FAO Forage Profile - Nepal

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles
NEPAL
by
Dinesh Pariyar
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FAO 2008
3
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 5
The livestock sector 6
Land ownership and tenure 6
Common property resources 7
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY 8

Soils 8
Indigenous classification of soil and agricultural land 10
Khet and Bari land classification 11
Soil colour 12
Texture 12
Soil depth 13
Soil consistency 13
Topography 13
3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 15

Climate 15
Agro-ecological zones 16
4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 18

Livestock statistics 18
Livestock management systems 20
Feed sources 21
Feeding systems 22
Feed utilization 23
Strategies for fodder production 23
Major problems associated with feeds and feeding 24
Integration of livestock into farming systems 24
Utilization of the various grassland resources 29
Vegetation - livestock - wildlife 29
Livestock market and trading practices 30
5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE 31

Grassland types 32
Grassland productivity and carrying capacity 35
Pasture and fodder crops 35
Fodder trees and shrub fodder 37
6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE RESOURCES 38
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 40
8. REFERENCES 41
9. CONTACTS 42
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 5
1. INTRODUCTION
The small and landlocked Kingdom of Nepal extends from the highest peak in the world to the plains
of the Terai. It lies along the slopes of the Himalaya between China and India with a land area of
147181km2 being 800km from east to west, and from 144km to 240km north to south, between 80
0
88 0 E and 260 - 310 N. The country borders India to the East, South and West and China to the North
(See Figures 1a and 1b). The elevation ranges from 66m to 8848m above sea level.
Nepal has distinct land use patterns as it is influenced by climatic variation, altitude and relief. Land
use in the hills differs from that of the plains. After the eradication of malaria in 1958 there has been
a massive migration of people from the hills and mountains to the Terai. Since then, the area under
forest decreases every year and land under crops was increasing until recently when the government
started a massive campaign against deforestation to check falling soil fertility caused by soil erosion
and landslides.
Population distribution and growth influence the land use pattern. Pressure on the forest has increased
due to the rapid population growth. Of a land area of 14.7million ha, 17% is plain and the remaining
83% is hills and mountains. 15% of the total land is covered by snow and 37% by forest, whereas 18%
is under agriculture. The population was 24.80million at the 2004 census, increasing at a rate of 2.25%
annually (although the World Factbook estimates the July 2006 population at 28287147 with a 2.17%
growth rate). Population density per hectare of cultivated land is generally higher in the Hills than the
Terai and lowest in the Mountains. The people of Nepal belong to several ethnic groups and may practice
different agricultural techniques, so some details are given when discussing stock rearing and systems.
The main religions are Hinduism and Buddhism.
The total cultivable area is 3.1million hectares with a cropping intensity of 183%. Table 1 gives the
land use statistics.
Figure 1a. Map of Nepal
Notes:
Data subsetted from ESRIs
World Worldsat Color Shaded
Relief images, with enhanced
shaded relief imagery and ocean
floor relief data (bathymetry) to
provide a land and undersea
topographic view. ESRI Data and
Maps 1999, Volume 1. Projection
Geographic (Lat/Long)
Figure 1b. The Himalaya-

Hindu Kush and Tibetan
Plateau Area
6 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
The livestock sector Table 1. Land use statistics

Category Area
There is an enormous ruminant livestock (000 ha)
population which puts considerable pressure Agricultural land cultivated 3091
on land resources. Nepals total herd in Agricultural land uncultivated 1030
2003/04 was: cattle 6.9 million (including Forest land 4268
Shrub land 1560
yaks and hybrids), buffalo 3.9 million, sheep
Grass and pasture land 1766
0.82million and goats 6.9million (Table 2). Water 383
The ruminant population is greatest in the Others 2620
Hills, followed by the Terai and is least in the Total 14718
Mountains (Table 3). Source: - MOAC (2004)
However, average numbers of livestock per Table 2. Ruminant livestock population, 2003/2004
household are generally higher in Mountain Category Numbers Percentage
households than Terai or Hill households (Table Cattle 6966436 37.21
4). Terai households generally have more cattle Buffaloes 3952654 21.11
to produce draught bullocks because their Sheep 824187 4.40
Goats 6979875 37.28
holdings are larger (2.58ha.) than in the Hills
Source:- MOAC (2004)
(1.01 ha.) or Mountains (0.83 ha.). Buffaloes
are used for cultivation in the Terai (Table 4). Table 3. Ruminant numbers by agro-ecozone
Eco-zones Cattle Buffaloes Sheep Goats
867700 347270 357829 968375
Livestock breeds. The different livestock Mountain
( 12.46) (8.79) (43.42) (13.87)
breeds in Nepal are listed in Table 5. Hills
3285375 2077822 364333 3466271
( 47.16) (52.57) (44.21) (49.66)
2813361 1527561 102025 2545229
Land ownership and tenure Terai
( 40.38) (38.65) (12.38) (36.47)
The history of land ownership and tenancy rights Total 6966436 3952653 824187 6979875
( 100) (100) (100) (100)
closely follows political developments. Land
(% in brackets)
reform policies were introduced from 1951. Source:- MOAC (2004)
Early reforms, motivated by a fear of agrarian Table 4. Average livestock ownership (number) per
revolution starting in the western Terai, sought household for eco-zones
to offer greater security of tenure, regulate rents Species Mountains Hills Terai
paid to landlords and prohibit further extraction Cattle 6.2 4.2-3.18 7.1-4.63
of money and labour from tenants. Restricted Buffalo 0.6 1.8-2.01 2.0-3.21
to the Terai this legislation redefined the tenant Equines 0.9 0.06 0.02
Sheep 3.2 0.4-0.13 0.3-0.29
- landlord relationship, rather than changing Goats 3.4 2.1-3.53 1.3-3.08
the structure of the agrarian system. Reforms Sub- Total 14.3 8.56 10.72
of the tenancy system could not ensure that Pigs 0.4 0.1-0.25 0.2-0.15
the productive capacity of the land was fully Chickens 2.2 3.1 3.0
released, because of unequal distribution of Ducks 0.02 0.07 0.1
Work oxen 2.2 2.4 3.2
costs and benefits of production. Traditionally,
Buffalo bullocks for work 0 0 0.5
the tenant bore all costs of production, while Source:-Livestock Master Plan, 1993; volume III; page no. 222
returns were shared with the landowner. With
land rents set by the land reform act at 50% Table 5. Major livestock breeds of Nepal
of the gross product, the cost-benefit ratio for Species Breeds
Buffalo Lime, Parkote, Gaddi, Terai, Murrah and Murrah
financial or labour investment in additional crosses
fertilizer application by tenant would be half Cattle Pahari Black, Terai White, Lulu, Achhame, Brown
that for an owner-cultivator. Swiss, Jersey and Holstein crosses
Sheep Bhyanglung, Baruwal, Kage, Lampuchre, Dhorel,
Such theoretical predictions of the effects of Polwarth and Merino crosses
land tenure systems on soil fertility management Goats Khari, Chyangra, Sinhal, Terai, Jamunapuri crosses
practices are supported by the higher yields Pigs Hurrah, Chwanche, Nagpuri, Hampshire, LargeWhite
Yorkshire, Pakhribas pig
observed under owner-cultivation. Perhaps in
Goats Khari, Chyangra, Sinhal, Terai, Jamunapuri crosses
response to poor yields from tenant farms,
landowners have begun to supply chemical
fertilizers, favoured by tenants as a free input for quick returns. Tenants with little security on the
land they cultivate and little vested interest in long-term productivity may favour the use of chemical
fertilizers. Greater investment was found in terms of application of compost, green manure and mulch
by owner cultivators who are assured of both the short and long-term effects of their investment.
More far-reaching reforms were introduced between 1964 and 1966 and included the imposition of
a ceiling on land holdings which, together with rent control measures, sought to reduce returns from
investments in land so as to divert capital to finance industrial developments. Such a potentially radical
move against the elite followed the return of the monarchy in 1960 and was supported by international
political and economic interests. International support was motivated by fears that tenant unrest might
support the spread of communism in the region.
The impact of the reforms was blunted by the high ceiling set for land holdings: 4.1 and 1.1 ha,
respectively, for landowners and tenants in the hills, compared to the present average holding of 0.4ha
for a family of between five and six members. The high share of production (50%) appropriated by
landowners, compared to under 25% in India, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand, continues to
influence the management practices of cultivators.
Generally, quick returns are required by tenants to meet subsistence requirements. This, and the
relatively insecure nature of tenancy-cultivation, leads to management decisions with a short-term focus.
Long-term investments in the land (such as optimum terracing, the planting of trees and trash/ grass
binding to prevent soil erosion) may not be considered. Tree planting, in particular, may be discouraged
because of rights and ownership status.
Common property resources

Common property resources (CPRs) are resources in which groups of people have co-equal use right.
In Nepal, these include community forests and scrubland, community pastures, wastelands, watershed
drainage, village ponds, rivers, streams and their banks. CPRs contribute to subsistence livelihoods,
employment, income generation and asset accumulation. They complement private farm activities,
providing organic matter for compost and green manure, animal feed and bedding, and are particularly
important at times of economic hardship.
There are considerable differences between locations in levels of dependence on CPRs for fodder.
Two studies in the Central Region found that between 25% and 30% of fodder was collected from
sources beyond farm boundaries. In contrast, up to 85% of fodder may come from off-farm sources. In
a given area, households are likely to differ in their reliance on CPRs. Resource-poor households have
been found, generally, to rely on off-farm resources to a greater extent than the relatively resource rich.
In considering CPRs it is important to distinguish resources used and managed by a distinct group
of people from those that have no restrictions on their use (open access resource). The pessimistic
prognosis of Hardin (1968) for the tragedy of the commons argues that degradation of commonly held
property is inevitable because of the economic advantages to the individual of increasing their share,
while an individual is unable to control over-exploitation by unilateral action. However, in community-
managed CPRs in Nepal, individuals act to preserve resources. A number of factors reinforce active
management in these situations. Limited group and resource size enables members to police use of
the resource effectively. A strong sense of membership of a common and interdependent community,
together with shared knowledge and trust between users, leads to high levels of social capital being
present. Community values depend on both the resource and group cohesion, factors that over-ride the
short-term economic rationale of individual over-exploitation.
Traditional CPR management arrangements in Nepal have provided relatively sustainable and
equitable access to forest areas for centuries. However, the CPR base has changed and, often, has
been restricted in area or accessibility. Generally, this has resulted less from the nature of CPR
management than from the burgeoning demand of an expanding population. Reductions in the size of
land-holdings alongside this increased demand have compromised what were, traditionally, sustainable
land management practices; soil productivity has declined and reduced returns to labour inputs. Such
vicious circles build up in various areas of agricultural activity. The need for increased production leads
to an expansion in livestock numbers. The resulting higher demand for fodder and access to grazing
leads to greater use of CPRs, eventually exceeding their regenerative capacity, which inevitably leads to
degradation, with reduced resource availability, including that of fodder and leaf litter for composting,
which in turn leads to increased rated of erosion and reduced soil productivity.
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY
Soils
The soils of Nepal (see Figure 2) are not classified in detail and systematic information regarding soil
taxonomy is not available. In 1986, a Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP) carried out a countrywide
survey and produced a soil classification report based on USDA soil taxonomy. It reported 14-soil group
covering the 4 soil orders encountered in Nepal. They are mainly Entisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols and
Alfisols. Soil orders Spodosols, Histosols, Ultisols and Aridosols are occasionally found.
Entisols. These are the youngest and least developed soils, generally found on hill sides and adjacent
to river courses. These soils are formed through deposition of colluvium and alluvium and are present
throughout the country. Three great groups of this order are recorded. They are Ustifluvents, Ustorthents
and Fluvaquents.
Ustifluvents. Are commonly found where the rivers are active in the depositional stage. Horizons of
deposition are identifiable but soil does not show any pedogenetic development. They are mostly coarse
textured, highly permeable and well drained. Depending upon the type of materials the rivers are carrying
they can be calcareous or non-calcareous. The land is used for grazing and Acacia catechu grows there.
Ustorthents. These develop through colluvial deposition and are found in landslide scars and on slopes
of more than 35 degrees. As the soil develops it is constantly removed by erosion. They are shallow, near
the bedrock, coarse textured and poorly vegetated. Alnus is very well suited to such soil in Nepal. These
soils are used for grazing, fodder and firewood collection.
Fluvaquents. These entisols are also found adjacent to rivers, are poorly to imperfectly drained, vary in
texture and occasionally flooded. If suited to cultivation rice can be grown.
Inceptisols. These cover the largest area in Nepal and are the most important soils. They occurs on more
stable slopes and show distinct weathering in the subsoil. The vast difference in landscape, climate and
geology and parent materials have helped to develop a variety of Inceptisols.
Haplaquents. This soil is dominant in the lower piedmont plain of the Terai where drainage is restricted.
It is also found in duns (broad flat valleys), valleys and limited areas of the Middle hills. The B-horizon
is well developed. As water remains for more than three months the subsoil shows gleying and mottling.
Water table fluctuates and during the monsoon comes very close to the surface. Due to the aquic
Figure 2. Soils of Nepal

Source: Soil Science Division, NARC
moisture regime rice grows well on the soils whereas crops requiring aeration do not thrive. These soils
are common in the low relief areas and adjacent to major river systems.
Dystrochrepts. These are the commonest soils in the Terai as well as in the Middle hills, mostly below
1500 m and have developed on the acidic or neutral bedrock including lacustrine deposits. They have a
well- developed B-horizon and base saturation below 60%. They developed under forest and are found
on steeper slopes and can be stony, well drained and deeper with ample stones and gravel. Their pH is
below 5.5 and they have low base saturation. Organic matter plays an important role in retaining soil
plant nutrients suppressing the possibility of aluminium toxicity. These soils should be cautiously used
by maintaining high organic matter content. Prolonged use of nitrogenous fertilizers alone may increase
soils acidity and need to be amended with high rates of lime. Erosion control on the hill slopes is a must
to maintain the productivity of Dystrochrepts.
Ustochrepts. These are commonly on alluvial plains of the Terai and Siwalik regions and develop
on phyllite, schists, quartzite and limestone on the Middle and High hills. They are commoner on the
Western and Middle hills. They are diagnosed by a well-developed B-horizon, pale surface soils, high
base saturation, variable soil texture and structure. Those developed on colluvial deposits are stonier.
Soils on calcareous parent materials are non-calcareous at the surface. As depth increases calcium
carbonate increases due to the leaching and precipitation of the calcium carbonate in the lower horizons.
These soils on hilly areas are prone to heavy soil. Ustochrepts in the Terai are deep, well-drained, loamy
texture, non-stony and non-calcareous but with high base saturation and when irrigated these soils have
wide production potential. Ustochrepts in the Siwalik, Middle and Mountain regions are deep to shallow,
stony, coarse to loamy texture, well drained calcareous or non-calcareous but have high base saturation.
Cryumbrepts. These are the soils of the High Himalayan and High Hill regions, generally found
above 3000m but, depending on the local climate, altitude varies. Annual mean temperature is below
8 0C. Soils of this great group have dark A horizon, high organic matter with wide C/N ratio, low base
saturation and contain no free carbonate. They are rubbly and silty in texture. As they are under snow at
least three months of the year, vegetation ranging from monsoon grasses to Abies, Rhododendron and
Betula is found. Near settlements trees are cleared for fodder and firewood and bare areas are prone
to soil erosion. Pathways of gullies caused by melting snow are common. Areas under these soils are
extensively used for seasonal grazing.
Haplumbrepts. These are the soils of the High and Middle hill regions and developed in cool
temperatures on the acidic bedrocks under mixed forest. They are characterized by well developed Ah
and Bm horizons. They have low base saturation and an udic moisture regime. Soils under forest and
on steep slopes are shallow and stony but the cultivated ones are fertile due to a high organic matter
content, which inactivates the toxic effect of aluminium by its chelating action. Frequency of stones on
the surface hinders cultivation. Soil fertility is regularly maintained by grazing animals, and leaving
fallow for 23 year periods. Barley, millet and potato are the main crops grown.
Cryochrepts. These, similar to Ustochrepts, are found above 3000m. They are of no importance for
agriculture production.
Eutrochrepts. These soils are similar to Ustochrepts but develop on calcium rich parent materials under
an udic moisture regime.
Spodosols. These are soils with high organic matter and active amorphous materials containing Al but
with or without Fe which develop between 30004000m altitude with a humid, cool climate. They are
found in the higher part of the High Hills and the lower part of the high Himalayan region and occupy
a very small area. Agriculturally they are of very little importance. They have a well developed Bh or
Bf horizon. These soils to be developed need mean annual temperature of 58 0C. They have low pH,
which restricts growth of agricultural crops; rhododendron dominates the vegetation. They occur mostly
in Tengboche of the Sagarmatha regions and Wollangchunggola of the upper Tamor River. Cryorthods
are a great group under Spodosols.
Mollisols. Soils with high organic matter content, usually under thick grass or forest, dark colour and
high base saturation are classified under Mollisols. They develop on basic parent materials at higher
elevations.
Haplustolls. These are common in the sub tropical mixed forest of the Terai and inner valleys. They
develop on alluvial materials and are distinguished by a soft and dark coloured mollic Ah horizon with
high base saturation and a well developed Bm horizon under an ustic moisture regime. Haplustolls
develop under forest but not under grassland. Land with old alluvial deposition and forest litter which,
on decomposition, contributes high base saturation helps developing mollisols. The litter is generally sal
leaves; these soils develop under sal (Shorea robusta) forest. They are usually very fertile and produce
high crop yields for the first few years after clearing, but subsequently yields decrease as organic matter
content decreases: maintenance of organic matter is necessary to sustain productivity.
Cryoborolls. These differ from Haplustolls mainly in their development on base rich parent materials
under thick grassland of the high mountain in high Himalayan regions. They are found in cooler climate
and an udic moisture regime.
Alfisols. These soils are found on the higher river terraces with accumulation of a leached layer of
lattice of silicate clays in their B horizon and high base saturation. They are available on stable slopes
of the Middle and High hill regions where climate helps the development of mature pedogenetic argillic
horizons. The great groups of Alfisols found in Nepal are as follows:
Rhodustalfs. These, found in upper river terraces especially in the Siwaliks and Middle hills, are mostly
developed on green phyllite. They are not present in the Terai nor the High hills. They have well expressed
Bt horizons; soil matrix hue is more red than 5YR with ustic moisture regime. Base saturation is more
than 35%. Fertility is maintained with the application of ample organic matter. Decrease in the content of
organic matter correspondingly decreases crop productivity due to loss of fertile surface soil. These occur
on ancient river terraces (tars), the upper alluvial terraces where water for irrigation is scarce. Rainfed
cultivation is practiced with maize/millet being the major crops. As these crops do not stand waterlogging
farmers grow then on sloping terraces, exposing the soil to heavy erosion. Where there is water for
irrigation crops are grown on level terraces and the red colour due to the hematite is lost and the Fe is
changed to limonite. In this case, total free iron content does not exceed 5% in the Nepalese red soils.
Eutroboralfs. These Alfisols develop on calcium-rich material under cold temperatures in the high
Himalayan region.
Haplustalfs. These are Alfisols similar to the Rhodustalf but do not meet the criteria of the Rhodustalfs.
Ultisols. Ultisols are not very common in Nepal. Only one great group, Rhodudults, is found in small
pockets of upper terraces formed by rivers. They are similar to the Rhodustalfs but soil pH is low; in
these soils phosphorous management is a problem to maintain productivity.
Aridosols. These too are rare in Nepal but occur in the north of Jhomsom in Mustang district where
rainfall is less than 250 mm a year. Soils have calcium and other salts accumulated on the surface.
Depending on the local microclimate these soils can be fertile and produce good crops if water for
irrigation could be supplied.
Indigenous classification of soil and agricultural land

