Physics Unit 6 Source Book

AAKC PHYSICS Unit 6 | Notes
Significant figures
1. All non-zero numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) are always significant.
2. All zero between non-zero numbers are always significant.
3. All zeroes which are simultaneously to the right of the decimal point and at the end of the
number are always significant.
4. All zero which are to the left of the written decimal point and are a number >= 10 are always
significant.
Number S.F
48923 5
3.967 4
900.06 5
0.0004 1
8.1000 5
501.040 6
3000000 1
Prefixes
Prefix Symbol Multiple
pico P 10-12
nano n 10-9
micro 10-6
milli m 10-3
centi c 10-2
deci d 10-1
kilo k 103
mega M 106
giga G 109
tera T 1012
SI units
Base quantity Base unit Symbol
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
interval
Amount of Mole mol
substance
Page 1 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Derived units
Quantity Derived units Base units
Speed ms-1
Acceleration ms-2
Force newton (N) kgms-2
Pressure pascal (Pa) kgm-1s-2
Work joule (J) kgm-2s-3
Power watt (W) kgm-2s-3
Charge coulomb (C) As
Potential difference volt (V) kg m-2A-1s-3
Resistance ohm () kg m-2A-2s-3

Section 1 Treatment of uncertainties in Physics at AS and A2 level
Preamble
One of the main aims of the practical work undertaken in GCE Physics is for candidates to
develop a feeling for uncertainty in scientific data. Some of the treatment that follows may
appear daunting. That is not the intention. The estimates of uncertainties that are required in
this specification are more in the nature of educated guesses than statistically sound
calculations. It is the intention that candidates be introduced early in the course to estimating
uncertainties so that by the time their work is assessed, they have a relaxed attitude to it. The
sections in PH1 on density determinations and resistivity are ideal for this.
Definitions
Uncertainty
Uncertainty in measurements is unavoidable and estimates the range within which the answer
is likely to lie. This is usually expressed as an absolute value, but can be given as a
percentage.
The normal way of expressing a measurement x0, with its uncertainty, u, is x0 u. This means
that the true value of the measurement is likely to lie in the range x0 u to x0 + u.
Note: The term error is used in many textbooks instead of uncertainty. This term implies
that something has gone wrong and is therefore best avoided.
Uncertainties can be split up into two different categories:
- Random uncertainties These occur in any measured quantity. The uncertainty of

each reading cannot be reduced by repeat measurement but the more measurements
which are taken, the closer the mean value of the measurements is likely to be to the
true value of the quantity. Taking repeat readings is therefore a way of reducing the
effect of random uncertainties.
- Systematic uncertainties These can be due to a fault in the equipment, or design of
the experiment e.g. possible zero error such as not taking into account the resistance
of the leads when measuring the resistance of an electrical component or use of a ruler
at a different temperature from the one at which it is calibrated. The effect of these
cannot be reduced by taking repeat readings. If a systematic uncertainty is suspected,
it must be tackled either by a redesign of the experimental technique or theoretical
analysis. An example of this sort of uncertainty, the origin of which remains
mysterious, is in the determination of stellar distances by parallax. The differences
between the distances, as determined by different observatories, often exceeds the
standard uncertainties by a large margin.
Percentage uncertainty
This is the absolute uncertainty expressed as a percentage of the best estimate of the true
value of the quantity.
Resolution
This is the smallest quantity to which an instrument can measure

Mistake
This is the misreading of a scale or faulty equipment.
Suspect results
These are results that lie well outside the normal range e.g. points well away from a line or
curve of best fit. They often arise from mistakes in measurement. These should be recorded
and reason for discarding noted by the candidate.
How is the uncertainty in the measurement of a quantity estimated?
1. Estimation of uncertainty using the spread of repeat readings.

Suppose the value a quantity x is measured several times and a series of different
values obtained:
x1, x2, x3..xn. [Normally, in our work, n will be a small number, say 3 or 5].
Unless there is reason to suspect that one of the results is seriously out [i.e. it is
anomalous], the best estimate of the true value of x is the arithmetic mean of the
readings:
x1 + x2 + ........xn
Mean value x =
n
A reasonable estimate of the uncertainty is the range:
xmax xmin
i.e. u= , where xmax is the maximum and xmin the minimum reading of
2
x [ignoring any anomalous readings]
Example
The following results were obtained for the time it took for an object to roll down a
slope.
4.5 s, 4.8 s, 4.6 s, 5.1 s, 5.0 s
The best estimate of the true time is given by the mean which is:
4.5 + 4.8 + 4.6 + 5.1 + 5.0

t= = 4.8s
5
5.1 4.5
The uncertainty, u, is given by: u = = 0.3s
2
The final answer and uncertainty should be quoted, with units, to the same no. of
decimal places and the uncertainty to 1 sig. fig
i.e. t = 4.8 0.3 s
Note that, even if the initial results had be taken to the nearest 0.01 s, i.e. the
resolution of an electronic stopwatch, the final result would still be given to 0.1 s
because the first significant figure in the uncertainty is in the first place after the
decimal point.
0.3
The percentage uncertainty, p = 100% = 6% . Again, p is only expressed to 1 s.f.
4.8

2. Estimation of uncertainty from a single reading
Sometimes there may only be a single reading. Sometimes all the readings may be
identical. Clearly it cannot be therefore assumed that there is zero uncertainty in the
reading(s).
With analogue instruments, it is not expected that interpolated readings will be taken
between divisions (this is clearly not possible with digital instrument anyway). Hence,
the uncertainty cannot be less than the smallest division of the instrument being
used, and is recommended it be taken to be the smallest division. In some cases,
however, it will be larger than this due to other uncertainties such as reaction time
[see later] and manufacturers uncertainties. If other sources of random uncertainty
are present, it is expected that in most cases repeat readings would be taken and the
uncertainty estimated from the spread as above.
Advice for Specific apparatus
Metre Rule
Take the resolution as 1 mm. This may be unduly pessimistic, especially if care is taken to
avoid parallax errors. It should be remembered that all length measurements using rules
actually involve two readings one at each end both of which are subject to uncertainty. In
many cases the uncertainty may be greater than this due to the difficulty in measuring the
required quantity, for example due to parallax or due to the speed needed to take the reading
e.g. rebound of a ball, in which case the precision could be 1 cm. In cases involving
transient readings, it is expected that repeats are taken rather than relying on a guess as to the
uncertainty.
Standard Masses
For 20g, 50g, 100g masses the precision can be taken as being as being 1g this is probably
more accurate than the manufacturers [often about 3%]. Alternatively, if known, the
manufacturers uncertainty can be used.
Digital meters [ammeters/voltmeters]
The uncertainty can be taken as being the smallest measurable division. Strictly this is often
too accurate as manufacturers will quote as bigger uncertainty. [e.g. 2% + 2 divisions]
Thermometers
Standard -10 C to 110 C take precision as 1C

Digital thermometers uncertainty could be 0.1C. However the actual uncertainty may be
greater due to difficulty in reading a digital scale as an object is being heated or cooled, when
the substance is not in thermal equilibrium with itself let alone with the thermometer..

The period of oscillation of a Pendulum/Spring
The resolution of a stop watch, used for measuring a period, is usually 0.01s. Reaction time
would increase the uncertainty and, although in making measurements on oscillating
quantities it is possible to anticipate, the uncertainty derived from repeat readings is likely to
be of the order of 0.1 s. To increase accuracy, often 10 (or 20) oscillations are measured. The
absolute error in the period [i.e. time for a single oscillation] is then 1/10 (or 1/20 respectively)
of the absolute error in the time for 10 (20) oscillations
e.g. 20 oscillations: Time = 15.8 0.1 s [0.6%]
15.8 0.1
Period = s = 0.790 0.005 s
20
Note that the percentage uncertainty, p, in the period is the same as that in the overall time.
0.1
In this case, p = 100% = 0.6% (1 s.f.)
15.8
Digital vernier callipers/micrometer
Precision smallest measurable quantity usually 0.01mm
Measuring cylinder / beakers/ burette
Smallest measurable quantity e.g. 1 cm, but this depends upon the scale of the instrument.
In the case of measuring the volume using the line on a beaker, the estimated uncertainty is
likely to be much greater.
Note candidates must be careful to avoid parallax when taking these measurements, and
should state that all readings were taken at eye level. They should also measure to the bottom
of the meniscus.

