib- chains in rubber materials. The rub- viscosity of 103 Pa-s (104 P).
rium conditions, only austenite is bers modulus of elasticity and Wrought alloy. A metal alloy that
present. strength are enhanced. is relatively ductile and amenable
to hot working or cold working dur-
V W ing fabrication.
Vacancy. A normally occupied lat- Wave-mechanical model. Atomic
tice site from which an atom or ion model in which electrons are
is missing. treated as being wavelike. Y
Vacancy diffusion. The diffusion Weight percent (wt %). Concen- Yielding. The onset of plastic de-
mechanism wherein net atomic mi- tration specication on the basis of formation.
gration is from lattice site to an adja- weight (or mass) of a particular ele- Yield strength (y). The stress re-
cent vacancy. ment relative to the total alloy quired to produce a very slight yet
Valence band. For solid materials, weight (or mass). specied amount of plastic strain; a
the electron energy band that con- Weld decay. Intergranular corro- strain offset of 0.002 is commonly
tains the valence electrons. sion that occurs in some welded used.
Valence electrons. The electrons in stainless steels at regions adjacent Youngs modulus. See Modulus
the outermost occupied electron to the weld. of elasticity.

SIM Introduction

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SIM Introduction

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 1, Introduction

Types of materials (metals, ceramics, polymers,

Properties of materials (mechanical, thermal,

Different levels of structure in materials (atomic,

Relation among material processing, structure,

The main objective is to understand the basic concepts

What is Materials Science and Engineering ?

Modern Material's Needs, Material of Future

A better understanding of structure-composition-

What is Materials Science and Engineering ?

Material science is the investigation of the relationship

Subatomic level (Chapter 2)

Atomic level (Chapters 2 & 3)

Microscopic structure (Ch. 4)

Angstrom = 1 = 1/10,000,000,000 meter = 10-10 m

Interatomic distance ~ a few

Length Scale, number of atoms

Time Scale, seconds

Mo Li, JHU, Atomistic

Leonid Zhigilei, UVA

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 11

Things Natural Things Manmade

Monarch butterfly 0.01 m Head of a pin

10-9 m 1 nanometer (nm)

Properties are the way the material responds to the

Mechanical properties response to mechanical forces,

Several uses of steel and

Examples of ceramic materials ranging from household to

Polymers include Plastics and rubber materials

Polymer composite materials:

Si wafer for computer

Superplastic deformation involves low-stress sliding along

How do you decide on a specific material for your

Composition, Bonding, Crystal Structure

Bonding Crystal Structure

Future of materials science

Review of Atomic Structure

Atomic Bonding in Solids

Primary Interatomic Bonds

Secondary Bonding (Van der Waals)

Molecules and Molecular Solids

Understanding of interatomic bonding is the first step

Review of Atomic Structure

Atoms = nucleus (protons and neutrons) + electrons

The atomic mass (A) = mass of protons + mass of

Electrons in Atoms (I)

The electrons form a cloud

This picture looks like a mini

Electrons move not in circular orbits, but in 'fuzzy orbits.

Elements in the same column (Elemental Group) share

Periodic Table - Electronegativity

Figure 2.7 from the textbook. The electronegativity values.

Electronegativity - a measure of how willing atoms are to

Bonding Energies and Forces

This is typical potential well for two interacting atoms

The origin of the attractive part, dominating at large

Bonding Energies and Forces

The electron volt (eV) energy unit convenient for

Electron volt - the energy lost / gained by an electron

For q = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs

" Covalent: electrons are shared between the molecules,

" Metallic: the atoms are ionized, loosing some electrons

Secondary Bonding: no e- transferred or shared

Ionic Bonding (I)