Farmers have systematic criteria for distinguishing soils according to landform position, based on slope,
elevation and drainage. Topsoil colour, texture and terrace type are the most dominant criteria for local
land classification and soil fertility management. Farmers also use broad climatic regimes to differentiate
climatic conditions. These are based on elevation and aspect, which relate to temperature and which is in
turn one of the most important factors influencing the choice of crops to be used in the rotation sequence,
crop production and length of the growing season. The broad classes, with their native vegetation types
are illustrated in Table 6.
Table 6. Indigenous climate regimes
Climatic Altitude Mean annual Dominant forests
Khet and Bari land classification regimes (metres) air temp. (C)
Irrigated khet and rainfed bari terraces (see Awal <1200 2025 Shorea robusta, Pinus
roxburghii
Photo) are classified according to landform
Kchard 12001600 1520 Pinus roxburghii, mixed
position and slope. The classification systems broad leaf forest
developed by farmers form the basis for Lekh 16002200 110 Oak (Quercus) mixed
forest
land management and agronomic cultural
practices. Tables 7 and 8 list the terminology
used by the farmers for classifying the khet
and bari land in the Jhikhu Khola catchment
and provide information on terrace types
and the management limitations of khet and
bari lands. Farmers have adjusted the terrace
system to the different sites by changing the
size and height of the riser and the width
of the terrace to obtain maximum stability,
drainage and performance. These classes
are well recognized by the local farmers and
reflect their experience and adjustment to
environmental conditions.
Farmers have distinct and systematic
criteria for soil classification. Soils are Photo by S. Reynolds
Table 7. Local khet land (irrigated land) classification

Names of Landform position Slope Terrace type Management limitations
cultivated land (degrees)
types (irrigated)
Bagar khet Valley bottom, floodplain 13 Pata<1m terrace risers Prone to frequent flooding
Khola khet Stream banks, stream 510 Gara<1 m terrace Stream bank erosion
terraces risers
Sim khet Head hollows, foot slopes 310 Gara/Pata < 1 m Poor drainage, high water table during
of colluvial slopes, spring terrace risers monsoon
or seepage areas
Ghol khet Valley floor depressions 13 Pata / Gara < 1 m Poor drainage, high water table during
terrace risers monsoon
Khadi Daldale khet Valley floor swamp 13 Pata / Gara < 1 m Poor drainage, high water table
terrace risers
Gairi khet Valley floor, intermediate 15 Pata / Gara < 1 m Imperfectly drained, high water table
terraces or foot slopes terrace risers during monsoon
Tari khet Old river terrace/fans 15 Pata / Gara < 1 m Irrigation water, low fertility status, prone
(TARS) terrace risers to surface wash and gullying
Pakho/Tari khet Ridge tops/fan 1015 Pata / Gara < 1 m Irrigation water, low fertility status, prone
terrace risers to surface wash and gullying
Ghara khet Moderately/gently sloping 1525 Gara<1 m terrace Low terrace maintenance cost and
hillside (colluvial slopes) risers surface erosion problems
kanla khet Steeply sloping hillside 2530 kanla>1 m terrace High terrace risers, high terrace
risers maintenance, severer surface erosion
Phagata khet Steeply sloping hillside >30 kanla>1 m terrace High terrace riser, bullocks cant be used
risers, short narrow for ploughing, high terrace maintenance
terraces cost, severe surface erosion
Surkhe khet Very steep hillside kanla>1 m terrace High terrace risers, bullocks cannot
risers, long narrow be used for ploughing, high terrace
terraces maintenance cost, severe surface
erosion
Pata: refers to the flat cultivated land both in the hills and in terai.
Gara: refers to the sloping small cultivated land in the hills.
Kanla: refers to the sloping land between two separate garas.
Table 8. Local bari land( rainfed) classification

Cultivated land Landform position Slope Terrace type Management limitations
types (rainfed) (degrees)
Tar (Pata) Bari River terraces (Tars) 15 Pata < 1 m terrace risers, Low fertility status, surface wash and
Fans, ridged tops wide sloping terraces gulleying, moisture deficiency
Pata Bari Moderately sloping 1020 Pata >1 m terrace risers, Severe surface erosion and mass wasting
hill side sloping terraces with slope disturbance
Ghar Bari Gently sloping hillside, 510 Pata <1 m terrace risers, Surface wash and gullying
Fans, Tars accordant wide sloping terraces
ridged tops
kanla Bari Moderately to steeply 2025 kanla>1.5 m terrace High surface erosion and mass wasting
sloping hill side risers sloping or nearly with slope disturbance, high soil fertility
level terraces requirement
Surke Bari Strongly sloping hill 2530 kanla>1.5 m terrace High surface erosion and mass wasting
side risers, sloping terraces, with slope disturbance, narrow terraces,
long narrow terraces bullocks can not be used, low fertility
status, marginal areas
Khoriya Bari Strongly sloping hill 2530 kanla>1.5 m terrace High surface erosion and mass wasting
side risers, sloping terrace, with slope disturbance, narrow terraces,
long narrow terrace bullocks can not be used, low fertility
status, marginal area
Khar Bari Moderately to strongly 2030 kanla>1.5 m terrace Marginal areas for thatch grass producing
sloping hill side risers, sloping terraces,
long narrow terraces
Karalo Bari Gently sloping hill 510 Pata>1 m terrace risers, Surface wash, gullying low fertility status
side, fan wide sloping terraces
Gagrine Bari Gently to moderately 520 Pata>1 m terrace risers Severe surface erosion and mass wasting
sloping colluvial slope sloping or level terraces with slope disturbance, coarse gravelly
terraced, high leaching and infiltration
capacities
differentiated on the basis of colour, topsoil texture, depth and consistency. These factors, in combination
with slope provide information on infiltration, drainage, soil moisture retention capacity, organic matter
content and stability.
Soil colour
Soil colour can be used as a key distinguishing criterion by farmers. Some of the colour differences relate
to the age of the soil, the origin or parent material, and the carbon content. The major topsoil colours used
by the farmers to differentiate soils are shown in Table 9 alongside the scientific classification. The colour
categories noted by the farmers are a partial indication of organic matter content in the soil. At higher
carbon content the soil colours are usually darker, the moisture content and cation-holding capacity are
higher, and the structural stability of Table 9. Local soil colour classification
soil aggregates is greater. In addition, Local colour classification Munsell Soil Colour Chart
the very old soils in Nepal are deeply Kalo (black) 10 YR 3/14/1 dark greyish brown-very
dark greyish brown
weathered and contain significant
Rato (red) 2.5 YR 4/65/6 - red
portions of Fe and Al. the former Haluka rato mato (light red) 5 YR 5/66/6-yellowish red-reddish yellow
gives rise to the red soils which have Khairo mato (brown) 7.5 YR 4/25/2- brown-dark brown
a significant portion of kaolinite and Phusro (grey) 10 YR 5/15/2- grey greyish brown
distinct physical properties. Because Kharani mato (light grey) 7.5 YR 7/10 YR 7/7- light grey
of the long leaching processes, the red Jogi mato (yellow) 10 YR 6/6-7/68/8 brownish yellow-yellow
soils are generally low in phosphorous.

Table 10. Indigenous terms for texture classification
Local name USDA Texture Class
Texture Pango Silty loam/silt
Among the most important physical Balaute Sand
properties of soils considered by Domat Loam
farmers is soil texture. Soil texture Balaute Domat Sandy loam
Balaute Chimte Sandy clay loam
involves the size of individual particles
Domat Chimte Clay loam
and arrangement of soil particles into Chim Clay
groups or aggregates. These properties Gagren Gravelly
determine nutrient supplying ability Masino Fine
of soil solids and the supply of water Chimte Very fine (clay) soil
and air necessary for plant root development activities. The size of particles in mineral soil (texture) is
not readily subject to change, and remains constant. The farmers are aware of the fact that the texture
of a given soil can be changed only by mixing it with another soil of different textural class. Farmers
incorporate large quantities of sand and sill through irrigation water to improve the physical properties
of red day soils for potato cultivation. The textural classes differentiated by farmers in the field are
listed in Table 10 and their equivalent USDA soil texture classes are also provided. The farmers textural
classifications are used primarily for crop selection and soil management. Heavy textured (chimte)
soils require higher labour inputs then light textured (domat) soils for ploughing and other cultivation
activities. Moisture content in relation to texture is also used as an index of workability of the soil.
Soil depth
Soil depth is one of the most important criteria used by farmers. Deep soils (gahiro) generally have
higher moisture-retention capacities than shallow ones. Shallow soils restrict the penetration of roots and
affect the soil moisture retention. Deep soils (> 1metre) do not restrict the distribution of roots. Farmers
prefer soils with a root depth of more than a metre and are aware of factors governing the uptake of
nutrients and use of soil moisture by plants.
Soil consistency
Soil consistency has important significance for tillage and land management. Farmers do not distinguish
criteria but know that wet red clay soils are sticky and slippery while sandy soils are not. Rato Mato
Chiplo Bato a term used to note that red soils are slippery has significance to farmers in that these soils
have poor infiltration. Major local terms used for classifying consistency are provided in Table 11. Terms
for classifying soil consistency may be simple, but are meaningful and easily understood by farmers.
The soil classification system used by the farmers is based on soil colour, texture, consistency and
depth. Most indigenous classes can readily be converted to commonly used scientific classification.
The conversion table facilitates communication between subsistence farmers and extension personnel.
More documentation and calibration is needed, particularly in the area of physical properties and soil
performance in terms of biomass production. Additional research is needed to document indigenous
knowledge on soil workability, soil performance and quality, all of which are notoriously difficult to
measure scientifically. These are the most fruitful research directions since their potential benefits
are great, particularly when new management techniques and new crops are being introduced into the
farming systems.
Topography Table 11. Soil consistency classes and scientific equivalents

Physiographic regions Local USDA Soil texture
Chipplo (chyap-chyape) Sticky, plastic Clay (fine)
Nepal is divided into five physiographic
Kahsro Loose, non-sticky, non-plastic Sands (coarse)
regions (and three agro-ecological Lasailo Slightly sticky, slightly plastic Loams (medium)
zones: see Figure 3 and Table 15)
which are almost parallel to each
other, running from west to east. They
are: the high Himalayan region, high
mountain, middle mountain, Siwaliks
and Terai. Details:
High Himalayan region. This region

which is always covered by snow
occupies 23.7% of the total land
3447500ha. Its altitude ranges from
3000m to 8848m. The mountains are
very steep with active glacier systems.
The geology consists of gneiss, schist,
limestone and shale of different ages. Figure 3. Physiographic regions of Nepal
Physical weathering predominates and Source: Soil Science Division, NARC
soils are very stony. This region falls largely within the alpine and arctic climate regimes, so there are
active glacier systems where there is enough precipitation in high catchments. The climate is dependent
on elevation and location in the mountain massifs. The few pockets of arable land of Solukhumbu,
Mustang, Manang and Dolpa are the result of a unique combination of aspect, shelter from wind and
availability of water for irrigation.
Characteristic landforms are glaciers, cirque basins, moraines, U-shaped valleys and avalanche
slopes. Bedrock in most of the areas is exposed at or near the surface including gneisses, schist and the
Tethys sediments. Less than 1% of the region has soil and climate suited to crop production and then
only where irrigation is available.
High Hills (or Mountain) region. The altitude of this region ranges from 2000m to 2500m and it lies
below the permanent snow line. This region occupies 2899500ha making up 19.7% of the country. It
has a cool climate and receives heavy to moderate snow in winter. Mountain slopes are very steep but
there are some flat valleys as well. The geology is characterized by phyllite, schists, gneiss and quartzite
of different ages. Soil formation on the slopes is slow and they are rocky.
This region borders the Middle Hills to the south and the high Himal to the north. The boundaries are
defined by changes in geomorphic processes, bedrock geology, climate and relative relief. This region
has more metamorphosed and structurally consolidated rocks. Gneisses and garnetiferous mica schists
are common. Most of the major valleys have been glaciated. High river gradients and enhanced river
down-cutting resulted in the formation of deep canyons since glaciation. Agriculturally this region is of
lesser importance. After the snow melts the mountains are covered with thick grasses and livestock like
sheep, yak, and other mountain animals graze in this region. In the valleys, in summer, one crop a year
can be harvested. The crops are potato, naked barley, buckwheat, and maize. Food grown here is not
enough to support the population and more has to brought in.
Middle Hills (or Mountain) region. This region includes a wide range of physiography. Its area is
4350300ha about 29.5% of the area of the country. Mountain peaks range up to 2000m with narrow
river valleys. The mountains are the Mahabharat range. The geology consists of a complex of phyllite,
schists, quartzite of Cambrian to Precambrian ages and granites and limestones of different ages. The
climate ranges from warm subtropical to warm temperate. The higher peaks receive occasional snow
whereas some lower parts receive occasional frost in winter, which causes damage to crops. Soils
are extremely variable because of the differences in bedrock, geomorphology and microclimate. The
southern margin mostly consists of a prominent belt of uplifted mountains known as Mahabharat Lekh.
This belt is made up of deeply weathered granite, limestone, dolomite, shale, sandstone, slate and
quartzite; is intensively cultivated and is home for more than 60% of the population. It produces most
of its food, yet food is always transported from surplus regions to this area. Subtropical dense forest
occupies the non-agricultural land.
Siwalik region. This region lies at the foot of the Mahabharat range. Its area is 1888600ha: 12.7% of the total
land. Altitudes range from 300m to 1800m. The geology mainly consists of tertiary mudstone, sandstone,
siltstones and conglomerate. Soils vary depending on the materials from which they are developed. There are
several inner valleys or duns, which are densely populated. Because of alluvial deposition these valleys are
very fertile. The landscape is very rugged and unstable, consisting of weakly consolidated Tertiary sediments
with gentle to strongly sloping dip slope. Siwalik soils are unable to retain high precipitation which frequently
occurs resulting in flash floods. Duns, a very important part of the Siwalik landscape, are structurally stable
and sometimes, in the past, their outlets were blocked by rapid tectonic uplift of the Siwalik range. The major
dun valleys are: Chitwan, Dang, Deokhuri, Surkhet, Trijuga and Kamala. Climate in the duns is modified by
the regular occurrence of winter fogs; otherwise it is very dry.
The Terai region. The Terai, a flat extension of the southern Indo-Gangetic plain, occupies 2142200ha,
14.4% of the country. Altitudes range from 66 m to 300 m. The region enjoys a warm sub-tropical
climate and its alluvial soils are fertile. It is the granary of Nepal. Wherever irrigation is available
the land is intensively cultivated. It consists of recent and post-Pleistocene alluvial deposits forming
Table 12. Characteristics of physiographic regions of Nepal