Determining the uncertainties in derived quantities.
Please note that candidates entered for AS award will now be required to combine
percentage uncertainties.
Very frequently in Physics, the values of two or more quantities are measured and then these
are combined to determine another quantity; e.g. the density of a material is determined using
the equation:
m
=
V
To do this the mass, m, and the volume, V, are first measured. Each has its own estimated
uncertainty and these must be combined to produce an estimated uncertainty in the density.
The volume itself may have been determined by combining several independent quantity
determinations [e.g. length, breadth and height for a rectangular solid or length and diameter
for a cylindrical wire].
In most cases, quantities are combined either by multiplying or dividing and this will be
considered first. Multiplying by a constant, squaring (e.g. in 34 r ), square rooting or raising
3
to some other power are special cases of this and will be considered next.
1. Multiplying and dividing:

The percentage uncertainty in a quantity, formed when two or more quantities are
combined by either multiplication or division, is the sum of the uncertainties in the
quantities which are combined.
Example
The following results were obtained when measuring the surface area of a
glass block with a 30cm rule, resolution 0.1cm
Length = 9.7 0.1 cm
Width = 4.4 0.1cm
Note that these uncertainties are estimates from the resolution of the rule.
This gives the following percentage errors:
0.1
Length: pL = 100% = 1.0%
9.7
0.1
Width pW = 100% = 2.2%
4.4
So the percentage error in the volume, pV = 1.0 + 2.2 = 3.2%
Hence surface area = 9.7 4.4 = 42.68 cm 3.2 %
The absolute error in the surface area is now 3.2% of 42.68 = 1.37 cm
Quoted to 1 sig. fig. the uncertainty becomes 1 cm
The correct result, then, is 43 1cm - Note that surface area is expressed to a
number of significant figures which fits with the estimated uncertainty.

2. Raising to a power (eg x2, x 1, x)
The percentage uncertainty in xn is n times the percentage uncertainty in x.

e.g. a period (T) is as being 31 seconds with a percentage uncertainty of 2 %,

So T2 = 961 4%.
4% 961 = 40 (to 1.s.f)
So the period is expressed as T = 960 40 s.

Note: x 1 is the same as 1/x. So the percentage uncertainty in 1/x is the same as that in x.
Can you see why we ignore the sign?
Note: the percentage uncertainty in x is half the percentage uncertainty in x.
3. Multiplying by a constant
In this case the percentage uncertainty is unchanged. So the percentage uncertainty in
3x or 0.5x or x is the same as that in x.
Example: The following determinations were made in order to find the

volume of a piece of wire:
Diameter: d = 1.22 0.02 mm
Length: l = 9.6 0.1 cm
The percentage uncertainties are: pd = 1.6%; pl = 1.0%.

d2
Working in consistent units, and applying the equation V = l , we have:
4
V = 448.9 mm3
The percentage uncertainty, pV = 1.6 2 + 1.0 = 4.2 % = 4 % (to 1 s.f.)
[Note that and 4 have no uncertainties.]
So the absolute uncertainty u = 448.9 0.04 = 17.956 = 20 (1 s.f.)
So the volume is expressed as V = 450 20 mm3.
Multiply the percentage uncertainty
4. Adding or subtracting quantities [A2 only]

If 2 quantities are added or subtracted the absolute uncertainty is added. This situation
does not arise very frequently as most equations involve multiplication and division
only. The e.m.f. / p.d. equation for a power supply is an exception.
In all cases, when the final % uncertainty is calculated it can then be converted back to an
absolute uncertainty and quoted 1 sig. figure. The final result and uncertainty should be
quoted to the same number of decimal places

Notes for purists:

1. When working at a high academic level, where many repeat measurements are taken,
scientists often use standard error , a.k.a. standard uncertainty. Where this is used,
the expression x0 is taken to mean that there is a 67% probability that the value of x is
in the range x0 to x0 + , a 95% probability that it lies in the range x0 2 to
x0 + 2 , a 98% probability that it is between x0 3 and x0 + 3 , etc. Our work on
uncertainties will not involve this high-level approach.
2. The method which we use here of estimating the uncertainty in an individual quantity takes
no account of the number of readings. This is because it is expected that only a small
number of readings will be taken. Detailed derivation of standard uncertainties (see above)
involves taking the standard deviation of the readings and then dividing this by n 1 , so
taking 10 readings would involve dividing by 3.
3. The above method of combining uncertainties has the merit of simplicity but it is unduly
pessimistic. If several quantities are combined, it is unlikely that the actual error (sic) in all
of them is in the same direction, i.e. all + or all . Hence adding the percentage
uncertainties overestimates the likely uncertainty in the combination. More advanced work
involves adding uncertainties in quadrature: i.e. p = p12 + p2 2 + p32 + ...... . This is normally
done when standard uncertainties are employed (note 1 above).
It is not intended that candidates pursue any of these courses!

GRAPHS [derivation of uncertainties from graphs is only expected in A2]
The following remarks apply to linear graphs:
The points should be plotted with error bars. These should be centred on the plotted point and
have a length equal to ymax ymin [for uncertainties in the y values of the points]. If identical
results are obtained the precision of the instrument could be used. If the error bars are too
small to plot this should be stated.
If calculating a quantity such as gradient or intercept the steepest line and a least steep line
should be drawn which are consistent with the error bars. It is often convenient to plot the
( )
centroid of the points to help this process. This is the point x, y , the mean x value against
the mean y value. The steepest and least steep lines should both pass through this point.
.
The maximum and minimum gradients, mmax and mmin, [or intercepts, cmax and cmin] can now
be found and the results quoted as:
mmax + mmin mmax mmin

gradient =
2 2
cmax + cmin cmax cmin
intercept =
2 2
Scales
Graph should cover more than of the graph paper available and awkward scales [e.g.
multiples of 3] should be avoided. Rotation of the paper through /4 [90 !] may be
employed to give better coverage of the graph paper.
Semi-log and log-log graphs [A2 only]
Students will be expected to be familiar with plotting these graphs as follows:

Semi-log: to investigate relationships of the form: y = ka x .
Taking logs: log y = log k + x log a or ln y = ln k + x ln a [It doesnt matter which]
So a plot of log y against x has a gradient log a and an intercept log k .
Examples: Radioactive or capacitor decay, oscillation damping
Log-log: to investigate relationships of the form: y = Ax n
Taking logs: log y = log A + n log x [or the equivalent with natural logs]
So a plot of log y against log x has a gradient n and an intercept log A .
Examples: Cantilever depression or oscillation period as a function of overhang
length, Gallilean moon periods against orbital radius to test relationship.
Note that Log-log or semi-log graph paper will not be required.
Uncertainties from Log graphs: Candidates will not be expected to include error bars in log
plots.

