Acknowledgment Development of this manual was supported by ECSEL (Engineering Coalition of Schools for Excellence in Education and Leadership) Subgrant A6-34024 from Howard University under NSF EID905318, and Subgrant A6-34083 from Howard University under NSF EEC-9528925. Their support is gratefully acknowledged. The authors would also like to extend their most sincere gratitude to David Abn, Anuj Chauhan, Suchith Jayasena, Naheem Kujenya, Jianjun Liu and Harris Wong for their help in the revision of the earlier editions of this manual and to all colleagues and teaching adjuncts participating in this ECSEL effort on freshman design.Introduction Part 1: BRIDGE DESIGN MODULE .. Table of Contents 3 1. Behavior of Materials and Structural Members . 5 2. Concepts of Structural Safety and Equilibrium 15 3. Analysis of Trusses using SAP2000 .........» seve 2B 4, Application of SAP2000: Analysis of a Warren Truss Bridge ...........0 37 5. Design of a Truss Bridge using SAP2000 ecceceeeseene 45 6. Building a Model of the Truss Bridge - 49 7. Presentation of the Bridge Design Project 51 Part 2: ROBOT DESIGN MODULE 33 1. Introduction to Roboties and Kinematics 55 2. Work Envelope ofa Robot ... 59 3. Understanding the Robot Arm System 65 4, Programming the Robotic Arm . 70 5. Programming the Robotic Arm to Perform a Task 3 6. Robot Design: Implementation and Testing of Programs .. 95 7. Presentation of the Robot Design Project 7 Part 3: DIGITAL CLOCK DESIGN MODULE a) 1. Introduction to Binary Digital Electronic: 101 2. Number Systems and Binary Codes 107 3. Understanding a Binary Counter . 109 4, Designing a Binary to Seven-Segment Decoder . 1s 5. Adding a Seven-Segment Display - 117 6. Modulo Counters . - . 123 7. Digital Clock Design . 127 8. Presentation of the Digital Clock Design Project . 129 Appendices 131 ‘A. Loading Conditions ~ All Possible Positions of the Truck 131 B. Introduction to the Microsoft FrontPage Internet Editor . 133 C. Introduction to HTML ........- 135 D. Robix Rascal Script Commands 139 E. Tektronix 2225 Oscilloscope ... 147 F. CMOS Data Sheets 151 G. Presentation Evaluation Seore Sheet. 137Introduction Engineering Design (ENGR 10100) is a laboratory course consisting of two parts, the Bridge Design Module and either the Robot Design Module or the Digital Clock Design Module. Each module is allotted seven weeks of the semester. Report writing and oral presentation are integral parts of the course. The class will be divided into smaller groups to promote collaborative learning. Experiments and the projects will be performed in groups for the entire semester. However, each student is required to write his or her experimental reports separately. A modified report format is presented below as a guideline for writing reports on experiments of this course. In the first half of the semester, the bridge design project requires each group to write and post a report on the Intemet describing the computer-assisted structural analysis of a four-bay truss bridge. Preceding this exercise, the principles of engineering strength of materials and equilibrium of forces are introduced. Seven simple experiments are performed which illustrate the principles and concepts of these subjects. In the second half of the semester, the robot or digital clock design project requires minimal written work, but each group will give an oral presentation of the activities leading to the modular program or software that is developed for the robot to perform desired tasks or activities leading to the final design of the digital clock. Experimental Report It is important for the student to communicate his or her ability and knowledge of the subject with well-written lab reports that are decent and that accurately explain the efforts expended in performing the experiments. The lab report must reveal the purpose of examination, hypothesis or concise theoretical background of the topic under investigation, observations and discussion of results, and deductive or inductive reasoning based on findings and lessons learned from the experiments. It is imperative for the student to keep in mind that the instructor may not be the only reader of the report and to write in a clear fashion such that other people who are unfamiliar with the subject matter can read and understand the material presented. Desirably, the narration should be free of any commitment to any person(s), that is, refrain from the use of pronouns such as I, We, Our, Us, etc. To convey understanding, the organization of the lab report should lead to a deft arrangement of information including data, graphs, and pertinent answers to such questions posed by the experiments. The preferred lab report format is typewritten, double-spaced, text on one side of the page using letter size paper (8% inches by 11 inches) and 12-point font size minimum. The main topics and sub topics should be highlighted or in bold print to distinguish different segments of the document. Thus, for this course, the guideline for an acceptable lab report format is outlined below and may include the following sub topics. 1. Title or Title Page - State the main title of the report, name(s) of writer(s), date of the report or the due date, the course number with section, the term, and the course instructor. 2. Objective - Relate concise statement on purpose(s) of the experiment. Describe the ideas being sought or hypothesis being confirmed3. Introduction - Paraphrase the problem statement, solution or experimental approach. Summarize basic prineiple(s) and offer relevant equations or formulas derived from theoretical reasoning that will be used to check empirical results, Define all variables used in equations and data presentations clearly. Use conventional symbols as much as possible, any self-defined symbols should be clearly identified. The engineering units of dimensions and measurements must be stated at all times with data being reported. A consistent system of units (SI or English system only) must be ascertained. 