Features Terai Siwaliks Middle Mountain High Mountain High Himal
Geology Quaternary Tertiary sandstone, Phyllite, quartzite Gneiss, quartzite Gneiss, schist,
alluvium siltstone, shale and limestone and islands of and mica schists limestone and
conglomerates granites Tethys sediments
Elevation 66-300 m 200-1 500 m 800-2 400 m. Relief 1500 2 200-4 000 m. 4 000 m above
m with isolated peaks to High relief 3 000 m
2 700 m form valley floor to
ridges.
Climate Sub-tropical Sub-tropical (but warm Sub- tropical, warm Warm to cool Alpine to arctic
temperate in higher hill temperate, cool temperate temperate, alpine (Snow 6-12
spurs) on high ridges months)
Moisture Sub humid in Sub-humid in most Humid, per humid above Sub humid to per Semi and benid
regime FW+MWDR; of the area, humid in 2000 m humid Himal
humid in W+C N-aspect of W+C+EDR
and EDR and dun valleys
Rainfall High High Medium Low Low
intensity
Vegetation Sal +mixed Sal + mixed hard woods Pine forest+mixed Fir, pine, birch and Open meadows
hardwoods + pine forest hardwood and oak forest rhododendron +tundra vegetation
Soils Ustochrepts, Ustochrepts, Ustochrepts, haplustalfs, Eutrochrepts, Cryumbrepts,
haplustolls, haplustolls, rhodustalfs, haplumbrepts, dystrochrepts, cryorthents and
haplaquepts, Rhodustalfs, ustothents, ustorthents and haplumbrepts, rock
haplustalfs, Dystrochrepts, ustifluvents cryumbrepts,
ustifluvents & Haplaquepts and cryorthents and
ustorthents Ustifluvents ustorthents
Crops Rice, maize, Rice, maize, wheat, Rice, maize, wheat, millet, Oat, barley, wheat, Grazing (June to
wheat, mustard millet, radish, potato, barley, pulses, sugar potato, buckwheat, Sep)
Sugar cane Jute, ginger, tea. cane, ginger, cardamom yams, amaranthus,
Tobacco, Cotton medicinal herbs
and Tea
Horticulture Mango, litchi, Mango, papaya, Mango,papaya,banana, Chestnut, walnut, Apple, walnut,
pineapple, banana, potato orange,lime,lemon, peach, apple, peach, vegetable seed,
jackfruit, imli, plum, potato,cauliflower plum, apricot, potato
potato, tomato potato
People Tharus, Brahmins, Tharus(dun valley) Gurung, Magar, Tamang, Khas Chetri, Temporary herders
Chetris, presently all hill tribes Newar, Brahmin, Chetri, Tibetan related Sherpa and
displaced/immigrated Damai, Sarki, Sunar, groups - Thakali, Bhotiya
from middle mountains Kumal, Rais, Limbu. Bhotiya, Sherpa,
Tamangs, Ghale
Transport Good road linkage Good road linkage Road linkages around Very few road No road linkages
within dun valleys major centres linkages
Note: FW= Far Western, MWDR= Mid Western Development Region, WDR= Western Development Region, CDR= Central Development
Region, EDR= Eastern Development Region
Source: Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP), Land Utilization Report (1986)
a piedmont plain adjacent to the Himalayan ranges. Table 13. Area of each physiographic region
Although the whole length of the Terai has a common Physiographic region Area (ha) Percentage
geomorphology, it has obvious differences in land use High Himalayan Region 3447500 23.7
High Hills Region 2889500 19.7
due to presence of different land systems and land Middle Hills Region 4350300 29.5
units. The obvious difference is the increased amount Siwalik 1888600 12.7
of rice cultivation in the eastern Terai indicating a Terai 2142200 14.4
Total 14718100 100
greater proportion of higher quality alluvial soils and Source :- MOAC (2004)
more availability of water/rainfall compared to the
west. A summary of the major characteristics is given in Table 12 while area and percentage of the
physiographic regions are given in Table 13 and shown in Figure 3.
3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Climate
There is a wide diversity in landscape, altitude, topography and temperature in the country. Temperatures
range from arctic to tropical. The High Himalayan region is always below freezing whereas the Terai and
the low valleys are always warm. In winter mornings and nights in the hills are bitterly cold and days are
chill whereas in the plains and the river valleys mornings and nights are chill and the days are pleasant.
Summers in the hills are pleasant but in Table 14. Seasonal rainfall distribution
the plains and valleys are swelteringly hot. Region Pre-monsoon Monsoon Post-monsoon Winter
January is the coldest and June and July the Terai 411% 8098% 27% 25%
Hill 220% 7992% 111% 29%
hottest months. Rainfall and temperature
Mountain 824% 7280% 19% 417%
are the two main factors affecting Nepalese
agriculture.
Rainfall. 80% of precipitation falls during June to October. The monsoon enters Nepal from the
east which receives the first rain; the west gets rain about a week later. The western part receives
comparatively less rain than central and eastern parts. The average rainfall in the country is a little above
1000mm.
Most of the eastern and central hilly areas receive 15002500mm; the west gets 10001500mm.
Seasonal distribution of precipitation varies from east to west. The seasonal distribution of precipitation
is shown in Table 14.
Winter precipitation is due to the south west monsoon which passes over the driest area of India
so the water vapour almost dries out by the time it reaches Nepal. This rain is low in volume but very
important for winter crops. Rainfall data from meteorological stations show that the country receives
as high as 5100mm and as low as 250mm rain per annum. Rainfall variation is very high, the lowest
precipitation is in small rain-shadow areas, for example in the Mustang district of the Himalaya Region,
and falls as snow. From March to May there is little or no precipitation and evapotranspiration is
maximal. Atmospheric temperatures as well as water requirement of crops are high. From mid-May to
mid-October precipitation is sufficient to meet the water requirement of all crops except rice.
Temperature. Temperature is directly related to altitude. For a rise of 100 m, the mean annual
temperature drops by 0.5 C. Latitude also affects the temperature. For every 3 north, the mean
temperature would fall by 1C. Temperature falls slowly during the monsoon because of heavy clouds
and rain and continues to drop as winter starts. January is the coldest month and June-July are the
hottest months. Temperatures tend to rise from east to west. The highest temperature recorded is 46C
(114.8F) at Chisapani in Bardiya district and the lowest 26C at Thakmarpha in Mustang district.
Agro-ecological zones
Nepal is divided into three agro-ecological zones: Mountain, Hills and Terai (Table 15). This broad
division is based on the altitude, crop and livestock production systems. Figure 4 shows the different
agro-ecozones of Nepal.
Livestock are raised from the plains of the Terai to the rain shadow areas of the Himalayas, and there
is a strong integration of crops with livestock, forestry and marketing in all agro-ecological regions. The
role of livestock in each agro-ecological zone is specific.
Mountain (> 2500m)

In the high hills or mountain areas people are influenced by Tibetan culture and Thakalis, Sherpas
and Bhotias live in separate, single, ethnic settlements. Climate varies from warm temperate to alpine.
Livestock production is based primarily on crops and grazing. Cultivation includes annual crops on
rainfed and irrigated land and perennial crops. Grazing includes the migration of ruminant livestock and
the utilization of vegetation.
Herds are made up of yaks, chauries (yakcattle crosses), cattle, sheep, goats and horses,
reared in semi-pastoral or transhumant systems. Livestock move in an annual cycle according to
their specific requirements and grazing
availability at different altitudes. Yaks Table 15. Area of agro-ecological zones
occupy an ecological niche at high altitudes Agro-ecological zone Area (km2) Percentage
Mountain 51817 35
(3 0005 000 m), chauries move between
Hills 61345 42
15004000m, while cattle move between Terai 34019 23
2000 and 3000m. Sheep, goats and horses Total 147181 100
are more adaptable to altitude and move Source:- MOAC (2004)
Figure 4. The agro-

ecozones of Nepal
between 12004000m. Plant growth is limited by low temperatures and a short growing season. Barley,
buckwheat and potato are the major crops. Pasture at high altitudes is only accessible for grazing in
summer (JulySeptember). Thereafter herds move to lower areas for winter (DecemberMarch); yaks,
however, which are only adapted to cold conditions, are seldom taken below 2500m.
Livestock provide milk and fibre and their dung is a major source of fuel. Crossbred males are used
for transport and meat. Goats and sheep supply meat and fibre. The use of mules, sheep and goats for
trading and transport of basic inputs (grain, salt, building materials, etc.) is an important source of income.
Hills (5002500m)
In the mid hills people are more influenced by the predominant Hindu culture and Brahman, Chhetri,
Newars, Magars, Tamang and Gurung, live in multi-ethnic settlements. Livestock, although an integral
part of agriculture, is secondary to crops. Climate varies from subtropical to warm-temperate and the
major cereals are paddy, wheat, maize and finger millet (Eleusine coracana).
Cattle, buffalo and goats are the main grazing livestock. Livestock rearing is sedentary and animals
make daily grazing forays and return every evening. Forages include: grazing in the forest, on cultivated
land after harvest, and on fallows; also crop residues of paddy, maize, millet, wheat, mustard, soybean
and vegetables; grass gathered from terraces and forests; as well as tree fodder gathered from farmer-
owned and forest trees. Cattle graze and only lactating buffaloes and improved cattle (Jersey and
Holstein crossbreds) are stall-fed with the associated labour to cut and carry fodder. Female calves are
reared as herd replacements while males are
either reared for draught oxen or neglected.
The disposal of surplus cattle, both male
calves and cull females at the end of their
reproductive life, is a problem because of
religious beliefs inhibiting their sale for
slaughter and use for meat.
There is a potential to increase feed
production from cultivated land by including
winter fodders such as oats (see photo), oats
+ vetch, and oats + pea mixtures. Concentrate
feeds used include: farm-produced rice bran,
maize flour, (also barley, oats in Surkhet,
Illam, Sindhupalchok, Kavre etc.) and
common salt; compound feeds are rarely
brought in unless justified by access to an Photo by S. Reynolds
urban liquid milk market. Cattle and buffalo are the source of milk, manure and draught. Sheep and goats
are used for meat and fibre. Cultivation of land and transport are done by oxen.
Terai (< 500m)

The Terai is also characterized by multi-ethnic settlements, predominantly influenced by Hindu culture.
Cattle and buffalo are the source of milk, manure and draught. Oxen are used for transport and cultivation.
Although chemical fertilizers have become increasingly important for the intensive cropping, manure
is still the main source of nutrient replenishment and soil fertility maintenance. In many areas where
massive deforestation has reduced the supply of firewood, dung is an important fuel.
Cattle, buffaloes and goats are the main grazing livestock. The predominant system of livestock rearing
is sedentary and animals make daily grazing forays and return every evening. Compared with the mid-
hills, there is less grazing land and forest; so more crop residues are fed and the amount of stall-feeding
relative to grazing is greater in the Terai than in the Mid hills. Although there is a similar shortage of feed
in winter and before the onset of the monsoon, most productive and draught livestock are well looked
after and others survive on the available grazing. Forages in the Terai include: grazing on roadsides,
uncultivated land, forest (near the Siwalik), on cultivated land after harvest, and on fallows; crop residues
(paddy, wheat, maize, millet, cotton, sugar cane tops, lentils). Cultivation of fodder oats, berseem, and oat
and vetch mixtures has become popular in dairy pockets. Home-produced rice bran, wheat bran, maize,
gur (evaporated sugar cane juice), broken pigeon pea and salt are the major feed ingredients, alone or in
combinations with roughages like rice and wheat straw. Cattle generally graze, but are also stall-fed on
crop residues and forages. Lactating buffaloes and improved cattle are given supplementary concentrates.
Female calves are reared as herd replacements while males are either reared for replacement draught
oxen, or are neglected, slaughtered, or sold to buyers from India. Buffaloes are used for ploughing in the
Terai, but they are hardly used in the mid hills.
4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Livestock statistics
The livestock population of Nepal for 2004/2005 was estimated to be 7.0million cattle, 4.04.1million
buffalo, 7.07.2million goats, and 0.82million sheep (Table 16).
Table 16. Nepal statistics for livestock numbers, meat and milk production, live cattle and goat
exports, cattle imports and milk equivalent imports and exports for the period 19952005
Item 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Cattle nos. (,000,000) 6.8 7.0 7.0 7.1 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
Buffalo nos. (,000,000) 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4.0 4.1
Sheep nos. (,000) 918.9 859 869.6 870 855.2 851.9 850.2 840.1 828.3 824.2 816.7
Goat nos. (,000,000) 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.5 6.6 6.8 7.0 7.2
Beef & veal prod. (,000 45.9 47.1 47.8 47.9 47.8 48.0 47.2 46.8 47.6 48.5 48.9
mt)
Buffalo meat prod. (,000 104.1 104.8 113.5 117.4 119.6 121.8 124.9 128.0 130.8 133.6 139.0
mt)
Sheep meat prod. (,000 3.1 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7
mt)
Goat meat prod. (,000 mt) 30.9 32.0 34.6 35.6 36.2 36.9 37.8 38.6 39.7 40.5 41.7
Milk prod. (,000 mt) 1008.5 1029.4 1081.0 1118.4 1144.8 1170.7 1200.3 1235.6 1272.7 1310.1 1352.4
Cattle exports (,000 head) 37.2 24.1 23.7 3.7 27.6 2.0 6.2 4.6 8.1 4.9 n.r.
Goat exports (,000 head) 30.6 32.2 27.4 21.8 13.7 21.5 27.8 28.2 15.3 15.5 n.r.
Cattle imports nos.(,000 1.8 1.3 18.0 6.5 3.0 8.3 11.0 11.9 5.0 6.0 n.r.
head)
Milk equivalent exports 2.1 1.6 10.8 2.3 4.1 3.6 40.0 1.2 3.7 4.6 n.r.
(,000 mt)
Milk equivalent imports 1.2 0.7 1.3 1.3 25.6 3.9 3.1 6.3 30.5 17.0 n.r.
(,000 mt)
Source: FAO Database 2005
n.r. = no record
Live cattle and goats are exported particularly Table 17. Livestock population by ecological zones
to India and while numbers of cattle are Ecological zones Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat
Mountain (16 districts) 867 700 347 271 357 829 968 375
also imported, the numbers exported since (12.46) * (8.79) (44.20) (13.87)
1995 are nearly twice those imported Hills (39 districts) 3 285 357 2 077 822 364 334 3 466 271
(although since 2000 the cumulative (47.16) (52.56) (43.42) (49.66)
Terai (20 districts) 2 813 361 1 527 561 102 024 2 545 229
numbers imported exceed exports). Small (40.38) (38.65) (12.38) (36.47)
quantities of beef and veal are imported. Total 6 66 436 3 952 654 824 187 6 979 875
While dairy products are exported (in 2004 (100) (100) (100) (100)
* Figures in brackets are percentages
milk equivalent exports were 4600tonnes) Source :- MOAC (2004)
imports are higher (in 2004 milk equivalent
Table 18. Milk production (tonnes), 2003/2004
imports were 17000tonnes) and the cost of Category Numbers Milk production (tonnes)
milk equivalent imports exceeded exports Cows 888190 368531
by US$4796000. (47.0)* (29.9)
Livestock population by ecological zone Buffaloes 1015727 (53.0) 863322 (70.1)
Total 1903917 1231853
is shown in Table 17. (100) (100)
Cattle are reared for milk and draught; Figures in brackets are percentages
*
buffaloes are reared for milk and meat. Goat Source: - MOAC (2004)
meat is very popular throughout the country Table 19. Milk production (tonnes), 2003/2004 in three
so they are reared for meat, and the Sinhal eco-zones
goats of high altitude regions are reared for Eco-zones Cattle Buffalo
Mountain 35045 58545
meat and pashmina. Sheep are reared for (9.51)* (6.78)
meat and wool. There are 888190 milking Hill 181740 467136
(49.31) (54.11)
cows, which produced 368 531 tonnes of
Terai 151746 337641
milk in a year, while 1 015 727 milking (41.18) (39.11)
buffaloes produced 863 322 tonnes milk Total 368531 863322
(100) (100)
in 2003/2004. In the context of total milk
Figures in brackets are percentages
*
production cows produce almost 30% while Source: - MOAC (2004)

buffaloes produce 70% of the milk in the Table 20. Meat production, 2003/2004
country (Table 18). Category Meat production (mt) Percentage
Regarding milk production in the three Buffalo 133600 64.10
agro-ecozones, the highest milk yield is in Mutton 2779 1.30
the Hills followed by Terai and lowest in Goat 40540 19.50
the Mountains. Cattle contribute more in Pig 15389 7.40