Section 2 Ideas for practical work
Prac Context
Density of regular solids [cuboids, cylinders] Use of metre rule, callipers, micrometer,
Identification of material using density. balance
Initial work on uncertainties
Density of liquids and irregular solids Use of measuring cylinders
Weighing a rule by balancing a loaded rule Use of P of M
Acceleration of a trolley on a ramp [lots of Use of equations of motion graphs to
variants here] determine acceleration
Determination of g by simple pendulum N.B. Not on spec but a useful intro to
oscillation period measurements
Investigation of a compound pendulum or a Ditto
pin and pendulum
I-V characteristics of diodes, lamps etc. Use of ammeters, voltmeters, variable
resistors, potentiometers [pots].
Identification of the material of a wire by Various ways single measurements / R
determination of its resistivity against l. Uncertainty combinations.
Variation of resistance with temperature for a Thermistor not on spec but it doesnt matter
metal wire [copper is good] and/or thermistor here. Could tie in with potential dividers to
design a temperature sensor.
Determination of resistance of a voltmeter by !
use of a series resistor.
Investigation of currents in series and parallel
circuits
Determination of internal resistance of a Direct use of V = E Ir or use of
power supply 1 1 r
= + - use of reciprocals in graphical
V E ER
work.
Sonometer variation of frequency with Use of reciprocals in graphical work
length determination of the speed of
transverse waves on the metal wire
Measurement of the wavelength of
microwaves by standing waves
Measurement of the wavelength of
microwaves by Double slit (or Lloyds
mirror)
Measurement of wavelength of a laser by
Youngs slits
Measurement of wavelength of a laser
pointer using a diffraction grating
Measurement of refractive index of glass or
water by real and apparent depth
Measure refractive index of a semicircular
glass block using ray box [or pins!]
Measurement of the speed of sound in air
using a double beam CRO and two
microphones

Section 3 Experimental techniques
The following is a selection of experimental techniques which it is anticipated that candidates

will acquire during their AS and A2 studies. It is not exhaustive, but is intended to provide
some guidance into the expectations of the PH3 and PH6 experimental tasks.
Measuring instruments
The use of the following in the context of individual experiments:
micrometers and callipers. These may be analogue or digital. It is intended that
candidates will have experience of the use of these instruments with a discrimination of at
least 0.01 mm. A typical use is the determination of the diameter of a wire.
digital top-loading balances.
measuring cylinders and burettes. This is largely in the context of volume and density
determination.
force meters (Newton meters).
stop watches with a discrimination of 0.01 s. It is also convenient to use stopwatches /
clocks with a discrimination of 1 s.
rules with a discrimination of 1 mm.
digital multimeters with voltage, current and resistance ranges. The following (d.c.)
ranges and discriminations illustrative the ones which are likely to be useful:
2V 0.001 V
20 V 0.01 V
10 A 0.01 A
2A 0.001 A
2 k 1
200 0.01
Students should be familiar with the technique of starting readings on a high range to
protect the instrument.
liquid in glass thermometers. -10 110C will normally suffice, though candidates can
be usefully introduced to the advantages of restricted range thermometers. Where
appropriate, digital temperature probes may be used.
Experimental techniques
The purpose of PH3 is to test the ability of the candidates to make and interpret
measurements, with special emphasis on:
combining measurements to determine derived values, eg density or internal
resistance
estimating the uncertainty in measured and derived quantities
investigating the relationships between variables
These abilities will be developed by centres, using all the content of PH1 and PH2. They can
and will be assessed using very simple apparatus which can be made available in multiple
quantities. Hence it is not foreseen that apparatus which centres are likely to possess in small
numbers, if at all, will be specified, e.g. oscilloscopes, data loggers, travelling microscopes.
The following list may be found useful as a checklist. Candidates should be familiar with the
following techniques:
connecting voltmeters across the p.d. to be determined, i.e. in parallel;

connecting ammeters so that the current flows through them, i.e. in series;
the need to avoid having power supplies in circuits when a resistance meter is being
employed;
taking measurements of diameter at various places along a wire / cylinder and taking
pairs of such measurements at right angles to allow for non-circular cross sections;
determining a small distance measurement, e.g. the thickness or diameter of an object,
by placing a number of identical objects in contact and measuring the combined
value, e.g. measuring the diameter of steel spheres by placing 5 in line and measuring
the extent of the 5;
the use of potentiometers (N.B. not metre wire potentiometers) and variable resistors
in circuits when investigating current-voltage characteristics;
the determination of the period and frequency of an oscillating object by determining
the time taken for a number of cycles [typically 10 or 20]; N.B. Although the concept
of period is not on the AS part of the specification, it is likely to be used in PH3;
the use of fiducial marks and no-parallax in sighting against scales and in period
determinations.

Plan
List all the materials that you require for your experiment.
State how you will measure two different types of quantities using the most appropriate
instrument. For example, you could write:
I will use a top pan balance to measure the mass.
I will use a micrometer screw gauge to measure the diameter of the wire.
Explain why you have chosen two of the measuring instruments that you have listed. For
example, you could write:
I will use vernier callipers to measure the internal diameter of the test tube as no other
instrument has this facility.
I will use a multimeter to measure the resistance of the thermistor since it has a variety of
ranges so I will be able to select the one that gives me the best precision.
Describe at least two measuring techniques that you have used to make your measurements
reliable. For example, you could write:
I will look horizontally across the wire with the metre rule behind in order to measure the
position of the node.
I will remove the Bunsen to slow the rate of heating as I measure the temperature of the
thermistor. This will allow it to come to thermal equilibrium.
You need to identify other variables that could affect your results and state how these were
controlled to ensure that you carried out a fair test. For example, you could write:
I increased the pressure of the gas slowly so that the temperature stayed the same.
If you will not be taking repeat readings you should explain why. For example, you could write:
I will be recording the temperature of the liquid as it warms up the thermistor so it will not
be able to repeat my readings. I will check each reading carefully before replacing the
bunsen.
Identify any safety hazards in your experiment and any precautions you may take. For example,
you could write:
I will use a stand to make sure the beaker of boiling water is kept securely on the tripod and
gauze.
Indicate how you intend to use the data that you collected. For example, in an experiment to
find out how the period, T, of a pendulum varies with its length, l, you could write:
I will plot the log of the time against the log of the length and find the gradient to give me the
value of n in the equation T = kln.
Include a diagram showing the arrangement of the apparatus that you will use. Mark important
distances on this diagram and, in particular, mark any distances that you will measure.

The sources of uncertainty and error should be commented on. For example you could write:
The uncertainty in my measurement of the period comes from the range of my repeated
readings. It is caused by my judgement of when the pendulum actually stops.
The thermometer might introduce a systematic error since I am unable to check whether it
reads 00C in melting ice. I will get an indication when the water boils and I can see if it
reads 1000C even though the water is not pure.
Finally, remember that your plan should show logical thought by describing what you intend to
do in sequence. The plan should be written in the future tense but this is not essential.
Implementation and measurements

Record all your results in an appropriate table.
If you take the average of, say three readings, then you should ensure that you write down each
individual reading, not just the average value to show the examiner that you have taken an
appropriate number of measurements.
If you are plotting a graph then you should aim to take at least six readings and repeat these if
necessary. It is a good idea to draw a rough graph as you are taking the measurements so that
you can investigate anomalous readings or to take extra readings near any turning points in any
curves that you obtain.
Make sure that you take measurements over as wide a range as possible. For example, if you are
determining the distance between two nodes that are separated by a few centimetres then you
should not measure the distance between two nodes only. Instead, measure the distance
occupied by several nodes and then calculate the average distance between two of these nodes.
Think critically about your plan as you carry it out. Record any changes that you make to the
plan with a reason. Record any techniques that you use but might not have written in your plan.
Analysis
When you draw your graph, you should use more than half the graph paper in both the x and y
directions. The graph need not necessarily include the origin; this depends on the measurements
that you are carrying out.
Use a sensible scale; for example avoid the use of a scale that goes up in steps of three as this
will make it difficult for you to process any readings that you take from your graph.
Make sure that you label each axis with the quantity being plotted (or its symbol) and its units if
it has any, eg log (T/s).
Plot points accurately, using either a dot surrounded by a small circle or a small cross.
Make a brief comment on the trend shown by your graph, eg as temperature increases,
resistance increases linearly. Remember that a straight line graph must pass through the origin
to confirm a directly proportional relationship.
If you need to obtain the gradient of your graph you should draw as large a triangle as possible
on your graph paper to show how you worked out a value for the gradient. If the gradient is to
be used to calculate a value for a physical quantity then you must read the units carefully from
the axes.

