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Genetic Engineering: A Review of Literature of DNA Modification

Laurie Padilla

University of Texas at El Paso

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Abstract

Genetic engineering is deliberate modification of genetic material in an organism.

Methods of genetic engineering include transformation of bacteria which is then

introduced to the receiving organism. Much of the scientific literature expands on what

constitutes genetic engineering an how it is utilized in the production of crops and

medicine. An interview was conducted with a nurse practitioner to explore opinions

regarding the ethical issues clouding genetic engineering. The scientific literature and

interview were analyzed in effort to answer four research questions.

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Genetic Engineering: A Literature Review of DNA Modification

Genetic engineering has long been a topic of intense research and debate.

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, can be found in most living organisms, as well as in

certain viruses. The central dogma of biology describes how genetic information flows

from DNA, to RNA, to protein production. Believing that DNA contains the key to

understanding the origins of life and life itself, concentrated fields of biology, such as

Genetics and Microbiology, have sprouted in an effort to further study and understand

DNA. From research and extensive studies, scientists have found that all living

organisms have evolved from a common ancestor over the course of billions of years.

Although a highly controversial area of study, genetic engineering aims at

studying DNA and evolution in an effort to alter DNA for healthcare purposes, as well as

alimentary purposes. While many believe that genetic engineering can be beneficial

-mass production of food and curing illness others regard genetic engineering as

dangerous, unethical, and irreligious. Today, extensive research has been done in efforts

of altering and manipulating DNA. In studying genetic engineering, four critical

questions should be considered:

1. What constitutes genetic engineering, what is considered genetic engineering; and

who is affected by genetic engineering?

2. What are the consequences of genetic engineering?

3. How will genetic engineering affect society, both culturally and ethically?

4. Who will have access to the information and technologies found and developed due

genetic engineering? Should there be social and legal limitations to genetic

engineering?
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The following review on literature will: provide background knowledge and insight into

what defines genetic engineering; how the research and information from genetic

engineering can affect society; as well as offer insight into the ethical aspect and

repercussions of genetic engineering.

Genetic engineering, or genetic modification, is a topic of study that affects

everyone. In order to understand genetic engineering and to be able to formulate an

opinion on the subject, one must know what exactly is genetic engineering and what it

entails. As explained by Oliveiray, Aguiary, and Domingues (2016) genetic engineering

is described as intentionally altering and manipulating an organisms genome. Through

the use of technology, any number of organisms DNA can be manipulated; Oliveiray et

al. describe a number of ways in which foreign genetic material is introduced into a host

organism. In the case of microorganisms, bacteria can be transformed so as to be

express resistance to certain antibiotics. Transformation of bacteria, and other

organisms is done by the utilization of plasmid vectors, which are used to introduce

foreign genetic material into the host bacterium. Other examples and uses of genetic

engineering are outlined in What is Genetic Engineering (2017). According to What is

Genetic Engineering, the first genetically engineered organism was a bacterium, done

in 1973; in 1974, the same process was used to genetically modify mice; and in 1994

foods had been genetically engineered (2017).

Advancements in genetic engineering have been quite beneficial in the healthcare

industry and in the production of foods and drugs. One of the more positive uses of

genetic engineering is in the case insulin. There are two forms of diabetes: Type I and

Type II. With Type I Diabetes, insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas, production

is minimal, which can lead to high blood glucose levels. Because Type I diabetics cannot
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produce insulin, or enough insulin, scientists have discovered a way to make insulin

readily available for those who need insulin. Figure 1 outlines the procedure used in

introducing genetically modified plasmid vectors containing insulin.

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Figure 1: Genetic modification of bacterial plasmids for production of insulin.

Source: What is genetic engineering? (2017, February 17). Retrieved April 06, 2017,
from http://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-genetic-engineering.
Genetic engineering has also been used to mass produce food products. As explained by

Uzogara (2000), genetic engineering has been used to modify foods such as plants and

crops. Genetically Modified Organisms, GMOs, are a subject of controversy. GMOs have

made the mass production of food possible by making plants and crops resistant to

pesticides and disease; GMOs have also made it possible to incorporate necessary

nutrients into crops and plants. Vitamin A is essential for growth and development,

beginning in the womb (Arbor, 2017). As explained by Arbor (2017), in parts of

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Indonesia and Africa, many people had been lacking in a sufficient amount of Vitamin

A. To combat this, farmers and scientists developed a method of introducing a precursor

of Vitamin A into rice grains, which were widely available to a substantial portion of the

population. Genetic engineering and GMOs have also been used in expanding the shelf

life of many food products. Genetic modification technology has also become available

to aid the production of crops with resistance to a number of harmful factors. Wilcox

(2015), describes how genetic modification technology has been used in recent attempts

to create crops and plants that are resistant to drought and those that are able to adapt

to drier climates.

While many populations benefit from the use of GMO in food production, many

object to the practice. As detailed by Uzogara (2017), some of the concerns raised by

those who are opposed to using GMOs in the food industry stems from wanting to know

exactly what is in the food product; and a concern that the overuse of antibiotics in

plants and crops will allow bacteria and viruses to develop antibiotic resistance.

