Effects on Running Abilities 1

Running Head: EFFECTS ON RUNNING ABILITIES

Running Abilities Based on Geographical Regions

Rebecca M. Fagan

Glen Allen High School

 Effects on Running Abilities 2

Abstract
Track and field and cross country are two popular sports around the United States and

around the world. Some countries, such as the United States, are well-known for their triumph

history in the sports. Likewise, Kenya and Jamaica are famous for their histories in distance and

sprinting events. How are these countries so different, yet are all prosperous in track and field

and cross country? There are two large factors potentially impacting ability levels in these sports:

biology and culture. Biological factors include genotypes and physical make-up of athletes,

whereas cultural ones include socioeconomic status and community viewpoints of the sport.

Technology, history, population size, etc. all can potentially impact a countrys involvement in

the sport, whereas biological traits are usually not altered. Thus, the strength capability of

societal characteristics outweighs any biological ones. Some geographical regions are

significantly stronger in the sports than others, and the purpose of this paper is to analyze why.
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Introduction

Running is an innate ability most people in the world have. However, some countries are

more successful in the sports of track and field and cross country than others. Within the running

community, a common stereotype is that Kenyans and Ethiopians are strong distance athletes,

whereas Jamaicans are well-known sprinters. Therefore, the question is raised of how geography

affects running ability. Also, what main characteristics make someone better at a specific running

events? Specifically, how do factors such as culture, biology, technology, etc. impact a nations

capability in the sports of track and field and cross country? The information relating to these

questions provides a better understanding of the sport itself, as well as addresses common

conceptions around running. The evidence collected supports the idea that the cultural factors of

environment, socioeconomic status, and history influence running ability more and with greater

strength than biological characteristics.

Dominant Regions of the World

To win Olympic medals, a country needs to have strong athletes. As of 2012, the US has

the most Olympic medals in track and field, with a total of 757, and the second highest country is

Great Britain with 196 (Mallon 2012). Surprisingly, even with their dominant reputations in the

sport, Kenya places 9th in the medal count with sixty-eight, and Jamaica places 13th with twenty-

four (Mallon 2012). When only analyzing men, the US still dominates with 660 medals, yet

when focusing on women, the US is barely in 1st with ninety-seven medals (Mallon 2012). The

difference separating the two most likely occurred as a result of the gender prominence in the

sport, and the social acceptance of the sport.

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Also, when evaluating the demographics for running in the United States, out of NCAA

Division 1 Outdoor Track and Field Athletes, 55.66% of female and 54.10% of male athletes are

White (Division I All Conference Figures 2015-2016). Similarly, out of NCAA cross country

runners, 72.59% of women and 70.39% of men are White (Division I All Conference Figures

2015-2016). There are striking racial majorities in these sports, with the minorities being within

the African American, Asian, and Hispanic populations, as shown in the demographics provided

by the NCAA.

Based on these statistics, it appears as if the more developed nations are more successful

in the sport, for the United States and Great Britain are known to be strong nations economically

and physically. Also, in America, the racial division within the sports is heavily apparent, with

minority races represented in smaller proportions than the White majority. The higher success of

developed countries is a cultural factor, relating to socioeconomic status. Even though Jamaica

and Kenya are well-known countries in the sport, the lack of Olympic medals may be due to the

size of the nation and event specialization. The United States has a large population capable of

having athletes in every event, whereas Jamaica and Kenya focus on a specific type in order to

increase their chances at winning.

There are also many countries with only one medal in the countrys history, including

Venezuela, Colombia, Barbados, Dominican Republic, Saudi Arabia, and many more (Mallon

2012). There are also some countries, such as India, that have never received an Olympic medal

(Mallon 2012). Within the United States, out of NCAA Division 1 Cross Country runners, 9.30%

of women are African American, and 5.77% are Hispanic. For men, 9.29% are African American,

and 8.09% are Hispanic (Division I All Conference Figures 2015-2016). Likewise, for track and

field, 26.96% of women are African American, and 5.56% are Hispanic. Out of the men, 26.78%
 Effects on Running Abilities 5

were African American, and 5.56% were Hispanic. (Division I All Conference Figures 2015-

2016). Thus, there are obvious differences between countries and ethnicities successes in the

sport, which raises speculation as to why those exist. The smaller the country, or the larger

minority presence of a specific ethnicity, the lower amount of athletes who participate in the

sport, which impacts how well-known they are.

Culture

Running may be strongly affected by culture and the environment in a specific region.