You will need to discuss the sources of error and calculate the uncertainties that these contribute
to the result(s) of your experiment. At A2 you will need to compound your errors to estimate
their combined effect on the final result. You might use error bars on your graph to do this.
You should comment on the precision of your measurements and how these contributed to the
precision of your result. It might be that some of your readings were more precise than others in
which case the least precise determines the result. The likely accuracy of your result might be
commented on by reference to the uncertainties or by numerical comparison with the accepted
value of a quantity such as the acceleration due to gravity.
Suggest at least one realistic non-trivial modification that you could make to reduce the errors
in your experiment or to improve your experiment. Trivial suggestions such as if I had more
time I would have taken more readings will not score this mark. Vague suggestions such as I
would use a digital meter are only of use if they go on to describe how they improve the
experiment. Considering the precision of your readings is an appropriate way to do that.
Similarly you might consider using a more sensitive device. Certainly the accuracy of your
result merits comment.
You should suggest further work that will develop the investigation that this work started, often
it will involve changing different variables with the same apparatus. You should explain how
this work will add to your understanding of the investigation and what you might expect to find.
Conclusion
It is important to make a clear concise statement of your final conclusion. Make sure it is easy to
find the conclusion in your report. For example, draw a box round it, give it a prominent
heading, or underline it in a bright colour.
The conclusion should relate your results to the original aim of the experiment and should
include your final numerical result with its uncertainty. For example you could write:
From my measurements I found a value of 6.2 +/- 0.5 x 10-34 J s for the Planck constant.
or
The results from these experiments indicate that there is a power-law relationship between wave
speed v and tension T: v = kTa where a = 0.48+/- 0.03. Theoretical analysis suggests that a = 0.5
(ie v = kT), which is consistent with the data.
Briefly mention any physics principles that you use in your calculations and/or conclusion. This
might involve algebraic manipulation of equations or a discussion of the phenomenon you have
been investigating. For example why the wire was resonating at all in an experiment to measure
resonant lengths.

Uncertainties in measurements
What are uncertainties? Why are they important?

When you repeat a measurement you often get different results. There is an uncertainty in the
measurement that you have taken. It is important to be able to determine the uncertainty in
measurements so that their effect can be taken into consideration when drawing conclusions
about experimental results.
Calculating uncertainties
Example: A student measures the diameter of a metal canister using a ruler graduated in mm
and records three results:
66 mm, 65 mm and 61 mm.
The average diameter is (66 + 65 + 61) / 3 = 64 mm.
The uncertainty in the diameter is the difference between the average reading and the biggest or
smallest value obtained, whichever is the greater. In this case, the measurement of 61 mm is
further from the average value than 66 mm, so the uncertainty in the measurement is:
64 61 = 3 mm.
Therefore the diameter of the metal canister is 64 +- 3 mm.
Even in situations where the same reading is obtained each time there is still an uncertainty in
the measurement because the instrument used to take the measurement has its own limitations.
If the three readings obtained above were all 64 mm then the value of the diameter being
measured is somewhere between the range of values 63.5 mm and 64.5 mm.
In this case, the uncertainty in the diameter is +-0.5 mm.
Therefore the diameter of the metal canister is 64.0 +- 0.5 mm.

Calculating percentage uncertainties

The percentage uncertainty in a measurement can be calculated using:
Uncertainty of measurement x 100%

Measurement taken
The percentage uncertainty in the measurement of the diameter of the metal canister is:
Uncertainty of measurement x 100% = 0.5 x 100% = 1 %

Measurement taken 64
The radius of the canister = diameter/2 = 32 mm.
The percentage uncertainty for the radius of the canister is the same as its diameter ie 1%.
Compounding errors
Calculations often use more than one measurement. Each measurement will have its own
uncertainty, so it is necessary to combine the uncertainties for each measurement together to
calculate the overall uncertainty in the result of the calculation.
The total percentage uncertainty is calculated by adding together the percentage uncertainties
for each measurement if (1) all the measured quantities are independent of one another AND
(2) they are multiplied together.
Example 1: Calculating the percentage uncertainty for the area of a square tile.
A student using a rule to measure the two adjacent sides of a square tile obtains the following
results:
Length of one side = 84 +- 0.5mm
Length of second side = 84 +- 0.5mm
Show that the percentage uncertainty in the length of each side of this square tile is about 1%.
Calculate the area of the square.
(The above two calculations are left as an exercise for the student.)
[Area of square A = 84 x 84 = 7100 mm]
The percentage uncertainty in the area of the square tile is calculated by adding together the
percentage uncertainties for its two sides.

Percentage uncertainty in the area of the square tile is:
A/A = 1% + 1% = 2%
Example 2: A metallurgist is determining the purity of an alloy that is in the shape of a cube by
measuring the density of the material. The following readings are taken:
Length of each side of the cube l = 24.0 +- 0.5mm
Mass of cube m = 48.230+- 0.005g
Calculate (i) the density of the material (ii) the percentage uncertainty in the density of the
material.
Solution 2:
(i) Density of alloy = mass/volume = 48.230 x 10 -3 kg/ (24.0 x 10-3)3 = 3500 kg m-3.
(ii) Percentage uncertainty in the length of each side of the cube
l/l = 0.5 x 100% = 2 %

24
Percentage uncertainty in mass of cube
m/m = 0.005 x 100% = 0.1 %

48.2
Therefore total percentage uncertainty = 2% + 2% + 2% +0.1% = 6.1%

We normally ignore decimal places in calculating uncertainties so the percentage uncertainty in
the density of the material is 6%.
Example 3: Calculating the percentage uncertainty for the cross sectional area of a canister.
If the student determines that the radius of the metal canister is 36 mm with an uncertainty of
1% then the cross sectional area A of the canister is:
A=r2
A = (36) 2
A = 4.1 x 103 mm2.
Notice that the result has been expressed using scientific notation so that we can write down just
two significant figures. The calculator answer (4071.5...) gives the impression of far greater
precision that is justified when the radius is only known to the nearest mm.

The cross sectional area was calculated by squaring the radius (ie multiplying the radius by the
radius). Since two quantities have been multiplied together, the percentage uncertainty in the
value of the cross sectional area is found by adding the percentage uncertainty of the radius to
the percentage uncertainty of the radius:
Percentage uncertainty in cross sectional area
A/A = 1% + 1%
= 2%
Using error bars to estimate experimental uncertainties

The equation v = kTa relates the speed of a wave, v in a string to its tension, T. In an experiment
to verify this relationship, a graph of ln (v/ms-1) against ln (T/N) is plotted and the gradient of
the straight line is the constant a. To determine the uncertainty in constant a, the uncertainties in
v and T can be compounded by considering the difference between the best fit and worst fit lines
that can be plotted through the data using error bars.
To produce error bars in ln(T/N) you need the uncertainty in T. You then calculate the logarithm
of your data point with the uncertainty applied and draw the error bar to this value. Suppose you
measure T as T = 3.4N +/- 0.2N. Then the length of the error bar is [ln(3.6N)-ln(3.2N)]. This
need only be calculated for one data point and the same size error bar used for each value of T.
The uncertainty in ln (v/ms-1) can be calculated in the same way and error bars drawn in that
direction to give, in effect, an error box around each plot. The best fit line is the line that passes
closest to all the plots. The worst fit line just passes through all the error boxes.
It is not intended that this should be a particularly lengthy procedure but it is one way of finding
an estimate of the uncertainty in an experiment.
Carrying out the practical work

Students must carry out the practical work individually under supervised conditions.
It is advisable to have spare parts available, particularly for vulnerable components.
It should be possible for students to set up their equipment and record all necessary
measurements in one normal practical session. If it is not possible to complete the practical in
one session then the teacher may decide to use the following session to complete the practical.
The unmarked plan should be returned to students at the beginning of the lesson. Teachers may
give students a copy of the assessment criteria (marking grids) from the specification and
briefing documents at the start of the session; students must not bring their own copies of any
documents to the session to prevent them from accessing annotated versions that they may
produce. Teachers may provide students with any formula that are needed during the session
without penalty.