Chicken 15881 7.60
milk both in Terai (41.18 vs 39.11%) and in Duck 223 0.10
the Mountain (9.51 vs 6.78%) whereas the Total 208412 100
buffalo contribution is greater in the Hills Source:- MOAC (2004)
(54.11 vs 49.31%) (Table 19). Table 21. Meat production (tonnes), 2003/2004
Buffalo meat contributes 64.1% on an Animal species Mountain Hills Terai
annual basis while goat meat contribution Buffalo 10 765 69 831 53 004
(63.00) * (67.41) (60.41)
is 19.5%. Chicken, pig, sheep and duck
Goat 2 944 14 433 23 163
contribution in the national context is (17.23) (13.93) (26.40)
7.6%, 7.40%, 1.3% and 0.1% respectively Sheep 1 188 1 242 349
(6.95) (1.20) (0.40)
(Table20).
Chicken 934 9 584 5 363
In the Mountains the major sources of (5.47) (9.25) (6.11)
meat are buffaloes (63%), followed by goats Pig 1 255 8 449 5 685
(7.34) (8.16) (6.48)
(17.23%), pig (7.34%) and sheep (6.95%). Duck 1 50 172
The same trend is found in the Terai whereas (0.01) (0.05) (0.20)
in the Hills chicken rank third and pig fourth Total 17 087 103 589 87 736
(100) (100) (100)
as far as total meat production is concerned * Figures in brackets are percentages
(Table 21).This variation is due to the Source :- MOAC (2004)
existence of various ethnic communities.
Wool production is concentrated in Mountain and Hills where sheep are the major source of meat
and provide wool for household consumption. A mountain sheep produces 0.74kg wool per year. The
lowest quantity of wool per animal is produced in Table 22. Wool production (kg) 2003/2004
the Terai (Table 22). Ecozone Sheep Wool Wool
numbers production production (kg)/
To understand the livestock production (kg) sheep/year
systems of Nepal, it is important to know the Mountain 357829 266570 0.74
(43.42)* (44.58)
ecosystem of which livestock form part. Central
Hill 364333 261013 0.72
to the system is the farming household, which (44.21) (43.65)
extracts and utilizes livestock products. The Terai 102025 70427 0.69
(12.37) (11.77)
livestock depend on feed from crop land, grazing
Total 824187 598010 0.73
land and the forest so livestock production is (100) (100)
dependent upon agriculture and forestry (see * Figures in brackets are percentages
Source: - MOAC (2004)
Figure 5). The ecosystem can be expanded and
made more complex to include other factors
which include, but are not limited to, land
capability, agro-ecology (i.e., elevation, climate,
annual rainfall, natural vegetation), marketing,
access, institutional technical support services
(e.g., health care, farmer training and extension,
availability and price of purchased inputs), credit
(formal and informal), and sociological factors
(e.g., land tenure, ethnic group).
Figure 5. Agriculture, forestry, and livestock
Functions of livestock. Farmers usually keep interrelationships
several species of livestock at the same time,
for interrelated reasons including food (milk, Table 23. Household income from livestock and
labour utilization pattern in Nepal
meat and eggs), fibre, hides /skin, manure, fuel,
Description Mountain Hill Terai
stores of wealth, draught power, transport (riding, Percent cash income from livestock 21.2 19.7 9.7
pack), cash and barter income, for hospitality, Man days used for livestock 51 73 64
and for festivals. Because of these multiple Source:- Nepal Rastra Bank (1988)
functions any proposal to regulate or reduce
livestock numbers must provide for equivalent substitutes. Any reduction in manure production which
is crucial for crops, will have to be replaced by chemical fertilizer, and organic matter through change
in cropping programmes. Dung is used as fuel, so would have to be replaced by firewood or kerosene.
Alternative investments, i.e., alternative stores of wealth, would also be needed which give better returns
than investment in livestock. A survey of cash income and labour use for livestock enterprises in Nepal
(Table23) reveals the situation in different regions of the country.
Livestock management systems

Ruminant management is governed by factors such as cropping intensity, availability of forest resources,
animal species and productive stage, the overall farming system of the area, labour availability and
animal numbers per household. Rearing of ruminants in particular, is dependent upon the overall farming
system. Three traditional management systems predominate:
(i) Transhumant system. This system is adopted in high Himalayan areas where herds of yaks, chauries
(yakcattle crosses), cattle, sheep, goats and horses migrate from one place to another throughout the
year. Livestock move together in an annual cycle according to their requirement and grazing availability
at different altitudes. Yaks occupy an ecological niche at high altitudes (30005000m), chauries move
between 1500 and 4000m, while cattle move between 2000 and 3000m. In contrast, sheep, goats
and horses are more adaptable and move between 1 2004 000 m. Plant growth is limited by cold
weather and a short growing season. Barley, buckwheat and potato are the major crops. Crop production
is less efficient due to the long time required for crops to mature. Vegetation at higher altitudes is only
accessible for grazing in summer (JulySeptember). Thereafter herds are moved to lower areas for
winter (DecemberMarch); however, yaks are adapted only to cold climates and are seldom taken below
2500m.
This system utilizes forage resources from the alpine pastures during the monsoon, and crop stubble
and fallow land in winter. During upward and downward migrations undergrowth in the forest region is
the major forage source. Livestock provide milk and fibre and their dried manure is a major source of
energy for cooking. Crossbred males (dzopas) are used for local transport and also supply meat. Goats
and sheep supply meat and fibre. The use of mules, sheep and goats for trading and transport of basic
inputs provides an important source of income.
(ii) Sedentary system. In this system livestock make grazing forays from the village and return in the
evening. The main grazing areas in summer are scrubland and community grazing land around the
village. The sedentary population consists of work oxen, dry buffaloes and a small number of cattle. This
system prevails in the lower altitudes of the hills (9001000m) and utilizes all the available forage in
and around villages. Cattle, buffalo and goats are the main grazing livestock. Forages include: grazing
in the forest, on cultivated land after harvest, and fallow land; also crop residues from paddy, maize,
millet, wheat, mustard, soybean and vegetables; grass gathered from terraces and forests; as well as tree
fodder gathered from farmer-owned trees and forest trees. The grazing area is usually degraded and gully
formation and soil erosion evident. Animals spend more than half their time grazing, but most of the feed
is crop by-products and tree fodder in winter and grasses and weeds from crop land in summers which
are offered evening and morning.
(iii) Stall-fed system. This is mainly found in the Terai and low hills (< 900m) and peri-urban areas
with milking buffalo and exotic or crossbred cattle. It is governed both by the availability of community
grazing land and the steepness of the terrain, which may mean that other classes of livestock are also kept
under stall-feeding. The system prevails in areas of intensive cultivation (three-crop sites), where the
availability of crop by-products is adequate to feed the animals in winter. In addition to crop by-products,
tree fodder, grasses and weeds from farm land are an important forage source.
Feed sources
Fodder is collected from all land use systems and the major sources are: cropland, forest, grassland,
shrubland and non-cultivated inclusions. Forests are lands with tree crown cover above 10%; shrublands
are degraded forests where there are trees with less than 10% crown cover; lands without trees or with
only a few scattered trees with grass cover are described as grasslands. Forest, shrub and grasslands
are generally owned by the government and are under the control of the Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation. Non-Cultivated Inclusions (NCI) are government or privately owned lands consisting of
degraded forests, permanent fallow, abandoned terraces and homesteads.
(i) Cropland. The majority of cropland is in the Terai (52%) and in the Middle hills (40%). Crop
by-products and crop residues commonly used for livestock feed are straws, stovers, pulse residues,
oil crop residues, maize cobs, sugar cane tops, rice bran, wheat bran, barley bran, mustard cake and
molasses. In the country as a whole, crop by-products and residues contribute about 47% of the total
available TDN. Agricultural land contributes substantial fodder in the Middle-hills and Terai, where
there are large livestock populations but little grassland. In crop growing areas, rice straw, wheat straw
and maize stovers are widely fed, sometimes with cereal bran and oil seed cakes, along with a little
grain.
(ii) Forest. The area of forest is 5.5million ha or 37.4% of the total land. Forest land is almost evenly
distributed between the High hills (34%), Middle hills (33%) and the Terai (34%). Fodder is collected
from the forest for feed and bedding which is subsequently used as manure. Uneaten branches and twigs
are used as fuel.
(iii) Shrubland. The area of shrubland is 0.7million ha or 4.8% of the total. There is little shrubland in
Terai, (9%); most is in the Middle hills (57%) and the High hills (34%). Fodder from shrubland is used
to feed the animals and for bedding. In the country as a whole, shrubland contributes 7% of the total
available TDN.
(iv) Non-cultivated inclusions (NCI). The area of non-cultivated inclusions is 0.99million ha or 6.8%
of all land. There are few non-cultivated inclusions in the High hills (15%) and the Terai (18%); most
is in the Middle hills (67%). NCI lie fallow throughout the year and fodder is collected either by cut-
and-carry or grazed by animals of nearby households. Fodder from non-cultivated inclusions contributes
11% of the total available nutrients.
(v) Grassland. The area of grassland is 1.7 million ha or 11.8% of the land area. In the High hills
grassland is the most important fodder source. Most of the grassland is in the High hills (79.3%) and the
Middle hills (16.7%). More than half of the grassland is in the high mountains. The Terai and Siwaliks
together have (4%). Grassland contributes 5% of available TDN.
Feeding systems
(i) Mountain. Ruminants in high mountain areas mostly graze for 68 hours. Cereal by-products are fed to
both ruminants and monogastrics. Concentrate feed is given to lactating and growing animals. Stall-feeding
is only practiced when one or two animals are kept. Kundo (a homemade cooked concentrate) is only fed to
lactating animals. Salt is given once in a week or two mixed in kundo when kundo is fed. Oxen are given
better care during cultivation time. Yaks and chauries graze for more time than other ruminants; mostly
they are left to graze in pastures, forest and along the streams when the land is not covered with snow. They
are let loose in such areas continuously for several days. It is more systematic at higher altitudes where
a fixed system of rotational grazing prevails in the kharkas (pasture land) with 1530 days in one kharka
depending on the availability of forage and strength of the herd. In this system, there is no shed for the
animals, only a compound divided into compartments, where the animals spend the night. Once the forage
is finished in a kharka, they are moved to another. In winter when snow covers the pasture, animals do not
find sufficient forage. In AprilMay, even when the pasture is bare, animals are left to graze and cannot
even compensate the energy they spend going and coming from such pastures and they suffered great
hardship. Although farmers make hay in high altitude in the rainy season when some grass is available, it
is not sufficient to meet their nutrient requirement because farmers do not have sufficient land and prefer to
grow potato, buckwheat and other crops on the limited land. Hay from native species like Elymus nutans
(furcha), Pennisetum flaccidum (dhimchi), Medicago sativa ssp. falcata (kote), and other local grasses is
very expensive and considered best by farmers. Hay is usually carried by pack yaks while transporting
the household goods, from one part to another. Potato is one of the main items given to these animals as
concentrate because it is available in sufficient quantity in both winter and summer.
Usually animals are fed twice daily. Young calves and lactating females are given special attention
and fed with better hay, khole and some potatoes. Calves of under a year are given some pida prepared
from uwa, (naked barley), potato, peas, wheat and maize flours. This practice is also very common in
Tibet. Some straws, e.g. uwa, barley, buckwheat and wheat in lower belts are stored after harvest as feed
during scarcity periods.
Yaks and chauries are always tied during feeding because they are extremely aggressive. Strong ones
do not allow weak ones to eat anything if not tied. If a strong yak/nak hits a weak one, all others also
come and hit that animal and may even kill it. In the migratory system, goats are taken to pastures at
different altitudes depending on season and weather. Goats usually graze along with sheep and the two
species move together. Hay from native fodder is not sufficient to meet the requirement of the entire herd
for the long dry winter and summer and animals lose considerable weight during these seasons. Some
grain is offered occasionally. Salt is provided from time-to-time.
(ii) Hills. Because of the high animal population and cultivation pressure and large human population
in the Mid-hills, there is competition amongst livestock species for available feed. Productive animals,
especially lactating buffaloes and cattle, are kept in the villages and others, especially sheep, goats and
dry stock are often taken to the pastures for about four months in summer. The sedentary population
consists of work oxen, buffaloes and a few of cattle. This system prevails at the lower altitudes of the
Mid-hills (9001000m above sea level) and utilizes all the forage in and around the village. The grazing
area is usually degraded and gully formation and soil erosion evident. The animals spend half their time
grazing but most of the feed comes from crop by-products and tree fodder in winter, and grasses and
weeds from cropland in summers, which are fed evening and morning. Usually, fodder trees play an
important role to provide feed in late winter. Productive animals, e.g. lactating buffaloes, receive better
feed in terms of concentrate, green fodder and straw. Others subsist on straw and around the fallow land
and nearby forest.
Goats are left to graze or browse on bushes or low branches of trees near grazing areas or the forest for
sufficient time to meet their food requirement. After 8 hours grazing they are brought back to the sheds
and offered some grain (usually maize) especially castrated males for fattening. Young kids and their
dams usually stay at home to protect them from predators as well as for better care and management;
after about two months, they join the herd for grazing and some concentrate is provided in the evening.
(iii) Terai. Most livestock are stall-fed or graze around the villages on fallows, waste land, roadsides
and are also fed by-products. Some ethnic shepherd groups still move their sheep flocks, especially
Lampuchhre, in search of feed around the villages and may move across districts. Goats are mostly
stall-fed and a few are reared in villages, along roadsides, near small towns and river basins. Forage
is cut and carried. Goats are penned all day and fodder is fed in a rack. Enclosure size depends on the
number of goats. In some places goats are penned in the same enclosure day and night; some grain is
usually offered in the evening. Some are transferred to a night pen to save them from theft and predators.
Lactating does and their kids are given better care and management along with good quality concentrate
in form of cooked maize and / or broken rice.
Where paddy is the main crop, feed scarcity in commoner in the rainy season, when all land is
planted. Grasses on bunds are the major source of stall-feeding and are fed in combination with chopped
rice straw. Other combinations: chopped rice straw plus mustard cake, wheat roughages plus local green
grasses, wheat roughage (bhusa) plus oil cake, rice straw plus locally made concentrate, wheat roughages
plus locally made concentrate i.e. mixing grain with roughages are fed. In a few cases, livestock graze
for several hours. In the dry season many areas are uncultivated and although growth of native grasses
is slow, there is usually sufficient feed for livestock in the villages. In the hot, dry season livestock
are mostly loose for grazing in uncultivated areas. Where the market access by road has improved,
farmers have started to adopt new production technology based on balanced farming with cultivated
fodder, fodder trees and appropriate crops to improve the feed along with increased farm productivity
and keeping improved animals, especially buffaloes for milk. In winter livestock raisers generally feed
oats, berseem, winter vetch in combination with paddy straw. In the rainy season, farmers feed livestock
with stylo, teosinte, Napier, jowar, summer joint vetch etc. with combination of locally available feed
resources. Farmers collect green feed for cut-and-carry; stall-feeding prevails in intensively cultivated
areas where availability of crop by-products is sufficient to maintain animals in winter.
Feed utilization
Most farmers do not know about the quality of improved fodder, they harvest the crops when they are
over-mature and fibrous but the dry matter yield is at its maximum. Farmers store heaps of maize stalks,
wheat straw, millet straw and rice straw under the sky so the quality of these residues is already poor
under traditional storage practices. The proper conservation and utilization techniques of these feeds
should be demonstrated further.
Fodder conservation. Both fodder conservation as hay and silage are encouraged. Farmers are provided
with technical and financial assistance for implementing these activities. Farmers of high altitude regions
have adopted hay making to some extent whereas both methods of conservation of fodder need to further
be demonstrated for the other regions.
Fodder enrichment. In order to improve the utilization of crop residues, efforts have made to enhance their
preservation and quality. Paddy straw, a very common roughage in the Terai is improved by urea treatment.
Strategies for fodder production

Despite a high average population per household, insufficient animal products are produced to meet the
growing demand. The livestock consume nutrients below their maintenance requirement, which is the
major reason for low livestock productivity. Different approaches have been adopted by Government
organizations for fodder production in different zones:
High hill
Grazing land improvement.
Forage conservation.
Mid hill
Cultivation of forages.
Terrace land utilization with forage species.
Fodder tree establishment on bund & terrace risers: Community grazing land improvement.
- Terai
Intensive cultivation of fodder crops
An individual farmer and group/community approach is adopted to popularise fodder production and
conservation by adopting the following strategies:
Provision of training.
Provision of seed and saplings.
Pasture development in community forestry and leasehold forestry land.
Provision of free technical services from livestock and forage officers.
Demonstration of year-round fodder production.
Enrichment of paddy straw with urea treatments.
Hedgerow establishment.
Pasture development under high tension lines.
Pasture development in the either sides of the roads.
Demonstration on hay and silage making.
Major problems associated with feeds and feeding

Major problems associated with feeds and feeding, include both their quality and quantity during winter
and summer, be it in migratory, sedentary or stall fed systems. Shrinkage of pasture and community
(public) grazing land, decreasing feed resources, unavailability of cereal and legume by-products for
feeding animals etc. have led to the quantity related problems. The available feeds and forages are
mostly poor in nutritive value. Grazing in the forest area has been prohibited to a great extent causing
some problems in the availability of feeds and fodders. Heavy dependence on poor quality roughages
and degraded pasture and grazing lands has reduced the production and productivity of the livestock.
Integration of livestock into farming systems