Antibiotics can be artificial compounds or natural compounds found in nature, and are

used in the fighting off harmful microorganisms. Antibiotics, deeming the antibiotics

ineffective. The abuse and overuse of antibiotics can result in bacteria and other

microorganisms that are antibiotic resistant. Another area of concern stems from the

fact that using GMOs might lead to an increase in allergenic properties. Uzogara

explains that in the process of genetically modifying food, microorganisms [are used

as] donors whose allergenic potential are either unknown or untested (2017). Uzogara

explains that currently the FDA does not have strict guidelines regarding GMOs, thus

making it possible to create food products that contain unknown allergens. There are
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alternatives to genetically modified foods, however, even then it is possible that some

form of genetic engineering has been used somewhere in the food production process.

The advancements and newly developed research of genetic engineering not only

affect healthcare and food production; they also impact the future of the human

genome. Currently, scientists are able to infect bacteria with vectors containing

recombinant DNA and see phenotypic changes. Such research has led, people to

question when, and if, it will be possible to genetically engineer human DNA. It is

possible to transfer an organ, for example a kidney or a part of the liver, from one

person the donor to another the recipient. However, in order for this to take place,

both the donor and the recipient must be compatible blood type, tissue type, and a

number of other factors. Even though both the donor and recipient may be a match,

there is still the possibility of adverse effects. According to the Genome Compiler (2013),

work has begun on creating genetically engineered organs. The Genome Compiler

explains that work on these organs is not create a large production of organs, rather it is

to help in decreasing the number of people who are awaiting an organ transplant, as

well as to help those whose bodies rejected a previous organ donation. With organ

donation, stems questions regarding how far genetic engineering will go when

considering humans.

Such advancements in technology have led people to consider altering human

DNA to create resistance to disease and illness; advancements in the technology has also

led people to consider alter the genetic material of human embryos. The idea behind this

notion is to test the embryos genetic DNA to check if the embryo is predisposed to

certain types of disease and illnesses or to check if the embryo has precursor genes for

certain types of disease and illnesses. If the embryo does present certain genes, then
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genetic engineering would allow scientists and doctors to rid the embryo of those genes.

With the potential to design babies, comes the fear that genetic engineering would go

beyond curing disease and illness. Regalado (2015), presents the idea that with genetic

engineering comes the fear is that germ-line [sperm and egg] engineering is a path

toward a dystopia of superpeople and designer babies for those who can afford it. The

potential to genetically modify babies, presents the possibility for selecting traits that

are considered desirable and ridding the baby of genes that are considered undesirable.

This could lead to creating a society in which it is considered normal to discriminate not

only on the basis of race and ethnicity, but also discriminate on the basis of certain

phenotypic traits and characteristics.

When studying genetic engineering, there are ethical aspects to be considered. In

his TED talk, Paul Wolpe presents a number of cases involving animals and genetically

modifying their DNA (2010). Wolpe presents cases of genetically engineering animals so

that they can fluoresce certain colors; he also presents a case in which scientists

genetically modified the skin of a mouse and growing a human ear on the back of the

mouse, which could be used as transplant for a human. While the majority of the

presentation explores examples of how animals have been at the forefront as test

subjects for genetic engineering, Wolpe does raise the question of ethics. When

conducting experiments in genetic engineering, one must consider what is deemed

acceptable and whether there should be limitations to genetic engineering and

experiments.

Much of the debate surrounding genetic engineering is subjective. For my

primary research, an interview with a nurse practitioner was conducted to explore the
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opinions of a healthcare professional regarding genetic engineering. One question that

was asked was in regards to some possible ethical issues surrounding genetic

engineering. The interviewee, Wingfield, raised the issue of athletes who partake in

genetic modification when they use steroids and other supplements (Wingfield, P. April

8 2017, personal communication). Wingfield pointed out that with genetic modification,

comes the possibility of a designer race. With genetic modification, there comes the

possibility that people will use the knowledge and technology for personal gain and

abuse.

Genetic engineering has led to some very beneficial advancements in medicine

and in the production of food. However, genetic engineering has also led to abuse.

Genetic engineering has the potential to either promote society, or lead to its downfall.

For this reason, the information, research, and technology developed from genetic

engineering should be limited in regard to who has access to such crucial information.

Laws should be implemented, not to hinder advancements in science, but to protect the

people and society and to ensure that such knowledge is being used responsibly.

References

Arber, W. (2017). Genetic engineering represents a safe approach for innovations

improving nutritional contents of major food crops. Journal of Innovation &

Knowledge.
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Genome Compiler Media Team, (2013, November). Genetically engineered organs.

Retrieved April 13, 2017, from http://www.genomecompiler.com/genetically-

engineered-organs/.

Oliveiray, C., Aguiary, T. Q., & Domingues, L. (2016). Principles of Genetic

Engineering. Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering:

Foundations of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 81.

Regalado, A. (2015, March 5). Engineering the perfect baby. Retrieved from

https://www.technologyreview.com/s/535661/engineering-the-perfect-baby/.

Uzogara, S. G. (2000). The impact of genetic modification of human foods in the 21st

century: A review. Biotechnology advances, 18(3), 179-206.

What is genetic engineering? (2017, February 17). Retrieved April 06, 2017, from

http://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-genetic-engineering.

Wilcox, C. (2015, March 31). GMOs of the Future: Two Recent Studies Reveal Potential

of Genetic Technologies. Retrieved from

http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/science-sushi/2015/03/31/gmos-of-the-

future-two-recent-studies-reveal-potential-of-genetic-technologies/.

Wingfield, P. (2017, April 8). Personal Communication

Wolpe, P. R. (2010, November). Its time to question bio-engineering [Video File].

Retrieved fromhttps://www.ted.com/talks/paul_root_wolpe_it_s_time_

to_question_bio_engineering.