Glossary
Accuracy The degree to which a measurement matches the true value of the quantity that
is being measured. This is a qualitative term only.
Dependent A variable physical quantity, the values of which are not chosen by the person
variable doing the experiment, but change with another variable ie the independent
variable.
Error An offset or deviation (either positive or negative) from the true value.
Independent A variable physical quantity, the values of which are chosen by the person
variable doing the experiment.
Percentage
uncertainty
Percentage uncertainty = Uncertainty of measurement
x 100%
Measurement taken
Precision of an This is a term meaning 'fineness of discrimination'. In practice, it is the

instrument smallest scale division on an instrument that can be read.
Random error An unpredictable error that has no pattern or bias. To reduce the effects of
random errors when measuring a quantity it is necessary to take the mean of
several values.
Range The difference between the smallest value and the largest value of a set of
readings.
Reliability The extent to which a reading or measurement gives the same value when a
quantity is measured several times under the same conditions.
Sensitivity The change in response of an instrument divided by the corresponding change

in stimulus. For example, the sensitivity of a thermometer is expressed in
mm/oC
Systematic An error that has a pattern or bias, for example, errors caused by background
error lighting. This type of error adds or subtracts the same value to each
measurement that is taken.
True value The value that would be obtained if there were no errors in the measurement
of that value.
Uncertainty A range of values which are likely to contain the true value.
Validity The level of confidence that is associated with a measurement or conclusion.
Zero error An error that is caused when an instrument does not read true zero, eg a spring
balance may not read zero when there is nothing hanging from it. This type of
error is a form of systematic error.

Plan for experiment for interacting magnetic fields
Apparatus
Flat coil of wire

Small bar magnet
Ammeter
Dc psu
Thread
Stopclock
Two retort stands
Method
1 Suspend the magnet using thread so that it lies in the centre of the coil. Rotate the magnet,
release it and take measurements to find the period T of the resulting oscillation of the
magnet about its centre. It will oscillate due to the Earths magnetic field.
2 Turn on the power supply unit and increase the current to 0.50 A and repeat 1 above.
3 Repeat 2 up to 5.0 A to enable you to plot a meaningful graph.

Plan for experiment for guitar strings
Apparatus
Bench mounted pulley

Moveable bridge - support for the wire
1.2 m length of 32swg constantan wire
Low voltage ac power supply unit
2 blocks of soft wood
G clamp
2 magnadur magnets and yoke to produce magnetic field
Slotted masses and hanger
Metre rule
Crocodile clips and connecting leads
Ammeter.
Method
1 The wire is to be stretched across the bench so that it hangs over the bench mounted pulley.
The other end is held between two blocks of wood by a G clamp. Hang 100 g on the end of
the wire to tension it.
2 Place the moveable bridge under the wire near the blocks of wood. The distance l between
the bridge and pulley should be about 1 m.
3 Use crocodile clips at each end of the wire to connect the power supply unit to the wire and
pass an alternating current of less than 1 A through it.
4 Place the yoke and magnets around the wire so that the wire passes through the magnetic
field.
5 Turn on the power supply unit and increase the voltage until the wire clearly vibrates.
6 Adjust the position of the moveable bridge until resonance is found. Measure the length l.
7 Vary T by increasing the hanging mass and measure the new resonant length. Do this until
you have enough data for a graph and record your data in a table.

Practical 1 Momentum and momentum conservation large

trolleys
Purpose Safety
The aim of this experiment is to study momentum Lift the large wooden runway with care.
and its conservation in an inelastic collision. Set up the experiment away from the edges of
the bench so that the trolleys do not fall off.
You will need:

Two trolleys Plasticene
Two light gates and suitable interface Drawing pin
Eight 100g slotted masses Adhesive tape
Wooden runway Means of tilting the runway
light gate 1 light gate 2
Plasticene
trolley A trolley B
Figure 1: Arrangement of large trolleys to investigate momentum and momentum conservation
Experimental instructions
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram with five slotted masses fixed onto trolley A.
Compensate for friction by tilting the runway slightly. Check by giving one trolley a small
push and confirming that it runs down the runway with constant speed.
Soften the Plasticene and stick it to the front of one of the trolleys. Fix the drawing pin to
the front of the other trolley with the adhesive tape, so it is facing out from the trolley as
shown. Put the two light gates quite close together. This is to minimise the effects of friction
as the trolleys collide.
Set the interface unit to record the speed of trolley A before the collision and the speed of the
two trolleys (A and B joined together) after the collision.
Put trolley A at one end of the runway and trolley B just before light gate 2.
Give trolley A a push (not too large) so that it runs down the track, cutting through the light
beam of light gate 1 and colliding with, and sticking to, trolley B. The two trolleys will now
travel on, the mask on trolley A cutting through the light beam of light gate 2.
Repeat the experiment for differing initial speeds and trolley masses. Do not allow the
trolleys to fall off the bench.

Practical 1 (cont.) Momentum and momentum conservation large

trolleys
Analysis and conclusions

Use your results to test the law of conservation of momentum.
Calculate the total momentum of both trolleys before and after the collision.
Comment on the most important sources of error in your experiment and how they might
be reduced.

Practical 2 Momentum and momentum conservation small

trolleys
Purpose Safety
The aim of this experiment is to study momentum Lift the wooden support board with care.
and its conservation in an inelastic collision.
You will need:

Two trolleys Eight washers Two pieces of Velcro strip
Two light gates and suitable Plastic runway Means of compensating the
interface Wooden support board runway for friction
mask size 1 cm
trolley A
trolley B
washers
Velcro strip Velcro strip
Figure 1: Arrangement of small trolleys to investigate momentum and momentum conservation
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram with four washers on each trolley. Compensate
for friction by tilting the runway slightly. Check by giving one trolley a small push and
confirming that it runs down the runway with constant speed.
Mount a piece of Velcro on each trolley so that the trolleys stick together when they collide.
Set the interface unit to record the speed of trolley A before the collision and the speed of the
two trolleys (A and B joined together) after the collision.
Put trolley A at one end of the runway and trolley B just before light gate 2.
Give trolley A a push (not too large) so that it runs down the runway, cutting through the
light beam of light gate 1 and colliding with, and sticking to, trolley B. The two trolleys will
now travel on, the mask on trolley A cutting through the light beam of light gate 2.
Repeat the experiment for differing initial speeds and trolley masses.

Use your results to test the law of conservation of momentum.
Calculate the total momentum of both trolleys before and after the collision.
be reduced.
Practical 3 Momentum and momentum conservation using a

linear air track
Purpose
The aim of this experiment is to study momentum and its conservation in an inelastic collision
between two riders using a linear air track.
You will need:

Linear air track Additional masses
Air blower Pin attachment
Two riders Plasticene
Two light gates and suitable interface
mask
rider A rider B
pin attachment
Figure 1: Using a linear air track to investigate momentum and momentum conservation
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Compensate for friction by tilting the air track
slightly. Check by giving one rider a small push and confirming that it runs along the air
track with constant speed.
Put some Plasticene in the hole on one rider and fix the pin attachment to the other rider.
Set the interface unit to record the speed of rider A before the collision and the speed of the
two riders (A and B joined together) after the collision.
Put rider A at one end of the linear air track and rider B just before light gate 2 and switch on
the air blower.
Give rider A a push (not too large) so that it runs along the air track, cutting through the
light beam of light gate 1 and colliding with, and sticking to, rider B. The two riders will now
travel on, the mask on rider A cutting through the light beam of light gate 2.
Repeat the experiment for differing initial speeds and rider masses. The mass of the rider can
be changed by fitting additional masses to it.

Practical 3 (cont.) Momentum and momentum conservation using a

linear air track

Calculate the total momentum of both riders before and after the collision. Use your results
to test the law of conservation of momentum.
be reduced.