4, Experimental Procedure and Setup - Give a narrative description of the experimental procedure explaining how the experiment was performed. Include a list of apparatus and test specimens used to accomplish the experimental work. Do not rewrite the instructions of the lab manual on how the experiment should be implemented. Show schematic diagrams of the experimental setup where necessary to complement procedural description and process. 5. Discussion of Results - Explain measured data and discuss deviation of results with established facts or known values or theoretical predictions. Tabulate experimental data in easy to understand forms. Proper cell headings or labels with engineering units must be used. Arrange data in columns and rows. Provide a visual sense of the experimental observations hence present graphical results to highlight the essential details and findings of the experiments. Label the coordinates of the graphs, 6. Conclusion - Draw conclusions from facts of experimental work and offer connection to stated objectives of the experiment. Discuss physical significance of the shape and/or slope of the graphs. Discuss sources of errors. State the accuracy of results. Offer recommendation or suggestion for improvement of the experiment. Subtopics such as Abstract, Table of Contents, Nomenclature and/or Appendices may be included by the experienced writers. In some cases, only few subtopics will adequately satisfy the requirement of a report.Part 1 BRIDGE DESIGN MODULE1 Behavior of Materials and Structural Members 1.1 Introduction We see around us structures constructed of many kinds of materials and in an endless variety of shapes and forms. Furniture, baseball bats, eye glasses, lamps, trees and even our own bodies are all examples of structures which obey the same principles as skyscrapers, bridges, bodies of automobiles and aircraft, etc. These structures are formed by a combination of members of different shapes and materials. Typical structural materials include steel, concrete, wood, glass, aluminum, stone, brick, plastics etc. The selection of the appropriate material, forms and shapes, for a given structure depend on many factors. Some of these factors are: The strength, behavior and efficiency of various shapes and materials, Anticipated use (and abuse) of the structure. Environmental conditions and geographical location, Cost and speed of construction. Availability of materials, construction technologies and labor skills Architectural and other functional limitations. ‘The type of loading applied on structural elements also plays a part in deciding the shape, form and the material used. These types of loadings include: Tension Compression Bending Torsion Shear Structural members respond to these loads either statically or dynamically. A. static response is obtained when the load is slowly applied without producing any oscillations or vibrations in the structure. A dynamic response is obtained when the load is suddenly applied (impact loading) or when an oscillatory load is applied producing vibrations in the system. Examples of dynamic responses include the response of a building to wind loads and to earthquakes or the response of abridge to dynamic crossings of trucks. If a dynamic or a static load is applied repetitively on a structural member, the member may ‘weaken and may fail after a certain number of cycles even if the load applied is very low. This phenomenon is known as structural fatigue. The failure of the “Ferris Wheel” ride at the Coney Island amusement park a few years ago is an example of fatigue failure. ‘Whatever material the structure is made of, it must be able to withstand the loadings or forces acting upon it. These forces may be due to gravity loads, wind, earthquakes, precipitation, ‘temperature changes etc. Spectacular failures have occurred as a result of miscalculations or lackof attention to detail. Recent examples of failures include the Hartford Civic Center roof, the ‘New York State Thruway bridge at Schoharie Creek, and the Mianus River bridge on the Connecticut Tumpike. In order to avoid these kinds of disasters, the New York City Department of Transportation actually closed the Williamsburg bridge and in part the Manhattan bridge to perform an evaluation of these structures and to rehabilitate them, 1.2. Experimental Investigations A detailed understanding of structures requires extensive mathematics, and many issues in structural design and the determination of load effects are still poorly understood and are the subject of continuous research. On the other hand, many aspects of structural design are already known to us. The following experiments are designed for the students to understand the most ‘common types of loading and failure modes. They will also help in understanding how the shape and the form of the material play a part in designing a structure. Experiment 1: Tension Test. Experiment 2: Compression Test. Experiment 3: Bending of Beam. Experiment 4: Fatigue Failure.1.2.1 Experiment 1: Tension Test Principle Tension is created when a structural member is pulled from both sides. Under the effect of tension the member’s length will increase and the cross sectional area will decrease. The elongation is a function of the load applied, the cross sectional area, the length, and the type of the material the member is made of. Objective The objective of this experiment is to understand tension loading and how the cross