Silicon Solar Cells Light In, Electricity Out

By Sebastian O. Manzo

Introduction
The renewable energy industry has experienced rapid growth in recent years due to the
worrying effects of climate change and the possibility of fossil fuel scarcity in the future. Solar
energy is one of the most discussed options when it comes to providing clean energy; however,
there are still many obstacles that have to be overcome before it is a viable fossil fuel replacement.
It is a multi-disciplinary problem that will involve professionals from different backgrounds.
Consequently, it is important for engineers, scientists and even those in business, to understand
the fundamentals of how solar energy is converted into electrical energy. The most common solar
cells today are made with silicon; therefore, the following description will focus on how silicon
solar cells function. Although they consist of a multitude of parts, the components responsible for
generating electrical energy from sunlight are the following: the atomic structure of silicon, the
semiconducting properties of pure and doped silicon, and the PN-junction.

The Silicon Atom

The atom is the fundamental building block of matter. It consists of a small densely-packed
positive core called the nucleus, which contains positively charged particles called protons and
neutral (no net charge) particles called neutrons. The nucleus is surrounded by negatively
charged particles called electrons, which are responsible for chemical bonding, acting as the glue
that holds atoms together. Every atom has a characteristic number of protons in its nucleus, and
for every proton there is an equal number of electrons. As a result, the atom is electrically neutral.
Electrons surround the atom like a gas, with their positions and velocities constantly
changing. In fact, according to quantum mechanics, the position and momentum of a particle are
not precisely defined. For small systems, like the atom, only the average position and momentum
can be found. As a result, there is always a certain uncertainty when describing the behavior of
the electron, which is why the equation describing electron motion is based on probability.
Electrons are arranged in orbitals, which can be thought of as shells of distinct shapes and sizes
that surround the nucleus. The shell furthest away from the nucleus is known as the valance shell.
The electrons in this shell are known as valence electrons and are responsible for bonding. Only
a specific number of electrons are allowed to occupy an orbital, since each orbital is associated
with a specific amount of energy. Electrons have discrete energy levels that they are associated
with. At equilibrium, the electron will find itself in its lowest-energy state, known as the ground
state. Excitation occurs when an electron absorbs enough energy to jump to higher energy levels,
thus going to an excited state. This jump is associated with the release of energy in the form of
an electron or photon.
Silicon has 14 electrons, with four of them being valence electrons, meaning that they can
be shared with other atoms. A large number of silicon atoms can bond together through these
valence electrons, eventually forming a large ordered network of repeating structures. This type
of bonding is called covalent bonding. The network is called a crystal lattice, and the repeating
units that form the lattice are called unit cells. Each silicon unit cell is tetrahedrally coordinated,
meaning that a central silicon atom in the unit cell shares an electron with four other silicon
neighbors (tetra four).
 2 1

3 4

Unit cell of silicon crystal lattice [1] Quantum model of the atom showing some
orbitals (electron shells) [2]

The Semiconducting Properties of Silicon

Conductors are materials that exhibit high electrical conductivity, like gold or copper.
Insulators, on the other hand, have a high electrical resistance, like paper or most plastics.
Materials that have four electrons in their outermost shell have higher electrical resistance than
conductors, but are more conductive than insulators. These materials are known as
semiconductors. The most industrially important semiconductor is silicon, being widely used in
the electronics and energy industry.
When thermal energy is absorbed by a material, the bonds will start vibrating and twisting.
If enough thermal energy is supplied to silicon, a covalent bond might break because of these
vibrations. When the bond is broken, there will be a free electron that isnt bound to any other
atom. Consequently, it can move freely throughout the lattice, leaving a hole in its original
position. The silicon unit cell is expecting a negative electronic charge, but there is none, so the
hole will be positively charged. When an electric field is applied, another free electron can travel
and fill the hole. However, that electron must have come from somewhere, so another hole is
produced. The movement of holes and free electrons is what causes semi-conductors to be
slightly conductive.
It is also possible to introduce a foreign substance into a pure semiconductor like silicon
to change its electronic properties. This process is known as doping. One can introduce a material
that has five valance electrons into silicons unit cell. Since silicon has four valence electrons, and
the impurity has five, there will be a free phosphorus electron that is unbound. This type of doped
semiconductor is known as an n-type semiconductor. P-type semiconductors are doped with
substances that have three valence electrons, which leads to the presence of a hole in the
structure. If enough impurities are added into the material, the conductivity can increase
drastically. It is important to note, however, that adding dopants does not introduce charge
imbalances in the silicon lattice. In other words, for every free electron, there will be a positively
charged atom left behind. Alternatively, when a hole moves because it is filled by a neighboring
electron, a negatively charged atom will be left behind (the negatively charged electron will
replace the positive hole).

Figure showing how free electrons and holes are produced by adding Phosphorus or Boron as
dopants to pure silicon [3]

The PN-Junction
Light is made up of wave-packets (a burst of wave action) that carry a certain amount of
energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation (e.g. X-rays, visible light, microwaves, etc.). These
wave-packets are known as photons. When a photon with sufficient energy is absorbed by silicon
(the energy is dependent on the wavelength) an electron will become unbound from the covalent
bond as it is promoted from its ground state to a higher energy level, thus becoming a free
electron. This process occurs quickly and frequently, producing many free electrons and holes
that are constantly moving throughout the lattice. However, this random motion of electrons and
holes is not enough to produce an electric current. An electronic potential (a voltage) is needed
to direct them.
The dopants in silicon can produce a potential leading to current generation by having a
so called PN-junction. This junction is simply a division between an n-type and p-type
semiconductor. Since opposites attract, the free electrons in the n-type semiconductor will cross
the junction and fill the positive holes in the p-type semiconductor and vice versa. When this
happens, a charge imbalance in the two semi-conductors is created. Originally, the n-type and p-
type semiconductors were neutral in charge, since there were as many electrons (/holes) as
positively (/negatively) charged atoms. Yet, when the electrons from the n-type travel to the p-
type, the p-type will have an excess of electrons, while the n-type will have an excess of holes.
These excesses cause fixed chargers on both sides of the junction. When photons with enough
energy are absorbed in the doped silicon, bonds will be broken and electrons will become
unbound, thereby causing free electrons and holes to exist. They wont just move in random
directions like in pure silicon though. Instead, they will be directed by the potential barrier created
by the PN-junction. The free electrons will then travel towards the n-type, while the holes travel
towards the p-type. This flow of charge is electrical current, which can then be expanded with a
circuit. In other words, energy from the sun has successfully been converted to useful electrical
energy.

Schematic showing how a PN-junction creates a potential,

and in-turn, an electrical current.

Figure sources:
1
https://markforeman.files.wordpress.com/2013/10/sillicon.png
2
https://scienceconceptions.wikispaces.com/Orbiting+Electrons
3
http://c125.chem.ucla.edu/BandGap.html