Practical 4 Rate of change of momentum using a linear air track
Purpose
The aim of this experiment is to investigate rate of change of momentum using a linear air track.
You will need:

Linear air track Pulley suitable for fixing to the air track
Air blower Thread
Rider Set of slotted masses (10g)
Two light gates and suitable interface
mask
rider
slotted masses
Figure 1: Using a linear air track to investigate rate of change of momentum
Set up your apparatus as shown in the diagram. Compensate the air track for friction by
raising one end slightly. Check by giving the rider a gentle push and measuring its velocity
through both light gates it should move along the air track at a constant velocity when there
is no accelerating force on it. Set your interface unit to measure velocity at both gates and the
time taken to travel between them.
Start with six of your ten masses on the rider and the other four (including the hanger) on the
thread hanging down. The mass to be accelerated is the mass of the rider and the set of slotted
masses while the accelerating force is the weight of the four suspended slotted masses (0.4N).
Hold on to the rider. Switch on the air blower and timing devices. Release the rider and allow
it to accelerate down the track. Do not allow it to crash into the end of the track. Record the
velocities of the rider as it passes through light gates 1 and 2 and the time taken for the rider
to travel between the gates. Repeat the readings and take an average.

Practical 4 (cont.) Rate of change of momentum using a linear air

track
Vary the accelerating force but keep the total mass constant by putting masses on the rider
if they are removed from the hanger and vice versa. Record the values of accelerating
force, velocity and momentum values at gates 1 and 2, the momentum change and the time
between the light gates in a table.

Calculate the rate of change of momentum for each accelerating force.
Plot a graph of rate of change of momentum against accelerating force.
Comment on the shape of graph and deduce the relationship between rate of change of
momentum and accelerating force.

Practical 5 Rate of change of momentum using a trolley
Purpose
The aim of this experiment is to investigate rate of change of momentum using a trolley on a
runway.
You will need:

Trolley Thread
White plastic track Twelve washers (mass 10g each) (a set of
Board slotted masses could be used instead of the
Two light gates and suitable interface washers)
Bench pulley Sponge to put on floor below the masses
mask size 1 cm
trolley light gates
washers
accelerating washers
Figure 1: Using a trolley to investigate rate of change of momentum
Set up your apparatus as shown in the diagram. Compensate the runway for friction by
raising one end slightly. Check by giving the trolley a gentle push and measuring its velocity
through both light gates it should move along the runway at a constant velocity when there
is no accelerating force on it. Set your interface unit to measure velocity at both gates and the
time taken to travel between them.
Start with ten of your twelve washers on the trolley and the other two on the thread hanging
down. The mass to be accelerated is the mass of the trolley and twelve washers while the
accelerating force is the weight of the two suspended washers (0.2N).
Allow the trolley to accelerate down the runway. Record the velocities of the trolley as it
passes through light gates 1 and 2 and the time take for the trolley to travel between the
gates. Repeat the readings and take an average.

Practical 5 (cont.) Rate of change of momentum using a trolley
Repeat the procedure by taking one washer off the trolley and adding it to the suspended
washers the accelerating force is now 0.3N (same total mass). Carry on until you have
only two washers left on the trolley. Record the values of accelerating force, velocity and
momentum values at gates 1 and 2, the momentum change and the time between the light
gates in a table.

Calculate the rate of change of momentum for each accelerating force.
Plot a graph of rate of change of momentum against accelerating force.
Comment on the shape of graph and deduce the relationship between rate of change of
momentum and accelerating force.

Practical 6 Centripetal force whirling bung
Purpose Safety
The aim of this experiment is to verify the Do not swing the bungs round too fast and avoid
equation for centripetal force using a whirling collisions between bungs and people!
bung. Keep away from windows.
Wear eye protection.
You will need:

Rubber bung with a hole through it Stopwatch or stop clock Access to a balance
Length of string (about 1.5m) Metre ruler Eye protection
Washers or 10g slotted masses and Short length of glass tube with the ends
hanger burred over (or a short metal tube)
R Experimental instructions
Tie the piece of string to a rubber bung and then thread
rubber bung it through a short length (10cm) of glass tube. Fix a small
mass M weight (such as a few washers with a mass a little greater than
glass tube
the mass of the bung) to the lower end of the string.
Whirl the bung round in a horizontal circle (radius

approximately 80cm) while holding the glass tube so that
washers or the radius of the bungs orbit is constant. (A mark on the
slotted masses
(weight mg) string will help you see if the radius of the orbit remains the
same.)
Figure 1: Whirling bung arrangement Measure the mass of the bung (M), the total mass of the
washers (m), the radius of the orbit (R) and the time for ten
orbits (10 3 T).
Repeat the experiment with different numbers of washers, different orbit radii and bungs of
different masses.

( 2pR
Calculate the period of the orbit (T), the velocity of the bung in the orbit v 5 ____
T )
and

( Mv
then work out the centripetal force F 5 ____
R
2
)
.
Compare this value with the weight of the washers (mg).
(The centripetal force should be equal to the weight of the washers. This will only be the case
if the system is frictionless.)
Plot a graph of m against v2.
be reduced.

Practical 7 Centripetal force rotating trolley
Purpose Safety
The aim of this experiment is to verify the Do not allow the rotating table to turn too fast!
equation for centripetal force.
You will need:

Trolley Power supply (012V)
Spring Ruler
Plastic runway Stop clock
Wooden support Newtonmeter
Washers Balance
Rotating table G clamps
spring
washers
trolley
R
rotating table runway
Figure 1: Rotating trolley setup
Set up the apparatus as shown, clamping the rotating table firmly to the bench. Carefully increase
the speed of the motor until the trolley just touches the stop at the end of the runway. Measure
the rotation rate and use it to calculate the speed (v) of the trolley in a circle of radius R.
Measure the mass of the trolley and its load (m) and hence calculate the theoretical value of
( mv
the centripetal force needed to keep it in the orbit at that speed centripetal force 5 ____
R
2
)
.

Using a newtonmeter, measure the force required to extend the spring by the amount needed
for the trolley to touch the end of the runway. Compare your two values and comment on
your findings.
Repeat the experiment for different values of the load on the trolley.

Plot a graph of the measured force against mv2. Use the graph to verify the equation for
centripetal force.
be reduced.

Practical 8 Measuring the charge stored by a capacitor
Purpose Safety
The aim of this experiment is to measure the charge stored by a If you are using an electrolytic
capacitor using a coulombmeter and to investigate the formula capacitor, take care to connect
charge
capacitance 5 ________

potential (

)
Q
C 5 __ .
V
it with the correct polarity.
You will need:

Capacitors (0.1mF, 0.22mF, Power supply (06Vdc) (or Digital coulombmeter
0.047mF) 6V battery pack and a 10V Digital voltmeter
rheostat) SPDT switch
1 2
Circuit using battery

V C Q pack and rheostat
1 2

dc power supply
(06 V)
Circuit using variable

V C Q voltage power supply
Figure 1: Circuit for measuring the charge stored by a capacitor
Connect up the circuit shown in the diagram using the 0.1mF capacitor, with the switch in
position 1. Switch on the power supply and adjust the output so that the voltmeter reads 0.5V.
Move the switch to position 2 and record the reading of charge on the coulombmeter.
Return the switch to position 1, and adjust the voltmeter to read 1.0V. Move the switch to
position 2 and again record the charge.
Repeat the procedure in 0.5V steps up to a maximum of 6.0V. Record all your results in a
table showing capacitor voltage and charge.
Repeat for different values of capacitance.

For each capacitor plot a graph of capacitor voltage against charge. Calculate the gradient of
each of your graphs and compare this with the stated value of the capacitor.

Practical 9 Effect of length and current on the force on a wire in a

magnetic field
Purpose
The aim of this experiment is to investigate how the force experienced by a current-carrying wire
in a magnetic field depends on the length of the wire and the current passing through it.
You will need:

Electronic balance Two crocodile clips
Length of thin copper rod Ammeter (05Adc)
Power supply (012Vdc, 05A) 30cm ruler
4mm connecting leads Two retort stands
Strong U-shaped magnet (two magnadur Bosses and clamps
magnets on a yoke can be used if the
balance is sufficiently sensitive)
to power supply
copper rod
magnets fixed
to metal yoke
245
side view
front view
Figure 1: The experimental arrangement
Set up the apparatus as shown with the crocodile clips a measured distance apart (say 4cm).
Take the reading on the balance and then switch on the power supply so that a current of 5A
flows through the rod. If necessary, change the direction of the current flow so that it causes
an increase in the balance reading. Record the new reading of the balance.
Change the separation of the crocodile clips and repeat the reading, keeping the current
constant. Note that the separation of the crocodile clips must not be greater than the length
of the magnet poles. Repeat for a number of different crocodile clip separations.
Return the crocodile clips to their original separation and repeat the experiment with a new
value of the current. Repeat this for a number of different currents.