section area and the original length relate to elongation. Background Hooke’s law states that the elongation is proportional to the force which describes the elastic, linear behavior of a material. The relationship is expressed as. ie. ‘The normal stress o = is determined by dividing the magnitude P of the force by the cross sectional area 4 of the member perpendicular to direction of the applied force. The strain ¢= 4! is the ratio of change in length of loaded member to the original length /, of unloaded piece. The proportionality constant £ is called the modulus of elasticity of the material. ‘The elongation, A/=1—/,, of a structural member with uniform cross section subjected to axial loading can be detenmined by Plo Al= GE For example, if a steel rod (E= 30 10° psi) , %-in uniform diameter and 12-in long, is axially loaded with a force 6 Ibf. The above formula predicts that the steel rod would stretch a mere 0.00005 in (or 0.00124 mm in the SI metric system). The elongation is an infinitesimal quantity, one-twenty thousandth of an inch! Apparatus * Test specimens of rubber. + Test weights and weight holder * Rulers: * Support stand and clamps Procedure Case 1 - One 12-inch long rubber rod, "4 in diameter: + Hang the rubber rod from the top of the stand using the clamps. + Hang a weight holder through the hole drilled at the bottom of the rod. ‘+ Measure the initial length /, between the holes at the bottom and the top of the rod.+ Apply a2 1b weight and measure the elongated length /= 1, + Al. * Increase the weights in 1 Ib increments up to 6 Ib, and each time measure the elongated length. Case 2 - One 18-inch long rubber rod, ' in diameter: + Repeat the steps described above using a 1.5 ft long rubber rod. Case 3 - One 12-inch long rubber rod, $ in diameter: + Repeat steps of Case 1 described above using the bigger rubber rod. ‘This experiment is designed to illustrate the relationship between tension load and elongation. The experiment is done using rubber rods in order to exaggerate the change in length. However, it must be understood that in real structural elements the change in length is normally smaller than that observed in this experiment. Presentation of Results Determine the area A = mD7/4 in’ of the test specimens in each case. Record the data in a table with the first column load P= mg/g. Ibf, the second column measured elongation A/ in, third column stress o = F/A psi, the fourth column strain ¢= Al/lo, and fifth column theoretical elongation A/= P/,/AE in. Obtain E from a materials handbook. (Take g = 32.174 fUs* and ge = 32.174 Ibm ft/ Ibf s’). Plot the three cases described above on the same graph showing the relationship between the applied loads (on the vertical axis) and the measured elongations (on the horizontal axis). Choose a suitable scale for the coordinates. Also, plot the relationship between the applied stress (force per unit area) on the vertical axis and the strain (elongation per unit length) on the horizontal on another graph sheet for the three cases, Analysis of Results Study how the applied load and elongation relate to each other. Study and discuss the similarities and the differences between the graphs plotted. How would the ‘graph change if a stronger material such as steel is used instead of rubber? Does the slope of each graph in the initial stages of loading relate the applied loads to the measured elongations linearly? (The slope of the initial linear part of the graph obtained by plotting the applied stress versus the applied strain is called the modulus of elasticity and is a function of the type of material and the strength of material used). Do the slopes converge to same value for the three cases? How close to each other is the value of the slope and/or to the standard value taken from the materials handbook?1.2.2. Experiment 2: Compression Test Principle ‘When a column is compressed its length will decrease, The change in length is related to the load applied, the length of the member, the cross sectional area and the material the structural member is made of. Objective The objective of this experiment is to demonstrate the types of compression failures Background There are two possible types of failures in compression members. 1. The member is short and is unable to carry the compressive load and the member fails by crushing, Short member is called a strut. 2. ‘The member is long and under the influence of the compressive load, the ‘member cannot remain straight and it fails by buckling. Determination of the compressive load that can be placed lengthwise on a long, thin column before it buckles out sidewise is obtained from Euler’s column formula. The critical load Pao cause buckling is defined as Poo where J is the moments of inertia, E is the modulus of elasticity of the column ‘material and Z is the length of the column, For a member with rectangular section whose dimensions are b= breadth and = depth, then 1 = D>, Apparatus * 3 Plastic rulers + Platform scales * Sponge + Test weights Procedure Case 1 - Crushing failure: Take a piece of sponge and apply a 5 Ib weight on it and notice how it crushes under the effect of the applied load. Case 2 - Buckling failure: * Take the dimensions of the ruler: measure the length, thickness (or depth) and width of each ruler. * Take the plastic ruler and hold it vertically on the scale. Without intentionally bending the ruler, apply vertical force on the ruler by pressing down on it until it bows out of plane. ‘+ While keeping the hand steady, read the load that caused buckling. 9.