For dominant distance running countries such as Kenya, every kid wants to be an athlete

(Reyes 2014Episode 2). Running is a part of Kenyans everyday lives, and professional

runners are heavily populated in the country (Reyes 2014Episode 2). There is also a pressing

need for these individuals to run, for as Wilson Kipsang, a highly successful marathoner from

Kenya explains in episode two of the documentary, Kenya: Inside, presented by Flotrack:

You get used to a certain lifestyle and its just as much training without
knowing. If theres no sugar at home you have to go and buy [it]. And if your
dad sends you to go and buy in the shop and the shop is 10km [away] so you
have to run. Maybe theres some visitors so you have to run very quick and
back. If theres something which needs to be done and the choice is to run or to
walk then you have to do it. So you have to run. (Reyes 2014Episode 2).
The economic state of the country is weak, and as a result, these people, their life, is all

suffering. It becomes normality. You are able to do something more with your body [with

running] (Reyes 2014Episode 2). Running is a chance for these individuals to improve their

lives, thus increasing their motivation to work harder (Reyes 2014Episode 1). A large amount

of motivation for being a runner is because of the benefits it provides for these individuals lives

economically and socially. In Kenya, as Episode 2 of the documentary Kenya: Inside

mentions, theres a higher possibility of producing high class athletes because each and every
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[runner] is trying to [get faster to win races in order to earn more money]. Culture strengthens

the prevalence of running in Kenya, making it more popular (Reyes 2014Episode 1). Though

the United States may have a larger population and more resources, running is the focus of a

Kenyans everyday lives, for training is everything [they] do (Reyes 2014Episode 1). If

running was not as popular in Kenya, they would likely not have as many world record holding

runners as they do now, which is the situation faced by the countries who are not as high

performing.

Similarly, when focusing on a country with a minimal success history in track and field,

culture has held a large role in their track and field potential. In India, according to the article:

Why Cant 1.22 Billion Indians Win More Olympic Medals? presented by Jonathon Foreman,

there is a stereotype of weakness of people from the country. Interestingly enough, high

statusin regards to wealthis something associated with minimal physical activity for

inhabitants in India (Foreman 2012). Foreman references how the appeal of running has only

started growing in recent years, thus addressing a reason for why in 1996, 2000, and 2004, the

country only won one Olympic medalin any sport (Foreman 2012).

In contrast to Kenya, where running is a large aspect of everyday life, India lacks the

same prevalence. India has never won an Olympic medal in track and field - ever, whereas

Kenya has earned sixty-eight, predominantly in distance events (Mallon 2012). Thus, it is

reasonable to conclude the way a specific culture views the sport is a large contributor to track

and field success. Comparatively, in the United States, running is extremely popular, with

interactive 5Ks and local marathons happening every week. The high interest level may explain

why they have been able to win 757 Olympic medals (Mallon 2012).
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The culture of South Africa impacted the popularity of the sport, in a similar manner as it

did in India. In this nation, many do not participate because of societal expectations (De La Rey

and Subeda 1993). There is a dual perception of running as a sport for men and white

[individuals], and as a result there is a division within the racial representation of participants

(De La Rey and Zubeda 1993, p. 3). It is a similar situation in the United States, where out of

collegiate track and field runners, 55.66% of women and 54.10% of men are white, with even

higher percentages for the same group in cross country (Division I All Conference Figures 2015-

2016). The White race makes up the majority of runners, at least collegiately, in the nation,

which was also described to have occurred in South Africa (De La Rey and Zubeda 1993).

Therefore, no matter how successful a country historically is in track and field, different nations

have different cultures with different viewpoints on the sport, therefore causing a variety of

achievement potentials. The United States may be prevailing in running, but there are certainly

racial and cultural trends within the nation, as there are around the world.

Other Cultural Factors

Biological factors are difficult to influence, but external factors can effect running ability

no matter where one lives. Technological advances are key stimuli for changing records, and

these changes include shoes, workouts, healthier habits, measuring devices, etc. (Munasinghe,

OFlaherty, & Danninger 2001). One may not be able to change their genes, but through proper

training and technology, he or she can positively affect their potential. Some of the advances

include the surfaces of tracks changing over time to become more conducive to faster running

(Lee 2009). Also, spikesracing shoes with inserts on the bottom- help athletes grip the track

better and push off harder. (Lee 2009). Correspondingly, as Lee references in her article,
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Technological Innovations in Track and Field, there are also types of uniforms that help cut

air resistance. However, to obtain these tools, money is needed.

In trials conducted in the article Participation in sport and physical activity: associations

with socioeconomic status and geographical remoteness, in areas analyzed in Australia, only

42 (44%) of the 95 specific types of [physical activity] showed a significant association between

participation and neighbourhood [socioeconomic status] (p. 6). Thus, there is an evident

relationship between social class and athletics.

Furthermore, the data displayed a trend where for in Athletics/ Track and Field, and

Basketball, the amount of people in the study who engaged in it was positively correlated with

socioeconomic status (Eime, R. M., Charity, M. J., Harvey, J. T., & Payne, W. R. 2015, p.7). This

correlation refers to how the higher the socioeconomic status, the higher engagement rate in the

sport. Even within the United States, similar trends exist, for running can be expensive due to the

cost of training shoes, clothing, injuries, watches, etc. Therefore, a country with a low

socioeconomic status, such as Haiti with only one Olympic medal ever in the sport, does not

have the same access to resources as many Americans do (Mallon 2012). However, it is not easy

to become prosperous in the sport, for as a runner from Kenya explains [one] cannot start now

and say [he or she] want[s] to run fast. Its something coming automatically when [one] is

young (Reyes 2014Episode 3). Though not every professional athlete starts training for the

Olympics when they are a child, it does take dedication and persistence, but has the ability to be

affectedboth positively and negativelyby culture.