There are three important components of Nepalese farming systems and they are crop, livestock and
forest. Integration among these components results in a farming system in different agro-ecozones of the
country. Distinctively integration of livestock prevails in three prominent farming systems:
(i) Mountain farming systems. The potato, barley and buckwheat zone is in the lower ranges of the
Himalayas from 25003500m above sea level. The land is steep and less fertile than in other zones;
holdings are small and fragmented. Crops take longer to mature, and harvesting one crop annually is the
common practice. Crop productivity is very low and intensification to increase yields has limited scope.
Cereals, for example, have to be purchased from outside the region. Transhumant animal production is
concentrated in alpine meadows and forests. The chyangra goat, bhyanglung sheep, lulu and kirko cattle,
chauri, Tibetan horse, yak and nak predominate. The productivity of livestock is lower than in the Terai
or hills. Households keep 520 cattle and 50 or more small ruminants.
Farmers in this zone derive their income mainly from livestock, but neither animal nor crop production
can meet their basic needs. Many young people move to lower, more favourable altitudes to farm, or go
abroad to find work. There are few educational opportunities for children. Generally, mountain farmers
have little or no access to roads, electricity, markets or modern communication systems. In these remote
areas, the main ethnic groups are the Sherpa, Limbu or Tamang who are adapted to the hardships of the
mountain-farming environment that include a cold climate and food shortages. Tables 24 and 25 describe
the prevailing cropping systems in mountain regions.
Table 24. Major cropping patterns in rainfed bari-land in the mountain region
Cropping pattern Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Maize-wheat-finger millet (2 years Wheat Early maize from June to Sept and Wheat
) finger millet from May to October
Maize+potato+wheat+finger millet Wheat Maize+potato from April to October Wheat
and or finger millet from June to
October
Table 25. Major cropping patterns in irrigated khet-land in the mountain region
Rice-naked barley Naked barley Rice Fallow Naked
barley
Buckwheat-naked barley Naked barley Buckwheat Fallow Naked
barley
Potato+naked barley-fallow Naked barley up to May potato from March to August Fallow Naked
(2 years) barley
Constraints in various sectors and focused interventions initiated

The constraints faced by mountain farmers and options for improvement (Sharma 1998, Morrison 1998,
and Shrestha and Pradhan 1995) are as follows:
a. Crop production
Physical Limited area for cultivation; remote and steep land; cold climate and consequent slow plant
growth rate; and a short summer growing season due to the long, severe winter.
No easy access for farmers to roads, markets, education, inputs and new knowledge.
Soils Acidic with low phosphate availability; degraded land and often shallow.
Low soil temperatures and slow decomposition of organic matter.
Ecological Fragile ecosystem, with diversification from the mountain base to the summit, which may
be temporarily or permanently snow-covered.
Native pasture species complete their cycle within 67 months.
Traditional crop and livestock production, with migratory communal grazing due to:
(a) Winter feed deficit for animals (b) Inadequate technology generation and dissemination
to meet the defined meet of farmers.
Social Less attractive to the young because of the harsh conditions.
Alternative sources of income, such as eco-tourism, not well recognized.
Community ownership of pastoral land.
Replacement of the barter system with the modern marketing system.
b. Animal production
Low input and extensive production systems based on pastoralism.
Over-grazing of native pasture resulting in land degradation.
Lack of information on pasture development and utilization.
Inaccessibility of pasture area.
Low productivity of native pastures and indigenous breeds of livestock.
Poor knowledge of nutritive value of native pasture.
High mortality rates in the migratory flocks of small ruminants.
Harsh environment for livestock.
Inadequate livestock extension systems.
No administrative mechanisms to protect the fragile ecosystem or restore degraded lands.
Research and extension programme priorities for improvement of mountain farming

systems
Improvement of the productivity, nutritive value and utilization of native pasture species and fod-
der trees, particularly at high altitudes
Evaluation of the technical and economic feasibility of improving hay-making within the tradi-
tional systems
Conservation and expansion of the establishment of important native pasture plants: Medicago
sativa ssp. falcata, Pennisetum flaccidum, and Agropyron spp. in the drier areas of the trans-
Himalayan region Festuca and Elymus in the high hills of the eastern region. Dactylis, Trifolium
repens and Lolium perenne in the humid, high hills
Evaluation and improvement of the existing transhumance systems for ruminants, yak, nak and
chauri, sheep and goats.
Development of animal breeding programme relevant to the mountain farming systems
Improvement in land tenure issues such as the lease of pastures to farmer groups raising livestock
Improvement in cheese production in the yak
Improvement in the production of temperate fruits such as apples and walnuts
Improvement in the production of the potato and other crops such as buckwheat and barley
(ii) Hill farming systems Hill farming systems are true examples of mixed crop-livestock production
utilizing forest resources at elevations of 5002500m above sea level. The combination of topography,
wind, rainfall distribution, soils and solar radiation has given rise to unique and complex systems
incorporating traditional practices and experiences. The terrain is rugged and transport, communications
and livestock are all intertwined with the agro-ecological conditions to form micro-farming systems
which differ between locations. In the lower hill belt, water is available for irrigation and rice is grown
on terraces at least once a year. It seems that 1800m is tentatively the upper economic limit for rice,
except in Jumla, where the crop is grown at 2500m above sea level.
Rice is usually followed by winter wheat under irrigation. Other cash crops such as potatoes and
vegetables, that command higher prices, are slowly replacing winter wheat. Tropical fruits are also
grown in this belt. The unirrigated upland (bari) land, has been used to grow maize, finger-millet,
cowpeas, mustard, vegetables, orange, lemons, plums, pears, mangoes, guavas, bananas, pineapples,
sugarcane, tobacco, barley, wheat, fodder trees and forages such as oats, vetch and Stylosanthes spp.
There is moderate use of chemical fertilizers but extensive use of manure. The predominant animals are
cattle, buffalo and goats, which are mostly stall-fed with crop residues supplemented with foliage from
trees grown on the slopes of terraces and in the forest. Generally, milking animals are stall-fed with
grasses from the terraces of the cultivated fields, using the cut-and-carry systems. Dry animals, oxen and
growing heifers are often allowed to graze communally on common or fallow land.
Sedentary livestock keeping predominates. Feeding and management of livestock is mostly done
by women, whilst the marketing of animals, milk and milk products is undertaken by men, who also
make the decisions both in household and social matters. Bullocks are used for draught for almost all
cultivation, and for threshing of rice and millet. Rice straw constitutes the main source of feed, with
milking animals being supplemented with kundo, a concentrate made from the by-products of grain
and oilseeds.
In the upper hill belt, maize, millet, mustard, black gram, horse gram and soybean are the predominant
crops. Most of the citrus produced in Nepal is grown in this area. This zone is inhabited by the Magar,
Gurung, Rai, Limbu and Tamang ethnic groups. The emphasis on Buddhism means that women play
an important role in both agricultural production and in decision-making, in contrast to areas where
male dominated Hindu societies prevail. The women are responsible for carrying fodder from the forest
and for the feeding, milking and management of livestock as well as the preparation of various milk
products. Agricultural operations such as clearing and ploughing the land are shared with the men.
The cultivated land is steep in this zone and depending on rainfall, is more difficult to work. Farmers
cultivate the land around the village at the start of the summer rains. In the upper hill belt transhumant
rearing animals exists; stock are taken to higher pastoral areas for grazing, moving from place to place
during summer. They are brought down to the village at harvesting time and allowed to graze in the
fields, where temporary sheds are erected for manure collection. Tables 26 and 27 describe the prevailing
cropping systems in hill regions.
Constraints in various sectors and focused intervention initiated

The constraints faced by hill farmers and options for improvement (Sharma, 1998; Morrison, 1998 and
Shrestha and Pradhan, 1995) are as follows:
Table 26. Major cropping patterns in rainfed bari-land in the Hills

Maize /finger millet-wheat Wheat Wheat or Finger Millet Wheat
Finger/finger millet-fallow Fallow Wheat or Finger Millet ( Early and Late Type )
Maize+soybean-mustard-fallow Mustard Fallow Maize+soybean Mustard
Maize+upland rice-fallow Fallow Maize or upland rice Fallow
Maize+rice-wheat Wheat Maize or Rice Wheat
Maize+barley Barley Maize Fallow Barley
Table 27. Major cropping pattern in the irrigated khet-land in the Hills
Rice+blackgram-wheat (bunds) Wheat Fallow Rice+black gram Wheat
Black gram-Wheat-Fallow Wheat Fallow Black gram Wheat
Rice-wheat-fallow Wheat Fallow Rice Wheat
Rice-wheat-maize Wheat Maize Rice Wheat
Rice-rice-wheat Wheat Rice Rice Wheat
Rice-barley-fallow Barley Fallow Rice Barley
a. Crop production
Degraded, acid soils
Declining soil fertility
Traditional farming system, with farmers resisting any change to fruit and off-season vegetable
production
Small and decreasing size of landholdings
No integration of horticultural crops such as citrus fruits with pastures and forage crops; low live-
stock and crop productivity
Poor utilization of crop by-products and forest grazing
High animal densities causing over-grazing
Religious restrictions on the culling of animals
Absence of animal breeding strategies suitable for small farmers
Poor access to roads and markets
Lack of market oriented livestock production system
Heavy infestation of parasites in animals
Research and extension programme priorities for improvement of the hill farming systems
Development of crop rotations incorporating legumes
Development of minimum-tillage operations to conserve soil and nutrients
Development of new crop varieties and cropping systems
Improvement in productivity and management of fodder trees
Genetic improvements of animals using farmer-participatory approaches
Integration of forage production with food crops
Improvement in the management of animal diseases
Improved in the feeding regimes for draught animals
Improvement in animal productivity through stall-feeding systems
Improvement in off-season vegetable production in areas accessible to markets
(iii) Terai farming systems The Terai contributes 47% to the agricultural GDP of Nepal, which is the
highest of the three major agro-ecological zones. Crops provide about 80% of the household income
and dominate agricultural production in the Terai. The contribution of livestock to household income is
estimated to be around 20% (Shrestha and Sherchand, 1988). The land is flat and fertile and is suitable
for the cultivation of rice, the major crop. The area lies in an east west direction in the southern part of
Nepal, and occupies about 58% of the cultivated land. Most of the flat land in the Terai is situated at an
elevation of 70300m.
Most of the Terai households keep cattle; nearly 50% keep goats and over one-third keep buffalo.
Although mechanization is replacing draught animal power, most of the poor and middle-level farmers
Table 28. Major cropping pattern in the bariland of Terai

1.Maize-Mustard- Fallow Mustard Fallow Maize Fallow Mustard
2.Rice-Fallow-Fallow Fallow Rice Fallow
3.Rice-Wheat-Fallow Wheat Fallow Rice Wheat
4.Rice-Mustard-Chickpea Mustard+ Fallow Rice Mustard+Chickpea
Chickpea
5.Rice-Mustard-Lentil Mustard+Lentil Rice Mustard+Lentil
6.Maize-Chickpea or Lentil Chickpea or Lentil Maize Chickpea or Lentil
7.Pigeon pea Pigeon pea
8.Fingermillet-Lathyrus Lathyrus Fallow Fallow Finger millet Fallow Lathrus
9.Jute-Mustard-Fallow Mustard Jute Fallow Mustard
10.Jute-Wheat-Fallow Wheat Jute Fallow Wheat
Table 29. Major cropping pattern in the irrigated land of Terai

1.Rice-Wheat-Fallow Wheat Fallow Rice Wheat
2.Rice-Rice-Wheat Wheat Fallow Early Rice Late Rice Wheat
3.Rice-Rice or Lentil or Late Rice. Lentil or Chickpea Early Rice Late Rice. Lentil or Chickpea or
Chickpea or Lathyrus or Lathyrus Lathyrus
4.Rice-Wheat-Mungbean Wheat Mungbean Rice Wheat
5. Rice-Wheat-Dhaincha Wheat Dhaicha Rice Wheat
6.Rice-Potato-Dhaicha Potato Fallow Dhaicha Rice Potato
7.Rice-Field Pea-Maize Field Pea Maize Rice Field Pea
8.Rice-Pigeon pea in Wheat Fallow Rice, Pigeon Pea in Rice Bond Wheat
Ricebund-Wheat
still depend on draught animal power for various agricultural operations. Crop intensification in the Terai
is high, with as many as three crops produced in a year. Consequently, an imbalance between organic
matter and micronutrients is occurring in the soils. Tables 28 and 29 show the major cropping patterns
in Terai regions of the country.
Constraints in various sectors and focused intervention initiated

The constraints faced by the farmers of Terai and the options for improvement (Sharma 1998, Morrison
1998, and Shrestha and Pradhan 1995) are as follows:
a. Crop production
Soil micronutrient deficiencies due to intensive cultivation
Declining soil organic matter
Lack of efficient fertilizer and cropping practice for optimum and sustainable crop production
Absence of forages, particularly legumes, in the cropping systems
Lack of diversification and commercialisation in the crop production systems
Poor water management and limited irrigation facilities
Limited irrigation of fruit and pasture intercrops.
Low availability of crop by-products for animal feed
Lack of adoption of improved animal breeding approaches by farmers
Poor control of livestock movements
Occasional outbreaks of contagious diseases
Reproduction problems in crossbred dairy animals
Research and extension programme priorities for improvement of the terai farming
systems
Improvement in theproduction from cereals and cash crops
Introduction of forages, particularly legumes, into cropping systems
Improvement in draught animal power
Genetic improvement of buffalo, goats, pigs and poultry for meat production
Improvement in the efficiency of utilization of agricultural by-products by livestock
Utilization of the various grassland resources

Based on the crop-livestock and forest integration, different livestock production systems utilize the
resources of the various grasslands. Annual resource utilization by types of animals is described below:
Tropical and sub-tropical. In the tropical grasslands of the Terai, animals such as Terai cattle, local
Terai buffalo, Terai goats and Lampuchhre sheep are grazed year round even though the availability of
forage is minimal at most times of the year. During the summer monsoon grazing is mainly confined to
the road-sides and any available place. From October to December as the crop ripens and is harvested,
animals graze the bunds under strict supervision. From January to May grazing moves to harvested
and fallow lands where they are managed as herds. Animals are primarily raised under sedentary
management, however, their major feed supply comes from cropland products and grazing fallows,
wasteland and marginal road sides. In the subtropical grasslands (Siwaliks) which includes mainly
lowland and upland agriculture areas and the forest elevations 10002000m, the major feed supply
comes from forest grazing, croplands, and wastelands. Lime, Parkote buffaloes, hill cattle, Kage sheep,
Khari goats are raised under a sedentary management system.
Temperate, sub-alpine, and alpine. The temperate to alpine climate favours dwarf shrubs, junipers,
rhododendrons and short grasses in many alpine pastures for the migrating flocks and herds (Pradhan
and Rasali, 1994). Cool temperate grasslands are spread throughout the upper midhills from 2 450
to 3 050 m, whereas sub-alpine grasslands are located between 3 050 to 3 610 m characterized by
continuous but in some places scattered grasslands. Sub-alpine grassland has a limited grazing period of
58 months owing to heavy snow during winter months. Alpine grasslands are most prevalent above the
tree line from 3900m in elevation. These grasslands provide forage from June to September (4 months)
particularly for nomadic sheep and goats. Grazing of the areas is seasonal due to the migratory system
which varies depending on animal species, local geographical conditions and traditional patterns. Yaks
graze the alpine meadows at altitudes of up to 5000m or more during summer. In winter the herd is
brought down to around 3000m and herded near the village or allowed to graze unattended in forest
around the winter snow line.
Migratory herds of sheep and goats move up from the villages in June - July to graze alpine pasture
during summer and return with the approaching winter in October - November to graze grasslands and
degraded forest above the village. About November the flocks move down into the Mid-hills where they
graze crop stubble, and fallow lands in return for their manure contribution. Cattle, chauries, buffalo
may join the summer grazing migration but are mostly stall-fed during winter on conserved hay and
tree fodder. Herds of horses and mules, being rested from their winter transportation work also join the
migration to the high pasture in the summer.
Steppe. Steppe vegetation is found to the north of the main Himalayan peaks of Dhaulagiri and
Annapurna in the districts of Dolpa, Mustang Manang and Mugu. Located between approximately
24505000m, the entire region is in a rain shadow and averages less than 500mm annual precipitation.
The major vegetation consists of dwarf shrubs and 1222% ground vegetation with perennials and
weeds (Pradhan and Rasali, 1994). The vegetation of this region characterizes the high altitude pastures
that are grazed by migratory herds and flocks. Chyangra goats and Lulu cattle are common in areas of
poorer grazing. Yaks, chauries, kirko cattle, bhyanglung sheep, Tibetan horses and donkeys are found in
the better pastures with greater accessibility to grazing during summer and winter.
Vegetation - livestock - wildlife

Changes in vegetation and degradation of forest cover alters and may ultimately destroy, the habitat
of indigenous wildlife. Present continuous overgrazing of rangelands in most ecozones undoubtedly
has led to a reduction in the numbers and range of wildlife species. In Langtang valley, due to heavy
grazing, during the monsoon, wild herbivore, scrow (Capricoruis sumatraensis) are replaced by
livestock (Yonzon and Hunter, 1991). It is the same for the wild buffalo (Bubalis arnee) and Gouri Gai
(Bos gaurus) in tropical areas. For both the tame and ungulate herbivores whose life cycle is governed
by the environment and feed available, the grassland carrying capacities and stocking rates should be
determined that provide home for both livestock and wildlife. In some areas, that have been seriously
overgrazed by livestock and are important habitats of wildlife, strict measures need to be taken to restrict
or control livestock in order to improve vegetation condition and wildlife habitats.
Livestock market and trading practices