+ Repeat the steps for other rulers of different length. Presentation of Results Plot a graph giving the load at which buckling occurs versus length for the three plastic rulers. Try to find a relationship between these three variables. Which of the rulers buckled at the lowest load? Determine the critical loads for each ruler using the Euler's column formula, assume modulus of elasticity of the ruler material is 400,000 Ibvin* approximately. Discussion of Results Compare the different ways in which failure occurred under the effect of compressive loads. Generalize the observations to real columns in civil engineering structures: What types of columns are more likely to fail by crushing and which ones are more likely to fail by buckling? -10-1.2.3, Experiment 3: Bending of Beam Principle ‘A beam is a structural member that can carry loads perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. This type of loading will cause the beam to bend, Examples of beams include highway overpasses and floor beams. Objective The objective of this experiment is to demonstrate bending of a beam loaded at mid-length for two cases, placing the widest side and the shortest side of its cross section on the supports. Background For a simply supported beam, if the load P is applied transversely at the mid-length a = b= L/2 then mid span deflection is, PLS = G87 For a beam of rectangular cross section, say of width w and thickness r, the midspan deflection of the centrally loaded beam when the flat side is supported can then bbe compared to that when the thin side is supported. The moments of inertia for the respective situations are given by wt hay and hay It could be readily verified that the later situation offers less deflection under the same load. Apparatus * Beams: metal and wood bars + Test weights and weight hangers + Ruler + Stand Procedure Case 1 - Beam with flat side on supports: oleMeasure the dimensions of the beams and calculate the cross sectional area and the moment of inertia. + Place the beam on the stand such that the widest side of the cross section is on the supports. Reset each scale to read zero. + Measure the clearance between the middle of the beam and the table. * Load the beam at the mid-length in 2 Ib increments up to 10 lb. Measure the change in clearance for every load step. Case 2 - Beam with slim side on supports: * Tum the beam around such that the shortest side of the cross section is on the support. Repeat the steps described under Case 1. Presentation of Results Plot the load versus deflection for the two cases studied. Compare measured and theoretical deflections. Obtain £ from a materials handbook. Discussion of Results Try to find a relationship between load and deformation. Try to explain the different behaviors obtained for the same beam when tured around. Which position of the beam is more efficient to use? Why? What are the benefits and disadvantages of each case studied above? -12-1.2.4 Experiment 4: Fatigue Failure Principle ‘When materials are loaded and unloaded many times they fatigue and become weak. So they are no longer capable of carrying the loads that they carried when they were new. This type of failure is called fatigue failure. Objective The objective of this experiment is to study the fatigue phenomenon for a simple structural member. Apparatus + Twenty paper clips. Procedure Straighten out one paper clip and select a point where itis not already bent. Then start turning the paper clip at that point to the left and right (or back and forth) about 30 degrees. Repeat this procedure until the paper clip breaks into two. Count the number of eycles it required to break. A cycle is one complete period of the recurring motions from starting +30° to -30° and back again. Repeat the test for the nineteen remaining paper clips. Presentation of Results Draw a bar graph showing the number of clips that broke (vertical axis) versus the number of cycles needed to break them (horizontal axis). This type of graph is called a histogram and will give you an idea about the variability in the results. Analysis of Results Explain why the paper clips broke and explain why they broke at different load cycles. -13--14-2 Concepts of Structural Safety and Equilibrium 2.1 Introduction Structures are designed to carry the loads that are applied on them without failing. This means that the material should be strong enough and the shape efficient enough to support that load. Loads on structures include the weight of the people, cars and trucks (going on bridges), furniture and equipment for buildings, as well as wind loads, snow loads, water pressure, ete. Structures are normally classified based on the type of members that form them, (e.g. trusses, frames, shells, etc.). The simplest structures to study are trusses and frames. A cruss is a structure formed by members that can only carry tensile or compressive loads which are applied along the longitudinal direction of the member. A typical example of a truss structure is the Queensboro Bridge in Midtown Manhattan. A frame is a structure formed by beams that can carry axial loads as well as transverse loads (i.e. loads that can cause bending). For example, most buildings are designed as frame structures. ‘The capacity of a structural member to carry loads is often expressed in terms of stress. Stress in a truss member is defined as the load applied on the member divided by the cross sectional area, perpendicular to the direction of the load. That is o = P/4, where a = stress, P= applied load, and A= cross sectional area. Normally a structural member will be able to carry the applied loads as long as the stress caused. by the applied loads does not exceed a maximum stress capacity. Different types of materials have different values of maximum stress capacities. For example, A5O structural steel can carry stresses up to 50,000 Ib/in’, This means that a load applied on a