Effect of length and current on the force on a wire

Practical 9 (cont.)
in a magnetic field

Calculate the force on the current using the equation F 5 BIl (if B is known) and compare it
with the increase in the balance reading.
If the value of B is not known, use the increase in balance reading (5 mg) to calculate it.
Plot graphs of force against crocodile clip separation and force against current. Comment on
your graphs.

Practical 10 Specific heat capacity of a liquid
Purpose Safety
The aim of this experiment is to measure the Do not heat the contents of the calorimeter
specific heat capacity of a liquid using an electrical above 50C.
method.
You will need:

A copper or aluminium calorimeter with a Low-voltage power supply (012V)
volume of between 250 and 400ml Thermometer (050C)
Insulating jacket with a hole for the Stop clock
thermometer or sensor (A temperature sensor and data logger can
Electrical immersion heater be used instead of the thermometer and stop
Voltmeter clock.)
Ammeter
Stirrer
insulating muff
heater
water
Figure 1: Calorimeter setup for measuring the specific

heat capacity of a liquid
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Measure the mass of the calorimeter (mC) and
fill it with a known mass of water (mW). There must be enough water to cover the immersion
heater when it is put in the calorimeter. Place the muff over the calorimeter.
Switch on the heater. Set the voltage (V) to a convenient value and record this with the value
of the current (I). Measure the initial water temperature (u) using a thermometer and start
the stop clock (or use a temperature sensor and data logger). Record the temperature at one-
minute intervals, stirring just before the thermometer is read. Switch off the heater when the
temperature reaches 50C.
(You may need to adjust the value of V during the experiment so that the power input
remains constant.)

Practical 10 (cont.) Specific heat capacity of a liquid

Plot a graph of temperature against time and choose a section of the graph where the
temperature is rising steadily. In this area find the temperature rise u in a time t.
Calculate the electrical energy supplied to the heater (VIt).
Assume that there are no heat losses during the experiment.
Calculate the specific heat capacity of water (cW) from the equation:
VIt 5 mCcCu 1 mWcWu
where cC is the specific heat capacity of the material of the calorimeter. (The value of cC can
be found from a data book.)
Repeat the experiment with other liquids.
Record any sources of error which you consider will affect your result.
Predict the effect on your answer of significant heat loss.

Practical 11 Specific heat capacity of a solid
Purpose
The aim of this experiment is to measure the specific heat capacity of a solid using an electrical
method.
You will need:

Aluminium (or other metal block) with a Stop clock
mass of 1kg Insulating jacket with a hole for the
Heat-resistant mat thermometer or sensor
Low-voltage heater and suitable power Silicone grease
supply (A temperature sensor and data logger can
Ammeter and voltmeter be used instead of the thermometer and stop
Thermometer (050C) clock.)
immersion heater
heat-resistant mat
metal block
insulating jacket
Figure 1: Setup for measuring the specific heat capacity of a solid
Measure the mass of the metal block (m). Put the thermometer in the small hole in the metal
block. Place the heater in the large hole in the block and switch it on. A small amount of
silicone grease in the holes in the block can improve thermal contact. Place the insulating
jacket around the apparatus.
Set the voltage (V) to a convenient value and record this with the value of the current (I).

Practical 11 (cont.) Specific heat capacity of a solid
Measure the initial temperature (u) and start the stop clock (or use a temperature sensor and
data logger). Record the temperature at one-minute intervals. Switch off the heater when the
temperature reaches 50C.
(You may need to adjust the value of V during the experiment so that the power input
remains constant.)

Plot a graph of temperature against time and choose a section of the graph where the
temperature is rising steadily. In this area find the temperature rise u in a time t.
Calculate the electrical energy supplied to the heater (VIt).
Calculate the specific heat capacity (c) of the metal of your block using the formula:
VIt
c 5 ______
mu
where m is the mass of the block.
Assume that there are no heat losses during the experiment.
Predict the effect on your answer of significant heat loss.
Suggest the most likely sources of error in your experiment and how they might be reduced.

Practical 12 The relationship between the pressure and

temperature of a gas
Purpose Safety
The aim of this experiment is to investigate how Wear eye protection if your face is to be close to
the pressure of a gas changes when it is heated at the hot water.
a constant volume.
You will need:

Round-bottomed flask Length of rubber tubing Water
Temperature sensor and probe Pressure sensor (or Bourdon gauge) Ice
(or 0100C thermometer) Bunsen burner, tripod, gauze and mat Eye protection
Rubber bung with a short length of glass Glass beaker
tube fitted through it
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram with some ice
in the water to cool it to near 0C.
Record the temperature of the water (effectively the

temperature of the air in the flask) and the pressure of the air
as shown on the Bourdon gauge.
Light the Bunsen burner and heat the water slowly. Record
the pressure and temperature of the air at 10-degree intervals
until the water temperature reaches 80C. (The temperature
air
sensor may record temperatures at equal time intervals.)
Bourdon
gauge
water
Plot a graph of the pressure of the trapped air (y-axis)
heat against the temperature of the trapped air (x-axis). (Make
sure that the pressure you record is the pressure of the
trapped air, not just the excess above atmospheric pressure).
Figure 1: Investigating the relationship between It is assumed that the temperature of the trapped air will be
temperature and pressure the same as that of the water in the beaker.
Draw a second graph with the temperature axis showing minus 300C to plus 100C and
find the intercept on the pressure axis (when the gas has zero pressure). This should be at
absolute zero.
Record your value for absolute zero, suggesting any inaccuracies in your experiment and
how they might be reduced.

Practical 13 The relationship between the pressure and volume of

a gas
Purpose Safety
The aim of this experiment is to verify the The apparatus should include a protective
relationship between the pressure (p) and volume plastic screen around the glass tube.
(V) for a gas. However, a safety screen is advisable.
Do not increase the pressure to more than
300kPa.
You will need:

Boyles law apparatus Length of thick-walled rubber Thermometer
Bicycle pump tubing Safety screen
Use the special apparatus shown in the diagram.
trapped air
Using the bicycle pump, pump up the oil until the volume
of trapped air is less than half the original value as shown on
the vertical scale.
Record the pressure (p) and volume (V). The tube

containing the air can be taken as having a uniform bore, so
the length of the trapped air column is proportional to its
volume.
oil
Slowly reduce the pressure by opening the valve at the base
of the apparatus after disconnecting the pump. Close the
valve after the oil level has fallen a little, wait for any excess
oil to drain down the sides, and then take another reading of
p and V.
kPa Repeat the procedure to gain as many readings as possible
as the pressure of the trapped air, and therefore the oil level,
falls.
to pump Take readings of the air temperature next to the apparatus
to make sure that it does not alter significantly during the
experiment.
Figure 1: Boyles law apparatus

Plot two graphs:
a one of p against V and 1.
b one of p against __
V
From your graphs, deduce the relationship between pressure and volume of a gas at a
constant temperature.