There are formal and informal markets for livestock. Traditional markets are in the Terai where
communications and the availability of marketable surpluses are greater but the infrastructure is poor for
holding, selling, loading and transporting livestock efficiently. Price information for livestock is limited
and because producers bring only one or two head to the market, they find themselves either taking the
best price offered or returning home. In the hills and mountains, permanent markets are confined to
district headquarters and a few other centres.
Market agents are active in both large and small markets procuring live animals. Where established
markets are not present, traders visit villages and provide a valuable service to the functioning of the
market. The success of a market is a direct function of the number of private traders on a given day. The
movement of slaughter animals like buffalo and goats is very high during festival seasons. Price and food
habits are important factors, which influence cross-border livestock trading.
The major consumption areas for livestock products are urban areas like the Kathmandu valley,
Pokhara and Nepalgunj. Major meat-processing industries, which consume large quantities of meat, are
in major cities. Personal incomes of the population are high which increases the demand for meat and
meat products. The largest contributors to meat production are buffaloes and goats. Meat processing
entrepreneurs complain about shortage of quality buffalo and pork in the market needed for production
of a variety of meat products.
The domestic market for live animals is strongly influenced by trade with India and China. India
acts both as a supplier of breeding animals, animals for slaughter, and market for mature buffalo, male
buffalo calves, goats and milking cows and buffaloes. Border livestock markets have close links with
similar markets in India and Indian traders are involved in supplying livestock according to local demand
and season of the year. Importation of sheep from India has been discouraged in recent years due to the
risk of bluetongue. Because of the long, porous border with India, the orientation of this trade is strongly
south to north and occurs throughout the length of the border.
A large number of Indian nationals are involved in buffalo and goat marketing by bringing livestock
from India as well as purchasing in Nepals villages. Indian traders have an extensive network of
contacts and more importantly have access to an informal credit system. In the cattle trade, many traders
are Muslims with a long family history in the business. Live animal markets for cattle have been in a
state of uncertainty because of HMG/Ns ban on the export of cattle to India.
Livestock farmers complain about market
information and market accessibility of their
products in-country. Although there are tradi-
tional markets in Terai districts, they have no
facilities like weighing scales, animal feeding,
animal holding yards and veterinary services.
On the other hand, a milk holiday is observed
periodically. The quality of traditional livestock
products like ghee and leather is not good and
farmers and entrepreneurs are not getting a fair
price in the competitive market. Under such cir-
cumstances, the government has to play a crucial
role to improve market accessibility of livestock
and livestock products through establishment of
livestock marketing facilities in potential areas, Milk collection centre in the Kathmandu valley
product diversification and enhancement of the Photo by S. Reynolds
Figure 6. Routes of livestock

product marketing and trading
quality production system. The Directorate of Table 30. Livestock production status
Livestock Marketing Promotion was estab- Commodity Production Growth
rate (%)
Required Balance
quantity
lished in 2000 to organize and promote Meat (000 mt) 203 3.95 331 128
marketing of livestock and livestock products Milk (000 mt) 1154 2.72 1 345 191
(see photo) at the national level. It cannot Eggs (tenmillions) 54.8 5.04 113 58.2
function well due to the lack of facilities, sup- DLS, Annual Progress Report, 2001/02.
porting staff and network within the country.
Nepal has an established livestock trade with India, China and Bangladesh with to and fro movement
in both northern and southern borders. It is important to consider both legal and illegal livestock trading
in the region to develop effective disease control and marketing strategies. The major livestock import
and export routes between Nepal, India and China are presented in Figure 6.
The annual growth rate of livestock products such as meat, milk and eggs is 3.95, 2.72 and 5.04%
respectively which does not meet the daily requirements and hence they have to be imported. Male
buffalo calves and goats are imported from India and Tibet. Processed meat and milk powder are also
imported (Table 30).
5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE

The concept of grassland development through the government sector began in the late nineteen-fifties
with the establishment of cheese factories in the northern and mid-hills for processing the milk of yaks
and chauries. A temperate cultivar evaluation cum forage production programme was launched at the
Livestock Development Farm, Singh Durbar in 1953 by the Agronomy Division of Department of
Agriculture. Perennial rye grass (Lolium perenne) was tested in mixture with white clover (Trifolium
repens) during 19531959 (Basnet, 1963).In the late nineteen-sixties external assistance projects were
initiated, such as FAOs Pasture, Fodder and Livestock Development Project which was implemented
in Nuwakot and Rasuwa districts, when vegetation survey and small species evaluation trials began.
A Pasture and Fodder Development Farm was established at Rasuwa in 197172 and a Pasture
Development Project at Khumaltar in 1978. External assistance continued during the nineteen-eighties
including USAIDs Resource Conservation and Utilization Projects (RCUP) and Swiss funded forage
improvement work in Dolakha and Sindhupalchowk (Basnet, 1995).
Political changes after 1959 between governments of Nepal and China, disrupted centuries - old
transhumance. Negotiation between the governments on the closure of the rangelands for herds and
flocks of both sides, led to the two governments enacting an agreement whereby passage of animals
from both countries would be completely stopped by April 1988. Realizing the severe impact of this, the
government of Nepal initiated the Northern Areas Pasture Development Programme ( NAPDP) in 1985
which focused on pasture management and fodder development in four critical districts ( Humla,
Mustang, Sindhupalchowk and Dolakha), and six emerging forest and feed crisis districts (Manang,
Dolpa, Gorkha, Mugu, Sankhuwasabha and Taplejung ).
In 1987, two very important projects started under FAO sponsorship in collaboration with Department
of Livestock Services (DLS). The High Altitude Pasture Development Project (19871990) was extension
supportive while the Himalayan and Fodder Research Network (19871990) supported research. These
UNDP financed projects supported regular district level forage improvement programmes and tried
to alleviate the fodder crisis created by the closure of grazing in the Tibetan pasturelands as well as
restoring the degraded grassland. The interrelationship and interdependency among forests, grassland
and animals (including wildlife) is very close in Nepal. Grasslands evolve as a stage in the degradation
of forests; for some time, depending upon their carrying capacities, both become complementary to each
other to supply feed resources to the habitats (Basnet, 1995).
Grassland types
The wide range of climate and altitudes has given rise to many grassland situations. The only thing
common to all is livestock rearing which is an integral part of the agricultural system, since time
immemorial and was enriched with the vast experience of migrant pastoral Aryans who initially
settled in the North-Western parts of India and later spread to other parts (Singh, 1996). Rich grassland
resources sustained the livestock very efficiently, but the gradual increase in human population and the
subsequent increase in the livestock product demand created an imbalance.
Grasslands vary from subtropical at lower elevations, to alpine meadows on ridge tops in the mid-
hills and high mountain valleys of the inner Himalayan range in the areas of Manang, Mustang, Dolpa
and Mugu. Grasslands are mostly located in the hills and only 4-5 percent is in low areas (Table 31).
Tropical grasslands
This grassland type is found up to approximately 1 000 m above sea level and covers areas of the
Terai and dun valleys of southern Nepal. It is widespread throughout the Indian sub-continent in the
Gangetic Plain and the Brahmaputra valley. In Nepal these grasslands had covered large areas of
Terai and dun valleys, nowadays; almost all of this grassland has been converted to agricultural land.
Tropical grasslands are Phragmites/ Saccharum / Imperata type and dominant grasses are Phragmites
karka, Saccharum spontaneum and Imperata cylindrica (Whyte, 1968). It also contains two metre tall
Cymbopogon jwarancusa and Bothriochloa intermedia (Stainton, 1973). Because of human activity
Imperata cylindrica dominates throughout these grasslands and the weed Eupatorium adenophorum
is gradually replacing many of the palatable species. These grasslands are used by livestock under a
sedentary system of management. Grass is also harvested for thatch and for the paper mills. Many of
these grassland are burned annually in late winter.
Subtropical grassland
These are between approximately 10002000metres in Siwaliks, Mahabharat range, lower valleys and
mountain slopes in the lower Mid-hills. Much of the original subtropical grasslands have been converted
to agricultural land or are heavily grazed and in poor condition due to overgrazing. Sub-tropical grass-
lands are mostly associated with Pinus roxburghii forests. They are infested with Eupatorium adeno-
phorum (banmara), Pteridium acquilinum (bracken fern), and Urtica parviflora (stinging nettle) and
Artemisia vulgaris. These grasslands are a Themeda-Arundinella type. Naturally growing forage species
are reported by various authors
Table 31. Grassland areas by physiographic region
based on the site and time Physiographic Total land area Grazing land area
period and stages of plants region (000 ha) Percent (000 ha) Percentage
(Table 32). The main forages Of total land Grazing land
are: Arundinella bengalensis, Terai 2122.00 14.39 49.66 0.34 2.92
A. nepalensis, Bothriochloa Siwaliks 1879.00 12.74 20.55 0.14 1.21
intermedia, B. pertusa, Chrys- Middle Hills 4350.30 29.50 292.78 1.98 17.20
High Hills 2900.20 19.66 507.13 3.44 29.80
opogon gryllus, Cynodon dac-
High Himal 3497.00 23.71 831.54 5.64 48.87
tylon, Heteropogon contortus, TOTAL 14748.50 100.00 1701.66 11.54 100.00
Apluda mutica, Brachiaria Source: LRMP (1986)
Table 32. Plants of different grasslands

Grassland Plant species composition Refer-
types ence
Tropical Perennial grasses:- Arthraxon hispidis, Arundinella nepalensis, Bothriochloa intermedia, Bothriochloa Whyte
odorata, Cymbopogon jwarancusa, Chrysopogon aciculatus, Cynodon dactylon, Cymbopogon pendulus. (1968)
Desmostachyabipinnata, Digitaria longissima, Eragrostis nigra, Eragrostis. atrovirens, Eragrostiella Stainton
nardoides, Hymenachne pseudointerrupta, Heteropogon contortus, Imperata cylindrica, Ischaemum (1973)
timorense, Narenga porphyrocoma, Neyraudia reynaudiana, Phragmites karka, Panicum notatum, Field and
Paspalum conjugagatum, Paspalidium flavidum, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Pogonatherum paniceum, Pandey
Saccharum, spontaneum, Saccharum arundinaceum, Sclerostachys fusca, Setaria spp., Sporobolus (1968)
indicus, Vetiveria zizaniodes. Pariyar
Annual grasses:- Brachiaria villosa, Eragrostis unioloides, Eragrostis pilosa, Hackelochloa granularis, and
Sacciolepis indica, Setaria pallide- fusca, Shrestha
Perennial forbs:- Artemisia vulgaris, Cissus repens, Cyperus spp., Desmodium heterocarpa, Ranunculus (1992)
microphyllus, Tridax procumbens
Annual forbs:- Ageratum conyzoides, Rotala indica
Sub-tropical Perennial grasses:- Arundinella bengalensis, Arundinella nepalensis, Apluda mutica, Arundinella Whyte
setosa, Apocopis paleacea, Arthraxon hispidis, Agrostis pilosa, Artemisia vulgaris, Andropogon contortus, (1968)
Andropogon humilis, Brachiaria decumbens, Brachiaria villosa, Bothriochloa intermedia, Bothriochloa Miller
pertusa, Capillipedium assimile, Capillipedium parviflorum, Cymbopogon jwarancusa, Chrysopogon (1987)
aciculatus, Chrysopogon fulvus, Chrysopogon gryllus,Cynodon dactylon, Cymbopogon stracheyi, Field and
Cymbopogon pendulus, Cheilanthes grisea, Digitaria longiflora, Eragrostis nigra, Eragrostis. atrovirens, Pandey
Eragrostiella nardoides, Eulaliopsis binata, Eulalia mollis, Heteropogon contortus, Imperata cylindrica, (1968)
Ischaemum timorense, Isachne globosa Eleusine indica, Justicia procumbens, Phragmites karka, Pariyar
Paspalum dilitatum, Paspalidium flavidum, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Perotis hordeiformis Pogonatherum and
paniceum, Saccharum spontaneum, Sclerostachys fusca., Sporobolus fertilis, Shrestha
Annual grasses:- Digitaria setigera, Dimeria fuscescens, Brachiaria villosa, Eragrostis unioloides, (1992)
Eragrostis pilosa, Eragrostiella leioptera, Eleusine indica, Ischaemum baratum, Sacciolepis indica, Setaria
pallide- fusca, Schizachyrium brevifolium.
Perennial shrubs:- Eupatorium adenophorum, thysanolaena latifolia
Perennial forbs:- Carex spp., Campanula colorata, Cynogolossum zeylanicum, Cyperus rotundus,
Cyperus spp., Desmodium heterocarpa, Desmodium microphyllus, Dryopteris filix-mas, Elephantopus
scaber, Gonostegia hirta, Micromeria biflora, Phyllanthus parvifolius
Annual forbs:- Sida rhombifolia, Laggera alata, Rotala indica.
Temperate Perennial grasses:- Arundinella hookeri, Arundinella spp., Arundinella nepalensis, A. setosa, Andropogon Whyte
tristis, Agrostis micrantha, Agrostis canina, Agropyron canaliculatum, Agropyron semicostatum, Agrostis (1968)
filipes, Agrostis munroana, Agrostis myriantha, Agrostis pilosa, Apluda mutica, Apocopis paleacea, Miller
Arthraxon hispidis, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Bromus ramosus, Bothriochloa bladhii, Bothriochloa spp., (1987)
Chrysopogon gryllus, Cymbopogon spp., Cymbopogon distans, Calamagrostis epigejos, Calamagrostis Field and
pseudophragmites, Calamagrostis emodensis, Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Cymbopogon pendulus, Pandey
Capillipedium assimile,. Dactylis glomerata, Danthonia jacquemontii, Deschampsia caespitosa, Deyeuxia (1968)
scabrescens, Digitaria longissima, Erianthus longisetosus, Eragrostis nigra, Elymus caninus, Eulalia Archer
mollis, Eulaliopsis binata,. Eragrostis pilosa, Festuca spp., Festuca gigantea, Festuca kashmiriana, (1989)
Festuca ovina, Festuca rubra, Festuca lucida, Festuca valesiaca, Glyceria tonglensis, Helictotrichon
pratense, Helictotrichon virescens, Helictotrichon asperum, Imperata cylindrica, Koeleria cristata,
Muhlenbergia duthieana, Muhlenbergia huegelii, Muhlenbergia spp., Miscanthus nepalensis, Oryzopsis
aequiglumis, Orinus hardii, Oryzopsis lateralis, Poa pratensis, Poa angustifolia, Poa pagophila, Poa
spp., Phleum alpinum, Poa alpina, Pogonatherum crinitum, Pennisetum flaccidum, Stipa concinna,
Schizachyrium delavayi, Trisetum micans, Trisetum spicatum, Themeda quadrivalis, Themeda anathera,
Themeda triandra,
Annual grasses: Hackelochloa granularis, Poa annua, Setaria pallide-fusca,
Perennial forbs:- Anaphalis triplinervis, Artemisia spp., Berberis spp. Colquhounia coceinea, Cotoneaster
spp., Desmodium spp., Pteridium acquilinum, Rosa spp.,
Sub-alpine Perennial grasses:- Agrostis inaequiglumis, Agrostis pilosa, Anthoxanthum hookerii, Bromus himalaiacus, Miller
Bromus grandis, Calamagrostis emodensis, Calamagrostis pulchella, Chrysopogon gryllus, Cymbopogon (1987)
schoeanthus, Danthonia schneideri, Duthiea nepalensis, Deyeuxia spp., Elymus conaliculatus, Elymus Archer
dahuricus, Elymus nutans, Elymus schrenkianus, Elymus dahuricus, Elymus spicatum, Festuca comminsii, (1989)
Festuca leptopogon, Festuca ovina, Helictotrichon virescens, Koeleria cristata, Poa lugens, Poa spp.,
Pennisetum flaccidum, Stipa concinna, Stipa duthiea, Stipa koelzii, Stipa regeliana, Stipa sibirica, Trikeria
oreophilia, Trisetum spicatum,
Perennial forbs:- Artemisia spp., Desmodium spp., Stellera chamaejasme, Trigonella spp.
Alpine Perennial grasses:- Agrostis spp., Poa spp. Miller
Perennial forbs:- Aster stracheyi, Androsace esimani, Cyperus spp., Carex spp., Cortia depressa, (1987)
Geranium donainum, Kobresia hookeri,, Kobresia nepalensis, Kobresia spp., Picrorrhiza scrophulariflora,
Polygonum viviparum Potentilla peduncularis, Rheum moorcroftianum, Swertia multicanlis, Saussurea
gossypiphosa, Nardostachys jatamansi.
Steppe Perennial grasses:- Andropogon tristis, Aristida spp., Arthraxon spp., Aristida adscensionis, Arundinella Stainton
setosa, Agrostis pilosa, Bothriochloa intermedia, Bromus himalnaincus, Bromus grandis, Cymbopogon (1973)
stracheyi, Calamagrostis spp., Cymbopogon schoeanthusi, Chrysopogon gryllus, Calamagrostis Miller
pseudophragmites, Calamagrostis spp., Deyeuxia holciforumis, Deyeuxia pulchella, Danthonia (1987)
cachemyriana, Deyeuxia scabrescens, Danthonia spp., Elymus canaliculatus, Elymus schrenkianus, Archer
Elymus dahuricus, Eulalia mollis,, Elymus semicostatus, Festuca ovina, Festuca spp., Helictotrichon (1989)
virescens, Koeleria cristala, Melica scabessima, Melica jacquemontii, Oryzopsis lateralis, Orinus thoroldii,
Poa poophagorum, Poa paqophila, Poa alpigena, Pennisetum flaccidum, Poa spp., Stipa capensis, Stipa
bungeana, Themeda triandra, Themeda anathera, Trisetum spp.
Perennial legume :-Medicago falcata
Perennial forbs:- Berberis spp., Caragana brevifolia, Cerastostigma spp., Cyperacae., Carex spp.,
Juniperus squamata, Indigofera spp., Kobresia spp., Lonicera spinosa, Lespedeza spp., Potentilla
fructicosa, Rhododendron anthopogon, Rhododendron lepitodium, Rhododendron nivale, Rosa sericea,
Sophora spp., Scirpus spp.,
decumbens, Imperata cylindrica and Eragrostis pilosa. Grass is also harvested for thatch and for the
paper mills. They are regularly burned in the spring. These grasslands are badly grazed, and in poor
condition. The belt between 18002100m is a transition zone between the subtropical and temperate
grass genera with species from both zones.
Temperate grasslands
Temperate grasslands extend from 2000 to 3000m. Subtropical forage species are found up to 2500m,
but above that level temperate species dominate associated with oak or mixed broad leaf, Quercus or
blue-pine Pinus excelsa forests types. These grasslands are very important to pastoral systems and due
to heavy grazing for years, less palatable forage species dominated by Arundinella hookeri predominate.
In many areas, Andropogon tristis has been replaced by Arundinella hookeri. Common species are:
Arundinella hookeri, Andropogon tristis, Poa spp., Chrysopogon gryllus, Dactylis glomerata, Stipa
concinna, Festuca spp., Cymbopogon spp., Bothriochloa spp., Desmodium spp. and Agrostis micrantha.
This grassland can be classified into types: (i) warm temperate grassland (ii) cool temperate grassland.
(i) Warm temperate grasslands