steel member must produce @ stress o less than 50,000 Ib/in? otherwise the member will fail. To improve the capacity of the ‘member, a stronger material can be used. On the other hand, it is possible to reduce the applied stress by increasing the cross sectional area of the member. To avoid the risk of member failures, engineers normally use a safety factor (also referred to as factor of safety). For example, instead of permitting the stress to reach 50,000 Ibvin’, the loading maybe stopped when the stress reaches (say) 32,000 Ib/in?, This limiting stress is called the allowable stress. The difference between the actual maximum stress and the allowable stress provides the design engineer with a safety margin. This safety margin is very important to have because it is often very difficult to predict what kinds of loads will be applied on the structure or to account for possible deficiencies in the materials used in construction. If the loading of a truss member is stopped when the stress reaches a value equal to 32,000 Ib/in’, then the safety factor is calculated as the ratio of the maximum stress (or load) to the allowable stress (or load). Therefore, the safety factor is (50,000 Ib/in?)/(32,000 Ib/in’) = 1.55. -15-2.2 Equilibrium of Bodies ‘A body is in equilibrium when the effect of all the forces acting on it cancel each other. For example, when you push against the wall, the wall will exert a force (called reaction) equal and opposite to the force you apply; and the wall will remain in equilibrium. If a body is not capable of exerting a reaction equal to the applied force, then the body will either break or move from its initial position. Under the effect of applied forces, a body tends to either rotate or translate The effect of the force on a body is related to the magnitude of the force, its direction and also to its point of application (location). For example, if you apply a force (you push) at the edge of an open door such that the force (your arm) is perpendicular to the plane of the door, this force will make the door rotate about its hinges. As the force is moved closer and closer to the hinges, it becomes more and more difficult to turn the door. On the other hand, if the force is applied in the plane of the door, this force will tend to push the door against (or away from) its hinges and no rotation will occur. Notice that if the force (your arm) is applied at some angle of the plane of the door, this applied force will tend to produce a rotation about the hinges as well as push the door against the hinges. The most efficient way to produce a rotation of the door around its hinges is thus by applying a force perpendicular to the plane of the door such that this force is applied at the far edge of the door. The tendency of a body to rotate under the effect of an applied force is related to the concept of moments which will be further discussed below. 2.3. Experimental Investigations The following experiments are designed to illustrate further the concepts of moments of forces. Experiment 1: Moments of Forces. Experiment 2: End Reactions of a Loaded Beam. Experiment 3: Internal Forces in Truss Members. -16-2.3.1 Experiment 1: Moments of Forces Principle Equilibrium of a structure is a function of the forces applied on the structure and the location of these forces. The line of action of a force indicates the direction in which the force is applied. The position and the line of action of an applied force affect the tendency of the structure to rotate, This is related to the concept of ‘moment of force. For example, if the line of action of a force passes through the center of rotation of a body, the body will not rotate, However, the further away the force is from the center of rotation, the higher is the tendency of the body to rotate, In addition, the tendency of the structure to rotate is a function of the ‘magnitude of the applied force. For example, the higher the force the larger is the tendency to produce a rotation, that is the larger is the moment produced. Objective The objective of this experiment is to demonstrate the effects of force magnitude and its location on the equilibrium of structural members. Background ‘The moment of a force about a point or axis provides a measure of the tendency of the force to cause a body to rotate about the point or axis. The larger the force or the distance, the greater the tuning effect. This tendency for rotation caused by the force which acts about a perpendicular distance from an axis is sometimes referred to as a torque. Consider a seesaw arrangement, such as a beam supported in the middle (at point ©) as shown in the schematic diagram below. Consequently, the conditions for equilibrium are that the sum of all external forces must be equal to zero, SF = 0 and that the sum of all moments about any point must be zero, 2 Mo = 0. Hence the point loads P; and P2 on either side of the support must be balanced by the reaction force R and for the beam to remain horizontally stable, the equation Pi-a=P2-b must be P satisfied. 4 Apparatus * Beam * Platform scale + Test weights Procedure + Place the beam over the scale such that the middle of the beam falls on the center of the supporting scale, Reset the sale to read zero. + Place a 1 Ib weight at each end of the beam. Notice that the scale reads 2 Ib which is the sum of the weights applied on the body. -I7-+ Move the weight that is on the right side of the beam half the distance between the end of the beam and the scale. The beam becomes unbalanced and falls down. The system is not in equilibrium. How many weights should be placed at that point in order to keep the beam in equilibrium? + Now, move the weights placed on the right side of the beam to a position which is located at one-third the distance between the end of the beam and the scale. How many weights should be placed there in order to maintain ‘equilibrium? Presentation of Results Set up a table showing the number of weights needed to maintain the beam in equilibrium versus the distance between the location of the weights and the center of the scale, Discussion of Results Find the relationship between the weights and the distances needed to keep the beam in equilibrium. What conclusions can be drawn from this experiment? -18-2.3.2 Experiment 2: End Reactions of a Loaded Beam Principle The end reactions, that is the forces that develop at the supports of the structure when the structure is subjected to extemal loads, are influenced by the applied forces and the position of these forces. Objective This experiment demonstrates the effect of the location of the forces applied on a beam. Background Constraints or supports generate reactive forces which tend to prevent motion caused by applied loads. If a point load P is not centrally placed on a beam of length L = (a+b) that is being supported at both ends, then the reaction forces Ry and Ro at the supports depends on the location of the applied load. Neglecting the weight of the beam itself, the reaction forces at left and right end are respectively P- Pea given by Ri = 7755 and Re = (ef Apparatus * Two platform scales + Beam + Test weights Procedure ¥ * Place a beam across the two . platform scales. Reset each scale to read zero. + Apply a 4-Ib load at the middle of the beam and note that the two scales read the same value, which is half of the applied weight. + Now move the weight to the left by a certain distance. Measure the distance between the load and the left scale. Denote this value as the variable a * Also, measure the distance between the load and the right scale. This distance will be denoted by b * Record the reading on each of the scale, The readings should give the magnitudes of the reactions at each end of the beam. ‘+ Repeat this process three different times for three different positions of the load. Presentation of Results Draw a table showing the values of a and b with their corresponding readings on the left scale and on the right scale. -19-Analysis of Results Verify that for every load position recorded, the reading on the left scale is equal to Pbi(a+b) and on the right scale is Pal(a+). Notice that the sum of the readings will always add up to the magnitude of the applied load. -20-2.3.3 Experiment 3: Internal Forces in Truss Members Introduction: A truss is a structural system formed by members that can carry loads in the axial direction of the members but cannot carry loads in the transverse direction, that is they have no resistance to bending, Wires and cables are typical examples of truss members that can only carry axial loads with the additional condition that the forces must be tensile forces (cables and wires cannot carry compressive forces). For example, if a wire the wire is pulled at, the wire will offer a resistance while if it is pushed on, it will not offer any resistance at all. Objective The objective of this experiment is to illustrate how intemal forces develop in a simple truss structure, Background ‘When a truss structure is subjected to extemal loads, the members of the truss will try to transmit these loads to the supports. In doing so, intemal forces will develop in each truss member. These internal forees may be a function of the loads applied, the inclination of the members, as well as the properties of the members. Provided the loading is coplanar with a cable, the requirements for equilibrium are formulated in an identical manner. Consider, for example, the cable as shown in the schematic diagram below, where the distances L; and Lz and the load W are known. The problem here is to determine the seven unknowns consisting of the tensions P and Q in the two segments, the four components of reactions at A and Band the sag yc at the point C. Here for equilibrium, F = 0. This equation requires that EF,=0 and EF,=0. Therefore, the sum of forces in the vertical direction yield Pcos@; +Qcos62=W and the sum of forces in the horizontal direction yield PsinO; = Osinds. Apparatus * Cables or wires + Two hanging scales or force gauges + Two support stands * Test weights + Weight hangers * Protractor + Rulers 21Procedure To reduce experimental errors, extra cautions should be exercised when measuring the angles suspended by the cable about an imaginary vertical axis separating the cable segments at loading point. + Attach a weight by two wires and attach the two wires to two force gauges. + Keep the wires vertical and read the forces on the gauges. Notice that the two readings add up to the weight applied. + Now hang the wires to the two stands and apply a 2-Ib weight. Measure the angles subtended by the cables. The angle between the vertical stand on the left and the wire attached to it will be denoted as the angle 01. The angle between the vertical stand on the right and the wire attached to it will be denoted as 6. The force gauges measure the internal forces introduced in the inclined cables when the vertical weight Wis applied. Read the corresponding values of the forces in the force gauges. Denote the force in the right-hand gauge by Q and denote the value in the left-hand gauge by P. + Repeat the process twice more for different values of angles 0; and 02. Presentation of Results Draw a table giving the values of 01, 62, P, and Q for each of the configurations studied above. Analysis of Results Verify that the conditions for equilibrium are satisfied, that is the resultant of all extemal and internal forces must be zero. The components of the