Different environmental conditions also have the potential to impact performance in

running events. When analyzing Mexico, a country not particularly known for track and field or

cross country, the altitude and terrain of their geographical location serves as an asset for these
 Effects on Running Abilities 9

athletes (Giovanni 2014). In the documentary presented by Flotrack, Symmonds & Manzano:

Mexico: Inside (Episode 2), athletes training in Mexico who are capable of running a sub-four-

minute mile and earning world titles faced the conditions and the effects of the environment were

quite evident. When running at a high altitude, their first mile was in 9:09, but [one of the

runners] heart rate was up to like 180 [bpm], which is a high heart rate for a seemingly slow

pace for these athletes (Giovanni 2014). Thus, one is able to train their body to become stronger

runners in different areas of the world, and utilize the environment to his or her advantage. In

parts of this documentary, the areas were impoverished and more rural. It was comparable to the

environment in Kenya, yet the culture of running Kenya is much more prominent, thus

potentially explaining the Mexicos lack of strength in the sport (Reyes 2014).

Biology

One of the potential causes of differences in running ability by country is the biological

make-up of athletes based on heritage. One example of a biological cause, is the correlation

between being successful in sprinting events with the ACE gene (Brooks 2014). Within the ACE

gene is a D Allele allowing an individual to have a larger than average heart capable of

pumping highly oxygenated blood to muscles quicker than the average human (Brooks 2014).

According to Brooks, 70% of only American professional athletes have this potentially

performance related gene, whereas 75% of all Jamaicans have itnot just runners. Thus, there is

evidence to support Jamaicans having a biological advantage, as a large majority of the countrys

population has the gene.

Another study, ACTN3 and ACE Genotypes in Elite Jamaican and US Sprinters, was

conducted analyzing the same gene as in Brooks article, in hopes to understand the tendency for

African American and Jamaican sprinter[s] of African descent [to] represent the highest level of
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sprinting performance (Scott et al., 2010, p.108). The study presented by Scott et al. supported

the argument of the distribution of the ACE gene, as their results indicated athletes from Jamaica

did not differ in two genotypes when compared to non-athletes in the country. However, male

African-American athletes from the US showed a larger presence of the ACE A22982G

genotype than non-runners (Scott et al., 2010, p.109). Though both nations are known for

having successful athletes in sprinting events, these two articles present findings to reference a

biological difference between Jamaican runners and American runners.

The genotype analysis, however, does not necessarily mean biological factors are

stronger than cultural ones. There are other factors, such as population size, that caused those

results and trends. Jamaica only has fifty-four Olympic medals, compared to the United States

with 757, but the two nations are comparable in sprinting performances (Mallon 2012). The

United States is exponentially larger than Jamaica, therefore has more variance in those who live

in the country, which impacts genes and other hereditary factors.

Another dominant country in track and field studied for biological traits is Kenya.

According to research by Kong and Heer, there is a tribe in Kenya where 75% of the best runners

in distance events in the world originate from. The study analyzed the physical traits of Kenyan

distance runners, including their BMI, percent body fat, length of their strides, amount of time

they are in contact with the ground when running, etc. (Kong & Heer 2008). The mean BMI of

the athletes participating in the study was 20.1 (kg/m2) and their percent body fat was 5.3%

(Kong & Heer 2008). In comparison, according to the National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey, in the United States, the average adult man has a BMI of 26.6 [lb/in2]

(p.1).
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Another finding from Kong and Heer was the amount of time the runners had ground

contact time during their left leg stride was significantly longer than that of the right leg (p. 3).

This discovery regarding contact time was analyzed to potentially relate to their lowered

proneness to injuries (Kong & Heer 2008). Also, their leg strength was relatively low compared

to other runners and the faster the runners ran, there was a higher frequency and increased

length of their strides, which is thought to vary from athlete to athlete of different ethnicities

(Kong & Heer, 2008, p.5).

There is evidently a variety of factors in the physical makeup of athletes from Kenya,

with a correlation to their dominant racing abilities. However, these factors are not as strong as

cultural ones because anyone is able to change their form. Also, one may also be influenced by

the appeared form of others in their country, and attempt to mimic their form. Biological

characteristics can be adapted through technology and other stimuli; therefore, it does not have

the same potential effect on running ability as cultural causes do.

Conclusion

The biological evidence presented supporting geographical relationships to running

performance is limited and can be explained by a variety of factors. Culture, however, is a

stronger argument as the main factor for running success as it addresses more possibilities and

appears to have a direct impact. Kenya and Jamaica do not have the population size to outrank

the United States for Olympic medal counts in track and field, yet are still triumphant in the sport

due to the culture of the nation. Countries without medal-winning runners may have the same

biological potential as a Kenyan or Jamaican runner, yet do not have the resources or support in

order to fulfill their capabilities. Countries such as India and South Africa do not have the same

viewpoints on running as the United States, Kenya, and Jamaica, yet are all still capable of
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training successful runners. There are obvious trends within the sport, but cultural reasons are

most likely to impact any countrys future achievements than biological ones would.
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