These, which are found in the upper mid-hills from 1410 to 2450metres, are the result of biotic and
edaphic effects similar to sub-tropical grasslands. Sub-tropical grasses still dominate up to 2 500 m:
species of Andropogon, Chrysopogon, Dichanthium, Imperata, Heteropogon, Ischaemum, Setaria,
Themeda are commonest; legumes are rare. Eupatorium adenophorum and fern infestation is fast
increasing and is replacing palatable plants. In both subtropical and warm temperate grassland, there
is heavy stocking of cattle, buffalo and goats which give very little chance for herbage regrowth and
regeneration. In some places these grasslands have become no more than loitering places for large
ruminants.
(ii) Cool temperate grassland

Cool temperate grasslands are spread throughout the upper mid-hills from 2 450 to 3 050 m. Grass
composition is better and legumes, mainly medics, are widespread. In places, pseudo meadows are
prevalent. Poa annua, Poa alpigena, Phleum alpinum, Arundinella hookeri, and Festuca types, together
with some subtropical species are the common grasses. Burning of grazing land is common. Large
ruminants graze there most of the time as part of the transhumance system. Sheep and goats graze on
the way to alpine grasslands and back. In temperate grasslands that have been heavily grazed, common
shrubs are of the genera Artemisia, Berberis, Rosa, Caragana, and Lonicera.
Subalpine grasslands
Sub-alpine rangelands are associated mostly with shrubs; common genera are: Berberis, Caragana,
Hippophae, Juniperus, Lonicera, Potentilla, Rosa, Spiraea. In many areas, the shrub Pipthantus
nepalensis has invaded once productive grassland dominated by Danthonia spp. Depending on site,
altitude, aspect and time of collection of plants, the common natural grasses are: Elymus spp., Festuca
spp. Stipa, Bromus himalaiacus, Chrysopogon gryllus and Cymbopogon schoeanthus; Koeleria is a
species of great importance to pastoral systems at high elevation. Forbs of the genera Anaphalis distorta
and Potentilla become more common as Danthonia is removed from the grassland (Miller, 1987).These
grasslands, at elevations of 30004000m, are of critical importance to livestock production especially
for the large herds of yaks and flocks of sheep which depend on this grazing for much of the year. Sub-
alpine grasslands have a grazing period of 58 months owing to snow in winter. Transhumant herds of
cattle and buffaloes use these lands in summer.
Alpine grasslands
Alpine grasslands are associated with Rhododendron shrubs. Different workers have evaluated the main
types of vegetation based on the specification of areas, such as Kobresia type, Costia depressa type,
and Carex Agrostis-Poa type. Naturally found common plants are Kobresia spp., Agrostis spp. etc.
These grasslands extend from 40005000m and are the primary summer grazing (June to September)
lands for yaks and nomadic sheep and goats. Many of the plants of sub-alpine grassland are also
found in the lower elevations of Table 33.Grassland types and productivity

Altitude - Forest type Grassland Productivity
the alpine zone. Since 1968 metres type (DM tonne/ha)
various workers have collected <1000 Sal Tropical 3.04.0
and reported the vegetation 10002000 Schima - Castanopsis Sub-tropical 1.52.0
resources of these various types 20003000 Oak or mixed broad leaf, Quercus Temperate 2.02.5
or blue pine
of grassland. Details are given 3000 4000 Fir / birch / Rhododendron Sub-alpine 2.02.5
in Table 32. 40005000 Rhododendron / juniper Alpine 2.02.5
24505000 Pinus excelsa Steppe 1.01.5
Grassland productivity
and carrying capacity Table 34. Carrying capacity of different grasslands
Due to extremes in climate, Grassland type Area Productivity
(km2) (TDN. tonne/ha) capacity
Carrying Present
stocking
poor management and constant (LU/ha) rate (LU/ha)
grazing, all type of grassland Subtropical & Temperate 6293 0.58 0.54 7.07
Alpine 10141 1.54 1.42 0.64
have degraded to an alarming
Steppe 1875 0.06 0.09 1.19
stage. These lands are found (Source : Miller, 1987, Rajbhandary, H. B., and S. G. Shah, 1981 )
to be less productive than well
managed grasslands; still, they are an integral part of various animal rearing systems. Estimated forage
production of natural high altitude grazing lands varies from place to place. The dry matter biomass
production (t/ha) from various sites amount to 0.65 (Dolpa), 1.53 (Mustang), 2.36 (Sindhupalchowk and
Dolakha), 3.2 (Tuten), 3.6 (Terhathum), 0.79 (Dhading) and 1.5 (Myagdi). It has been estimated that
the tropical grassland has produced 3-4 tonnes while the steppe grassland has produced 11.5 tonne dry
matter per ha per year (Table 33).
The carrying capacity of various grasslands, based on their production status is given in Table 34.
Due to enormous grazing pressure, edible species have been replaced by noxious weeds. Tropical and
sub-tropical grasslands have lost preferred species which are being replaced by undesirable Imperata
cylindrica and Eupatorium adenophorum (weed), Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria cruciata, Eragrostis
nigra, Paspalum dilitatum and Sporobolus fertilis. In temperate grassland Andropogon tristis is gradually
replaced by Arundinella hookeri, and Danthonia schneideri replaced by Agrostis inaequiglumis
and Agrostis pilosa in sub-alpine grassland. However, in steppe pasture in Mustang grasses such
as Andropogon tristis, Pennisetum flaccidum and Stipa along with Medicago sativa spp. falcata are
found in better managed areas but almost 7080% of the grasslands are now covered with shrubs like
Artemisia, Sophora, Lonicera, Ephedra and Caragana. Regeneration of these plant communities is very
poor leading to low annual biomass production and severe environmental degradation. Tremendous soil
losses from grassland are observed, ranging from 40200tonnes/ha/year (CBS 1998). Degradation has
taken place to such an extent that now many once productive grasslands are rated as wastelands.
Pasture and fodder crops

Early forage development work dates back to the nineteen-fifties, when improved temperate pasture
species were introduced to the upper mid-hills and mountains. In the lower mid-hills, sub-tropical and
tropical grasses were introduced. Winter in most of Nepal is dry and cold, so green fodder shortage is a
serious problem.
Grass production on terrace risers is traditionally from indigenous species which have grown
spontaneously. The timing of harvesting of these grasses depends on their growth stage, livestock
needs, alternative fodder sources and labour availability. Farmers frequently use off-farm fodder before
their privately-owned reserves, conserving close supplies for later and for use during the busy planting
seasons when labour is short. In some areas preferred indigenous species such as Chrysopogon gryllus
are propagated and planted on terrace edges (Elliott, 1996). Thysanolaena latifolia (photo) is another
indigenous grass cultivated on terrace risers; its mature stems are used for broom making and the leaves
are good quality fodder. Some exotic grasses have been used on terrace risers. Napier grass (Pennisetum
purpureum) and Setaria (Setaria anceps) have been used in different parts of the hills. There has been
greater adoption of Napier grass and Napier grass hybrid (NB-21) at lower altitudes while Napier
mott and Napier dhus are planted in the upper mid-hills. The cultivation of improved grasses has been
stimulated by the increased demand for milk and milk prodPerformance of a large number of summer
forages has been evaluated at different locations for improved yield and availability over a longer period.
In a broad range of locations, Napier grass was found to produce almost double the amount of green
matter (GM) (30.5 tonnes/ha) compared with native grasses (16.1 tonnes/ha). From lower elevations
to 1500mabove sea level; molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora) was identified as the most promising
grass to address the shortage of green fodder during the winter months. A comparison of six perennial
summer forages conducted in Lumle command areas found that Seteria was the most productive species
(50.1kgGM/ha/day) followed by Napier grass (31.2kgGM/ha/day) (LAC, 1987).
The cultivation of winter fodders on Bari and Khet land is gaining in popularity with most dairy
farmers, in response to growing milk markets. Forage oats (Avena sativa) are grown from the terai to
the high hills on land with sufficient moisture. Production from different cultivars of oats, grown at a
range of locations, shows considerable variation from 2854tonne/ha GM (Adhikari, 2005). Significant
increases in milk production, ranging from 12litres/day were achieved by feeding 1015kg of green
oats daily to buffalo. Oats are by far the most important winter fodder throughout the country; the
introduction of modern, multi-cut cultivars a decade ago has greatly increased their popularity and this
may have been assisted by improved milk marketing. The area of fodder oats in Nepal is now in excess
of 10000hectares annually. The development of the oat crop is described in detail by Pariyar (2004)
and in a report by Pariyar (aspects of the oat programme are illustrated in Figure 7).
Fodder oat improvement and extension has been the subject of an FAO assisted project in Nepal (TCP/
NEP/2901) which has been the focus of fodder activity throughout the Himalayan region; many new
Harvesting oats Oats drying for hay, Dhading Oat seed production
Oat harvesting in the Terai Oat cultivar evaluation at Oat cultivars under evaluation at
Khumaltar Dunche Agricultural Research
Station
Buffalo being fed a mixture of Small-bag silage (c. 6kg) - 2

chopped straw and green oats, months old and ready to feed to
Kavre livestock
Farmers with recently harvested fodder oats

Figure 7. Aspects of the oat programme
(Photos by S. Reynolds, J. Suttie and K. Armstrong)
cultivars have been introduced; a workshop on fodder oats, and other fodders was held in Kathmandu in
March 2005 and has been reported by Pariyar et al. (2005).
A variety of leguminous fodders have been introduced into Nepal, most notably vetches (from
Australia) and species of Trifolium including white clover (from New Zealand and United Kingdom)
and other species (from India). Three types of vetch are used, mainly for fodder, namely Vicia sativa
(Common Vetch), V. bengalensis cv. Papani and V. dasycarpa cv. Nemoi. The highest dry matter
yield is obtained with line sowing and fertilizer additions. Trials involving the use of 60kg N and P/
ha and line sowing at 30cm distance produced on average, in 34 cuts, four times more green fodder
than broadcasting (PTSMF, 1988/89). Shaftal clover (T. resupinatum) has shown promise in trials as
a potential source of high quality green fodder and protein during the dry season (PTSMF, 1985/86).
Again productivity was greatest with the addition of fertilizer (60kg N and P/ha), irrigation and line
sowing. Berseem (T. alexandrinum) is cultivated in the terai and warm temperate regions of the mid
hills (HLFFDP, 1996). Phosphorous is one of the limiting factors in forage production for berseem.
Under irrigated low land on-farm condition, in a rice-fallow-rice cropping system, the optimum level of
fertilizer was identified as 60 : 120 : 0kg/ha NPK (FSR, 1989/90; FSR 1991/92). An economic optimum
level of 20 : 40 : 0kg/ha NPK has been recommended in Pokhara (Pradhan and Silwal, 1989). As a relay
crop, the recommendation in the terai is to sow berseem 4-6 weeks before harvesting the rice.
Tropical legumes have also been introduced in Nepal. Species such as Cassia rotundifolia cv. Wynn,
Desmodium intortum cv. green leaf, D. uncinatum cv. silverleaf, Neonotonia wightii and Stylosanthes
guianensis cv. Graham and joint-vetch, Aeschynomene americana, have all produced yields of green
fodder ranging from 3.8 tonnes/ha to 24.6 tonnes/ha in eight cuts (Neopane and Shrestha, 1991). At
altitudes below 1 700 m above sea level in leasehold forest land, fertilized stands of Stylosanthes
guianensis cv. Cook have yielded as much as 33tonnes green fodder/ha. However, levels of production
in the dry season are dependent on moisture availability.
Perennial fodders are less common than annuals but at high altitudes the indigenous yellow-flowered
lucerne (Medicago sativa var. falcata) known as kote is traditionally grown for hay; Napier Grass
(Pennisetum purpureum) is often grown around holdings on field edges and other spare ground. Annual
fodders are common. Summer fodders are mainly coarse annual grasses, notably jowar (Sorghum
bicolor) and teosinte (Zea mays L. subsp. mexicana).
The productivity of natural pastures depends on many factors, and varies greatly within and between
years from one area or region to another in the same agro-ecological zone. Productivity of native
grassland ranges from 0.51 tonnes DM/ha in the steppes; 22.5 tonnes DM/ha in alpine, sub-alpine
and temperate areas and 34 tonnes DM/ha in tropical regions. Estimates of the carrying capacity of
different grasslands have been made using these values, and are lower than current actual stocking rates.
For example, a grassland dominated by Heteropogon contortus, Eragrostis pilosa, Imperata cylindrica
and Pogonatherum paniceum in Bhumisthan VDC is estimated to have a carrying capacity of 0.31LU/
ha, whereas the current actual stocking rate is 4.08LU/ha (Pariyar and Shrestha, 1992).
Fodder trees and shrub fodder

Foliage from trees and shrubs is used widely during the dry winter in smallholder farming systems,
specifically in the mid-hills. Trees and shrubs are often the only source of green material of relatively
high protein content used by sedentary farmers to supplement low protein diets based on crop residues.
Their contribution varies with the agro-ecological zone but, in the mid-hills, this ranges from 8-60% of
total fodder supply depending on management. The importance of trees and shrubs as a feed resource
has encouraged research workers to identify those species in use and develop feeding systems that will
improve the contribution of these plants to the livelihood of smallholder farmers. Well over 200 species
have been identified to date in the different agro-ecological zones (Shrestha and Pradhan, 1995). Results
of feeding trials have been encouraging (Shrestha and Pakhrin, 1989), but uptake by farmers has not been
consistent (Joshi and Thapa, 1992) for a variety of reasons. Part of the problem is that the complexities
associated with the use of tree fodder in real farming situations have not always been considered
adequately during the planning and execution of research work. These do not permit the straightforward
introduction of new species into a diverse and fluctuating feed resource base. Furthermore, the multiple
objectives that farmers must balance in planning all of their agricultural activities not only limits the
acceptability of tree species, but may also lead them to specify desirable characteristics that emphasis
gut fill rather than nutritive value.
Common fodder tree species on farm holdings have yielded from 20 - 86kg fresh leaves and twigs/
tree/year, with a dry matter content of between 100 and 600 g/kg (Malla and Fisher, 1997). In this study,
Gogan (Sauraria nepalensis) and Nebharo (Ficus roxburghii) were amongst the highest yielding species.
Pandey (1975) reported an average yield of 70kg/tree/year from 24 species. It is suggested that an average
tree may be expected to produce between 50 and 90kg of fodder in a year, but the highest yielders such
as Ficus lacor may produce as much as 150kg/year. In F. auriculata, yield increased with age. At four
years of age trees yielded a total of 25kg fodder/tree compared to 210kg fodder/tree and 145kg/tree fuel
wood at 25 years of age. Some 40kg of green leaf could be harvested daily through the scarce period of
October to May; enough to meet the nutritional requirements of a lactating buffalo. It should be noted that
the estimates of fodder yields vary depending on the stage of growth and season of cut.
It is clear that fodder yields from trees are highly variable. Amatya and Lindley (1992) found that
the coefficient of variation in yields from species such as Bauhinia purpurea, B. variegata, Ficus
semicordata var. Montana, Guazuma ulmifolia and Ficus glaberrima ranged from 38.6 to 69.7%. The
sources of this variation are diverse. It is reported that trees produce their full fodder-yielding capacity
at between 5 and 10 years of age, depending on species. Other major factors influencing yields include
climate, soil type, lopping regimes and other management practices and their interactions. Amatya and
Lindley (1992), working at lower altitudes in the Terai, observed higher biomass production from Ficus
semicordata in March. On the other hand, F. glaberrima and Guazuma ulmifolia yielded most during
November, and exhibited considerably lower leaf biomass yields during March. However, absolute yield
is not the only factor determining the timing of lopping: many farmers postpone lopping of trees that
retain foliage in a palatable form to the period March to May, as this is the period when fodder supplies
are restricted.
Rapid tree growth is another important selection criterion for farmers. Growth data are not available
for all fodder trees. However, Ficus species have been found to have a higher growth rate than Bauhinia
purpurea and B. variegata. Other species, such as Grewia optiva, have high rates of survival and reach
a height of about 0.5m in one season. Some fodder trees are planted, notably Leucaena leucocephala,
often as hedges or on waste areas.
6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE

RESOURCES
Factors like terrain, scanty vegetation cover, moisture stress, erratic rainfall, extremes of climate, poor
land, low soil fertility, short growing period, rain shadow, constant neglect and an ever increasing animal
and human population have almost destroyed the grasslands. Revegetating depleted grasslands without
correcting the management errors which led to their degradation can aggravate the fragility and this
valuable and enormous ecosystem is likely to be lost forever. Proper management and an integrated
approach can convert the degraded grassland into a potential source of herbage production (Basnet,
1995, Singh, 1996). Since grazing by animals and livestock production are interlinked, grasslands cannot
be considered in isolation. Depending upon the animal management system despite scarcity of feed
from grazing, considerable forage/feed resources are available through cultivated fodder, crop residues
and concentrates. Where livestock depend entirely on grazing (migratory system) in well defined
grasslands only, forage availability is not so encouraging. However, the importance of grassland cannot
be underestimated in a country where it contributes 36% of the total feed.
The use of the grassland is seasonal as the climate governs the growth. In the humid temperate hills
grass only grows in summer when temperature is high and monsoon rain and high radiation regimes
result in rapid pasture growth. In the arid steppe, grass growth is much less and lack of moisture and low
temperatures are major constraints. Issues and constraints related to grassland ecosystem are so diverse
that the answers to them are not so simple despite their greater capabilities and bigger potential impacts.
Opportunities
The sustainability of fragile grasslands involves issues such as the need to restore soil fertility, encourage
regrowth of medicinal herbs and grasses, restore sound ecosystems, provide gainful employment to
farmers and improve the overall environment to make it as productive and beautiful as is depicted a
century ago. Problems of annual burning, overgrazing, thus destroying valuable plant resources can be
dealt with if the policy, management, institutional, technical and socio-economic issues at three sectorial
levels - private, community and public - can be overcome. Specific policy for grassland, livestock and
wildlife production and conservation has to be formulated giving this complex sector a high priority
in all agro-ecological zones. The options for proper programme preparation are presented in Table 35.
Table 35. Analysis of issues and options for range resource development and management
Private
Issues Options
Current status Current status
Highly degraded with very poor quality of livestock in large Improving skills, improving livestock, improving vegetation
numbers.
Poor land allocation Proper land allocation.
Improvement / Development Improvement / Development
Poor education and knowledge. Academic opportunities.
Poor economy / resources availability. Reduce number of livestock, develop appropriate feed resources
as per need.
Considered a poor economic activity. Income generation through resource based animal production
system.
Management Management
Poor knowledge, lack of management technology Improve livestock production efficiency by rotation, top feed and
supplementation, Limit to carrying capacity.
Poor market support Decision support for marketing risk minimization.
Community
Issues Options
Current Status Current Status
Highly degraded, no ones property and excessively used Strict grazing and use systems, managing lean period, forage
supplies and develop fodder banks.
Improvement / Development Improvement / Development
Lack of awareness, lack of leadership and poor community Organization of cooperatives and participatory development
organization. approach.
Lack of leadership/ Community organization. Organization of cooperatives and participatory development
approach.
Lack of priority setting
Watershed-based holistic planning of natural resources
Lack of marketing
Decision support for marketing risk minimization.
Public
Issues Options
Current Status Current Status
Degraded Though they are aware but are unable to take off for such a
gigantic task
Lack of focus by administration / policy makers.
Improvement/ Development Improvement/ Development
Poor resources Treat the area as watershed and then develop area by reseeding /
protecting with grasses, legumes, plant trees.
Lack of policy (Fragmented - on agriculture, forestry and
environment ). Strategic frame - work incorporating all the related sectors.
Ignorance of indigenous knowledge of local pastoralist/ Integrated research development extension and training approach
herders while formulating developing plans. - farmer, researcher and extensionists together.
Development plan lack co-ordination between required Multi - institutional co-ordinated approach along with donor cum
institutions. locally available NGO participation.
Insufficient generation of location specific technologies. Affordable sustainable and simple technology generation.
General development plan for diversified ethnic groups, Specific development plan are in need for varies rearing systems
Ignorance of cultural and religious habitats. and wildlife preservation.
Lack of funds INGO / NGO involvement compulsory
Lack of motivation Special allowance for working staff.
Lack of trained manpower, funds and low priority Optimum internal and external assistance.
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND

PERSONNEL
Research and development Key technical support Current research and

institutions and personnel development priorities
Nepal Agricultural Research Conducts research on pasture/ Range management, On-farm
Council (NARC) fodder and agro-forestry through fodder production, Degraded
Dinesh Pariyar its satellite centres in all agro- land improvement, Soil fertility
< khm@pfrd.wlink.com.np > ecozones. improvement and house hold
income generation.
Department of Livestock Conducts extension activities on Milk production, meat
Services(DLS) various sectors of pasture/fodder production, egg and wool
Nathu Prasad Chaudhary and agro-forestry through its production. Certified seed of
district level offices in all agro- forage species. Dissemination of
ecozones. technologies generated by NARC.
Institute of Agriculture and Conducts research on various To develop the manpower for
Animal Science. sectors of pasture/fodder and research and extension purposes.
Dr. N. R. Devkota agro-forestry to produce M.Sc
and PhD students and Post
Graduates.
Farmers Cooperatives and Participate in research and Help in scaling up production
Groups development activities at farm activities.
level and verifies the findings at
farm level.
Contact persons
Name and address
Dinesh Pariyar, Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC)
N. P. Chaudhary, Department of Livestock Services (DLS)
Kishor Kumar Shrestha, Agriculture Research Station (Pasture) Dunche, Rasuwa
Dr. Nab Raja Devkota, Institute of Agriculture & Animal Science, Ramput, Chitwan
Dr. C. R. Upreti, Animal Nutrition Division, Khumaltar
Dr. Subarna Man Pradhan, Animal Production Specialist
Nhuche Lal Tamrakar, Chief, Agriculture Research Station (Goat), Bandipur
Dina Nath Tiwari, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Nepalgunj
Pulkit Mandal, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Tarahara
Ishori Prasad Acharya,Regional Agricultural Research Station, Lumle
Subhash Shrestha, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Pakhribas
Y. K. Shrestha, Agriculture Research Station (Sheep), Jumla
M. K. Shrestha, Pasture and Fodder Seed Farm, Ranjitpur
S. Yadav, Pasture and Fodder Seed production Farm, Janakpur
Dala Ram Pradhan, Director General, DLS
Dr. Laxman Sherchan, Project Manager, CLDP
R. P. Upreti, Outreach Research Division, Khumaltar
Dr. Jwala Bajracharya, Seed Laboratory, NARC, Khumaltar
G. P. Koirala, Agronomy Division, Khumaltar
Dr. S. L. Joshi, Entomology Division, Khumaltar
Tej Kumar Lama, Plant Pathology Division, Khumaltar
Dr. D. P. Sherchan, Soil Science Division, Khumaltar
8. REFERENCES
Adhikari, K.,2005. Report on Statistical Analysis of Project Activities.Capacity building for fodder oat
technologies in Nepal. Second report (TCP/NEP/2901 (A) April, 2005, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Amatya, S.M. & D.K. Lindley. 1992. Sample size estimation for fodder biomass yields in Nepal. Banko
Janakari, 3 (3): 20-23.
Archer, A. C. 1989. Himalayan Pasture and Fodder Research Network. RAS/ 79/121 Consultants Report.
Kathmandu, Nepal.
Basnet, N. B. 1963. Plan and Accomplishments: Agronomy. Proceedings of the First Agriculture Conference,
Nepal.109-113.May 17-24,Min Bhawan, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Basnet, N.B. 1995. Background paper on present state of Environment with respect to Rangeland
Sustainability -NEPPAP II.
CBS, 1998. A compendium on environmental statistics 1998. Central Bureau of Statistics. Nepal. Kathmandu.
DLS, 2001/02. Annual Progress Report. National Pasture and Animal Nutrition Center, Department of
Livestock Services. Harihar Bhawan, Lalitpur, Nepal.
Elliott, J., 1996. A Study of Farmers Fodder Management Practices in the mid-hills of Nepal. A Preliminary
Report of a Collaborative Research between NAF and Forest Research and Survey Centre. Kathmandu,
Nepal. Forest Research and Survey Centre.
FSR, 1989/90. Farming systems research site, Kotjhari, Nepal. Annual Report.
FSR, 1991/92. Farming systems research site, Kotjhari, Nepal. Annual Report.
Field, D.J. & K.R. Pandey. 1968, Survey and Demonstration for the Management and Development of the
Trishuli Watershed. FAO / UNDP Project Report No. 3.
Hardin, G. 1968 . The Tragedy of the Commons. Science , 162: 12431248.
HLFFDP, 1996. Fodder development on Farms. Working Paper 10. Hills Leasehold Forestry and Forage
Development Project.
Joshi, L. & Thapa, B. 1992. Promoting private tree planting in the eastern hills of Nepal. PAC Technical
Paper, 150. Pakhribas Agricultural Centre, Kathmandu, Nepal.
LAC, 1987. Prabidhi Sangalo, Vol 3 (3).
LRMP, 1986. Land Utilization Report. His Majestys Government of Nepal/Government of Canada. Kenting
Earth Sciences Limited.
LRMP, 1986. Land Utilization Report. His Majestys Government of Nepal/Government of Canada. Kenting
Earth Sciences Limited.
Malla, Y.B. & R.J. Fisher. 1997. Planting trees on private farm-Land in Nepal: the equity aspect. Paper
presented at a workshop on Multipurpose Trees for Small Farm Use, Pattaya, Thailand, 15 November, 1987.
Miller, D. J. 1987. Yaks and Grasses: Pastoralism in the Himalayan countries of Nepal and Bhutan and
Strategies for Sustained Development, University of Montana USA.
MOAC. 2004. Statistical Information on Nepalese Agriculture. His Majestys Government, Ministry of Agriculture
and Cooperatives. Agribusiness Promotion and Statistics Division, Singh Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Morrison, J. 1998. Constraints in fodder and pasture interventions for high altitude pastoral systems. Pages 4-5
in Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the Temperate Asia Pasture and Fodder Network, Pokhara, Nepal.
Nepal Ratra Bank. 1988. National Statistics, 1987/88.
Neopane, S.P. & N.P. Shrestha. 1991. Proceedings of first national animal science convention. Held in
Kathmandu, January 14-15, 1991, Nepal Animal Science Association (NASA), Kathmandu, Nepal.
Panday, K.K., 1975. Importance of fodder trees and tree fodder in Nepal. Zurich, Switzerland. Federal
Institute of Technology. Unpublished diploma thesis.
Pariyar, D., J.M. Suttie & S.G. Reynolds. (eds.) 2005. Proceedings of the Workshop on Fodder Oats,
Fodder Technology Packages and Small Farm Income Generation. Kathmandu, Nepal, 811 March. TCP/
NEP/2901 and Sixth Meeting of the Temperate Asia Pasture and Fodder Network, 197 p.
Pariyar, D. 2004. Fodder oats in Nepal, in Suttie J.M. & S.G. Reynolds (2004) Fodder Oats: a world overview.
Plant Production and Protection Series No. 33. 251p. Rome. ISBN 92-5-105243-3 and ISSN 0259-2525
Pariyar, D. & R.P. Shrestha. 1992. Grazing Land Inventory and Potential Study for Bhumisthan Village
Development Committee, Dhading, Nepal.
Pradhan, S.L. & D.P. Rasali. 1994. Indigenous Animal Genetic Resources of Nepal: Potential for their
Balanced Use Across Ecological Zones. Proceedings of the Third Global Conference on Conservation of
Domestic Animal Genetic Resources .15 August,1994, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
PTSMF, 1985/86. Pasture trial and seed multiplication farm, Janakpur, Nepal. Annual Report.
PTSMF, 1988/89. Pasture trial and seed multiplication farm, Janakpur, Nepal. Annual Report.
Rajbhandary, H.B. & S.G. Shah. 1981. Trends and Projections of Livestock Production in The Hills of
Nepal : A Seminar Paper Presented at Seminar on Nepals Experience in Hill Agricultural Development,
held on 30 March - April 3, 1981, MOA / ADC, Kathmandu.
Sharma, L.P. 1998. High altitude pastoral systems in Nepal. Pages 1-3 in Proceedings of the Third Meeting
of the Temperate Asia Pasture and Fodder Network, Pokhara, Nepal.
Shrestha, H.R. & D.R. Pradhan.1995. Research priorities for animal agriculture by agro-ecological zone
in Nepal. Pages 85-101 in Global Agenda for Livestock Research: Proceedings of the Consultation for the
South Asia Region. 6-8 June, ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya (Devendra, C., and Gardiner, P., eds.) ICRISAT Asia
Centre, Patancheru, India.
Shrestha, N.P. & L.Sherchand. 1988. Role of Livestock in Nepalese Farming Systems. In: Proceedings
of the VI World Conference on Animal Production. World Association of Animal Production , Helsinki,
Finland, pp.24
Singh, Panjab. 1996. Status of Himalayan Rangelands and Their Sustainable Management. Paper for
Regional Expert Meeting on Rangelands and Pastoral Development in the Hindu Kush - Himalayan
Mountain Region, ICIMOD, Nepal.
Stainton, J.B. 1973. Forest of Nepal, John Murray Press, London.
Whyte R.O.1968. Nepal in Grassland of the Monsoon, Faber and Faber, London.
Yonzon, P. B. & M. L. Hunter. 1991. Cheese, Tourists, and Red Pandas in the Nepal Himalayas. Conservation
Biology Vol. 5, No. 2.
9. CONTACTS
For further information on forages in Nepal contact:
Mr. Dinesh Pariyar,
Director, Livestock and Fisheries Research
Nepal Agricultural Research Council
Singh Burbar Plaza
Kathmandu, Nepal.
E-mail: < dilaxmi@yahoo.com>
FAX Number: 977-01-4262500
P.O. Box Number 5459, Kathmandu, Nepal
Dinesh Pariyar
Dinesh Pariyar joined government in 1975 and is still serving after 30 years. He was National Research
Coordinator of the Hills Leasehold Forestry and Forage Development Project (GCP/NEP/049/NET) and
generated 10 technologies which were adopted by development agencies. This was the first time that
technological packages were developed for degraded land and they increased forage production by 33
times and reduced erosion by raising vegetation coverage of the land to 70%. He has developed fodder
research and improved seed availability so that over 110 cultivars of oat, 4 cultivars of dual purpose
maize, 10 cultivars of Stylo including anthracnose resistant ones and over 50 other types of forage
germplasm are available. Through TCP/NEP/2901, he managed to increase the household income of
dairy farmers through the introduction of proper oat cultivars and small-bag silage technology using a
farmer participatory approach. He is National Coordinator for FAOs Temperate Asia Pasture and Fodder
Network. In 2008 he was made Director of Livestock and Fisheries Research in NARC. Mr. Pariyar
has published many research and extension papers and has represented Nepal at meetings in several
countries in the field of pasture, fodder and agroforestry.
Periodic updating of the profile will be undertaken by the author.
[The original profile was prepared by Dinesh Pariyar in 1998 when editing was done by Max Shelton;
a revised profile was prepared by Dinesh Pariyar in September/October 2005 and the profile was edited
by J.M Suttie and S.G. Reynolds in OctoberDecember 2005. Some livestock data were updated by S.G.
Reynolds in November 2006 and personal information about the author in December 2008.]

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY 8

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 15

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 18

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE 31

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE RESOURCES 38

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 40

Figure 1a. Map of Nepal

Figure 1b. The Himalaya-

The livestock sector Table 1. Land use statistics

Common property resources

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Figure 2. Soils of Nepal

Indigenous classification of soil and agricultural land

Table 7. Local khet land (irrigated land) classification

Table 8. Local bari land( rainfed) classification

soils are generally low in phosphorous.

Topography Table 11. Soil consistency classes and scientific equivalents

High Himalayan region. This region

Table 12. Characteristics of physiographic regions of Nepal

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Mountain (> 2500m)

Figure 4. The agro-

Terai (< 500m)

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

production cows produce almost 30% while Source: - MOAC (2004)

the Mountains. Cattle contribute more in Pig 15389 7.40

Livestock management systems

Strategies for fodder production

Major problems associated with feeds and feeding

Integration of livestock into farming systems

Constraints in various sectors and focused interventions initiated

Research and extension programme priorities for improvement of mountain farming

Constraints in various sectors and focused intervention initiated

Table 26. Major cropping patterns in rainfed bari-land in the Hills

Table 28. Major cropping pattern in the bariland of Terai

Table 29. Major cropping pattern in the irrigated land of Terai

Constraints in various sectors and focused intervention initiated

Utilization of the various grassland resources

Vegetation - livestock - wildlife

Livestock market and trading practices

Figure 6. Routes of livestock

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE

Table 32. Plants of different grasslands

(i) Warm temperate grasslands

(ii) Cool temperate grassland

found in the lower elevations of Table 33.Grassland types and productivity

Pasture and fodder crops

Buffalo being fed a mixture of Small-bag silage (c. 6kg) - 2

Farmers with recently harvested fodder oats

Fodder trees and shrub fodder

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND

Research and development Key technical support Current research and

Periodic updating of the profile will be undertaken by the author.

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