extemal forces in the coordinates directions are LF,=0: -Psind, +Qsind2=0 and EF, Pecos + Qc0s02-W=0 -22-3 > Analysis of Trusses using SAP2000 3.1 Introduction ‘The experiments performed in Chapter 2 illustrated a few basic concepts associated with the equilibrium of structural systems. These concepts are related to the effects of forces and moments on the equilibrium of structures and how the applied forces produce intemal forces and reactions. While designing a civil engineering structure, the engineers have to insure that the structure will stand up (remain in equilibrium) under the effect of the applied forces. However, it is obvious that for large scale structural systems such as buildings and bridges, it is impractical to devise experiments such as the ones performed in Chapter 2 to verify that the structures will actually withstand the applied loads. Therefore, engineers need to rely on mathematical models and analytical tools in order to design such structures. There are many methods available to analyze forces in structures. In this section one such method which is applicable to a certain class of trusses will be demonstrated. This method is known as the joint equilibrium method. The joint equilibrium method is based on the concepts demonstrated in Experiment 3 of Chapter 2. It is essentially summarized as follows: If a body is in equilibrium then the sum of the forces applied on this body in the xdirection must be zero (©F,=0). Also the sum of the forces applied on the body in the y-direction must be zero (ZF, = 0). In particular the body can be a joint in a truss and the forces may be due to the effect of extemally applied forces applied on that joint or due to the internal forces within the truss members attached to the joint. For example, the internal forces are the forces P and Q that ‘were read in the force gauges in the Experiment 3 of Chapter 2 that have just been completed. The extemal force is the weight JV that was applied on the structure, 3.2. Example 1: Analysis of Simple Truss Structure The following exercise illustrates the joint equilibrium method for a simple truss. Assume that the forces in members AB and AC shown in this figure are to determined. In order to solve the problem joint A may be isolated. Observe that at this joint there is an externally applied force of 100-Ib which is vertical and pulls down on the joint. On the other hand, member AC is pulling up on the joint trying to keep it from moving from its original position. Similarly, member AB also applies a force on the joint in order to keep it from moving from its original position. 23.‘The structure shown in the figure above is formed by truss members that can only carry forces along the longitudinal axes of the members, then the force in member AC will be directed from point A to point C. Similarly the force in member AB will be directed along the axis of AB. In order to calculate the forces in these members, the joint equilibrium method will be employed at joint A in that the horizontal components of the forces applied at the joint must cancel each other and the vertical components of the forces applied on the joint must also cancel each other. That is the condition of equilibrium of forces, = F; = 0 and F = 0, must be satisfied at joint A. Given that the angle of member AC with the vertical is equal to 60°, while the angle formed by member AB and the vertical direction is equal to 90°, The weight applied is W”'=100 Ib. ‘Therefore, =K, AB + ACsin60° =0 and AC cos 60° + W=0 3) + In order to maintain equilibrium in the structure, the second equation for vertical components 4a convention ssives the force in member AC as AC = -WWc0860° = -200 Ib. Now using the results for AC in the first equation for horizontal components, the force in member AB- AB is determined as {B = —AC sin 60° = 173.21 Ib. Joint A Notice that in this case, assumption is made that AC pulls to the left (hence the negative sign) w while AB pushes to the right (hence the positive sign). Since AC pulls on the joint the force in member AC is a tensile foree and member AC is in tension. On the other hand, since the force AB pushes against the joint, then this force is a compressive force and member AB is in compression. 3.3 Example 2: Analysis of Trusses Using SAP2000 Text Input File ‘The previous example demonstrated some basic concepts about equilibrium of structures and developed some principles for calculating the forces that develop within the members of a structure when the structure is subjected to external loads. There are many analytical tools available to calculate these forces in the members of a structural systems. Many computer (software) packages are also available to perform such computations. The objects of this example are to illustrate how the SAP2000 software can be used to solve structural analysis problems; to appreciate and understand computational structural analysis, to emphasize practical facets of modeling; and to feature checking, judgment and/or interpretation of results.SAP2000 is a general purpose structural analysis program developed by Professor E. Wilson and his associates at Computers and Structures, Inc., Berkeley, California. This program can be used to calculate forces and reactions in beams and trusses and to calculate the displacements. This example demonstrates the use of SAP2000 using a simple illustrative problem. The problem chosen herein is a three-member steel truss structure subjected to two different load conditions, Problem Statement. To demonstrate the use of SAP2000 to analyze the simple three-member steel truss shown in figure below. Members 1 and 2 have cross sectional areas of 10 in’. The cross sectional area of member 3 is 20 in’. The truss has three pinned supports designated as joints 1, 2 and 3. This means that joints 1, 2 and 3 are restrained from moving horizontally and vertically but are allowed to rotate. Two loading conditions are given. The first loading condition is a vertical force of 1000 Ib applied downward at joint 4 while the second loading condition consists of an inclined load of 1000 Ib at 15 degrees from the vertical, also downward but to the right. The truss is symmetric, its height is 60 in and the base is 69.28 in, To use a structural analysis package it is necessary to give a description of the structure being analyzed, all information required by the software to define the structural model and its analysis, must be specified. To describe a structure, all the joints must be identified and how these joints are connected together are to be indicated. The location of the joints is determined using their coordinates in an orthogonal system of axes. The orthogonal system of axes used to input the SAP2000 data for this problem is shown in figure below where the origin is arbitrarily chosen at joint 1. PREPARATION OF SAP2000 TEXT INPUT FILE A text editor such as the Notepad (that comes with the Microsoft Windows operating systems) can be used to create the input data file, a sample of which is presented at the end of this section. The input data file is a plain text file created using the standard printable characters of the keyboard. The characters are treated the same whether the uppercase or lowercase letters are typed. The Tab character is interpreted as a space, Each input data line may be up to 300 characters Any consistent set of units can be used. The engineering units selected for this problem is the Ib-in where forces are specified in pounds (Ib) and lengths are specified in inches (in). Thus, the modulus of elasticity is in Ib/in’ or psi. The output results will be given in pounds ([b) for forces and inches (in) for deformations. -25-‘The first text line in the input data file is the Title Line, The title texts may be up to 70 characters in length. In this example, the title "Example Truss Problem for ENGR 101 Class" is used. The subsequent data lines following the title line are organized into distinct data blocks. The first line of each data block is identified by unique separator line, The separator line is a command with prescribed title of one or two reserved words that must be typed exactly as specified. The separators used in this example are SYSTEM, JOINT, RESTRAINT, MATERIAL, FRAME SECTION, FRAME, LOAD, OUTPUT and END. The indentations of data lines following individual separator lines are used only for clarity. ‘The SYSTEM data block defines the necessary parameters of the structural model and analysis. The SYSTEM data block specifies the overall job control information, including available degrees of freedom at every joint in the model, the units for length and force used throughout the input data file, the rectangular coordinate direction that is selected to be upward, page setup for the output file, ete. The JOINT data block gives all the joints (or nodes) coordinates that describe the geometry of the structural model. This is a mandatory data block. ‘The RESTRAINT data block assigns the joint restraints that are required to support the structure. Restraints apply only to the degrees of freedom that have been specified in the SYSTEM data block. Degrees of freedom that are not available are automatically restrained. Since this is a plane truss problem, there is no motion in the z-direction nor any rotation about the x- or y-axis. Generally, for each joint there are six restraint variables designated as UX, UY, UZ, RX, RY, and RZ. These restraints refer to the displacements or translations along the three local axes of the joints in the x-, y- and z-directions and for the rotations of the joints about the x-, y- and z-axes. In this example, for the pin joints 1, 2 and 3, all the displacements are fixed and rotations about the x and y- axes are restrained. Therefore these degrees of freedom are released. This method allows for a simpler specification of restraints or degrees of freedom of nodal points. ‘The MATERIAL data block defines Material properties used by the Frame elements This is a mandatory data block as long as Frame elements exist in the structure, ‘The FRAME SECTION data block specifies Section properties for all Frame elements in the structure. ‘The FRAME data block defines Frame elements that exist in the model. The elements in this data block are referenced to the Frame Sections in the FRAME SECTION data block. ‘The LOAD data block defines the Static Load Cases used for the analysis. The numerical values for force components are specified parallel to the x, y, and z axes. ‘The OUTPUT data block allows for analysis output selection. The type of joint and element results specified will then be written to a result output file which is generated by SAP2000 as -26-“filename.out”. In this example joint displacements and reactions along with frame element intemal forces are requested for both Load Cases. The END data block contains only the END separator and ends SAP2000 input data. ‘On the Windows taskbar, click on the Start button, point to Programs, and then point to the Accessories group. Select the Notepad by clicking on it. This will display the text editor. ‘Type the input data file as given on the next page. This is the information needed by the computer to understand the displacement constraints (degrees of freedom), material, geometry and load cases for this simple three-member truss problem. The text after a semicolon (;) is optional comments or notes and only the characters to left of semicolon are treated as actual program data,