Practical 14 Measurement of the activity of a radioactive source
Purpose Safety
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the Use the recommended safety precautions
activity of a radioactive source. associated with the handling of radioactive
sources when carrying out this experiment.
Because the GeigerMller tube operates at
a high voltage, check the condition of the
connecting leads before you start.
You will need:

GeigerMller (GM) tube, lead and stand Counter/scaler and stop clock (a ratemeter
Source holder could be used, in which case the counts per
Beta source (usually strontium-90, second are displayed directly)
185kBq) Ruler
Pair of long forceps (the source should be
at least 100mm from the hand)
radioactive source
GM tube
Figure 1: Apparatus for measuring the activity of a radioactive source
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram but without the source in place.
Carefully place the source in the holder using the pair of forceps, taking care to keep the
source at arms length and well away from others in the laboratory.
Switch on the GM tube power supply and adjust the voltage to the correct value for your
tube.
Record the number of counts in a period of five minutes.
Repeat the experiment and obtain an average value for the count rate (counts per second).
Return the radioactive source to its protective box.
When you have done this, measure the distance (R) between the source holder and the GM
tube window. Measure the diameter of the GM tube window (2r).

Practical 14 (cont.) Measurement of the activity of a radioactive

source

Calculate the surface area of the sphere radius R (4pR2) and the area of the GM tube
window (pr2).
Calculate the activity of the source using the equation:

4pR
activity of the source 5 count rate 3 _____
2

pr2
You will have to ignore the absorption of the intervening air and the GM tube end window.

Practical 15 Simulation of radioactive decay
Purpose
The aim of this experiment is to simulate the

decay of a radioactive source using a large number
of small wooden blocks or dice.
You will need:

A large number (at least 100) of small (1cm
sided) wooden cubes. One side of each cube Figure 1: You can use dice to simulate
radioactive decay
should be coloured. Alternatively, dice can be
used.
Large plastic beaker
Large plastic tray
Computer
Collect your set of wooden blocks (or dice) and beaker.
Record the initial number of blocks. Place them in the beaker and then tip them into the
tray. Remove any that fall with the coloured side up, and return the remainder to the beaker.
Tip these into the tray again and, as before, remove those that fall with the coloured side up.
Repeat the process about 20 times, until very few blocks remain.
If dice are used, then each time remove any that fall with the six (or any other chosen
number) uppermost.

Combine your results with those of the rest of the class in a spreadsheet and plot a graph of
the number of blocks remaining after each throw (N) against the number of throws.
Plot a further graph of lnN against the number of throws.
Use the graph to calculate the half-life of the blocks.
What is the advantage of using a large number of blocks or dice?
Suggest how you might modify the experiment to simulate a source with a different half-life.

Practical 16 Graphical representation of simple harmonic motion
Purpose
The aim of this experiment is to generate graphs of some of the different properties of a system
undergoing simple harmonic motion. This can be done using a motion sensor and data logger.
You will need:

Helical spring Set of slotted masses and hanger (100g each)
Motion sensor 30cm ruler
Suitable data logger Retort stand, boss and clamp
helical spring
Set up the apparatus shown in the diagram
with the motion sensor positioned below the
slotted masses and in line with the direction of
oscillation. The exact arrangement will depend
on the design of your motion sensor.
slotted masses Five experiments should be performed to enable
you to plot graphs of:
a acceleration against distance from the centre
of oscillation
motion sensor
b velocity against distance from the centre of
oscillation
c distance against time
d velocity against time
e acceleration against time.
Use the data logger to display and record the
Figure 1: The experimental arrangement graphs.

Practical 17 Forced oscillations
Purpose Safety
The aim of this experiment is to investigate how Wear eye protection in case the hacksaw blade
the amplitude of a system subjected to a forced snaps.
oscillation varies with the driving frequency.
You will need:

30cm ruler Lump of Plasticene
Vibration generator Base clamp (channel base)
Signal generator 2 G clamps
Frequency meter Two large blocks of wood
Hacksaw blade Eye protection
Plasticene
hacksaw blade
vibration generator
Figure 1: Using a weighted hacksaw blade to investigate forced oscillations
Set up the apparatus as shown with the end of the vibration generator pressing against the
hacksaw blade and a known mass of Plasticene on the end. Adjust the oscillator frequency
until the hacksaw blade oscillates with maximum amplitude. This is resonance.
Record the mass of Plasticene (m) on the end of the hacksaw blade and the signal generator
frequency (f).
Repeat for a series of different values of m.

Practical 17 (cont.) Forced oscillations

Plot a graph of the mass of Plasticene (m) against the resonant frequency (f).
Plot a graph of logm against f.
Attempt to suggest an equation relating m and f.
Comment on the most important sources of error in your experiment and suggest how they
might be reduced.

AAKC PHYSICS Unit 1
Student 6 |of 1
Notes
Practical 18 Investigating damped oscillations
Purpose Safety
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the Take care that the masses do not fall and cause
oscillations of an air-damped massspring system. injury.
You will need:

Helical spring Set of slotted masses and hanger
Set of cardboard discs, the largest having a (100g each)
diameter of 25cm Retort stand, boss and clamp
Metre or half metre ruler
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram. The
mass on the end of the spring (m) should be chosen
so that the period is as long as possible without
damaging the spring.
Record the rest position of the mass.
Pull the mass downwards (by about half the original

helical extension) and release, allowing it to oscillate.
spring
Record the position of maximum displacement of
the mass every 5 oscillations and hence calculate the
amplitude (A) of oscillation each time.
Repeat and take an average for each amplitude.

Plot a graph of lnA against the oscillation number (n).
m Suggest an equation of motion for the system.
If there is time, repeat the experiment with different

sized cardboard discs to change the degree of
damping of the system.
cardboard disc
Comment on the most important sources of error
in your experiment and suggest how they might be
reduced.
Figure 1: The experimental arrangement

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AAKC PHYSICS Unit 6 | Notes

Page 1 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Page 2 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Section 1 Treatment of uncertainties in Physics at AS and A2 level

Uncertainties can be split up into two different categories:

- Random uncertainties These occur in any measured quantity. The uncertainty of

Page 3 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

How is the uncertainty in the measurement of a quantity estimated?

1. Estimation of uncertainty using the spread of repeat readings.

4.5 + 4.8 + 4.6 + 5.1 + 5.0

Page 4 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

2. Estimation of uncertainty from a single reading

Advice for Specific apparatus

Digital meters [ammeters/voltmeters]

Standard -10 C to 110 C take precision as 1C

Page 5 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

The period of oscillation of a Pendulum/Spring

Digital vernier callipers/micrometer

Precision smallest measurable quantity usually 0.01mm

Measuring cylinder / beakers/ burette

Page 6 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Determining the uncertainties in derived quantities.

1. Multiplying and dividing:

The percentage uncertainty in xn is n times the percentage uncertainty in x.

Page 7 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Example: The following determinations were made in order to find the

The percentage uncertainties are: pd = 1.6%; pl = 1.0%.

So the volume is expressed as V = 450 20 mm3.

Multiply the percentage uncertainty

4. Adding or subtracting quantities [A2 only]

Page 8 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Notes for purists:

It is not intended that candidates pursue any of these courses!

Page 9 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

GRAPHS [derivation of uncertainties from graphs is only expected in A2]

The following remarks apply to linear graphs:

mmax + mmin mmax mmin

Semi-log and log-log graphs [A2 only]

Students will be expected to be familiar with plotting these graphs as follows:

Note that Log-log or semi-log graph paper will not be required.

Page 10 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Section 2 Ideas for practical work

Page 11 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Section 3 Experimental techniques

The following is a selection of experimental techniques which it is anticipated that candidates

Page 12 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Page 13 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Page 14 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Implementation and measurements

Page 15 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Page 16 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

What are uncertainties? Why are they important?

66 mm, 65 mm and 61 mm.

The average diameter is (66 + 65 + 61) / 3 = 64 mm.

Therefore the diameter of the metal canister is 64 +- 3 mm.

In this case, the uncertainty in the diameter is +-0.5 mm.

Therefore the diameter of the metal canister is 64.0 +- 0.5 mm.

Page 17 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Calculating percentage uncertainties

Uncertainty of measurement x 100%

Uncertainty of measurement x 100% = 0.5 x 100% = 1 %

The radius of the canister = diameter/2 = 32 mm.

Page 18 | Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury | (880) 1842 584 134

Percentage uncertainty in the area of the square tile is: