Psychology and Aging Copyright 1990 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.

1990, Vol. 5, No. 1,58-67 0882-7974/90/$00.75

Tenacious Goal Pursuit and Rexible Goal Adjustment:

Explication and Age-Related Analysis of Assimilative
and Accommodative Strategies of Coping
Jochen Brandtstadter and Gerolf Renner
University of Trier
Trier, Federal Republic of Germany

Crises and critical life transitions activate 2 distinct but complementary modes of coping, (a) trans-
forming developmental circumstances in accordance with personal preferences (assimilative ten-
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dency) and (b) adjusting personal preferences to situational constraints (accommodative tendency).
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Assimilative and accommodative tendencies were measured by a questionnaire comprising 2 inde-

pendent scales (Tenacious Goal Pursuit and Flexible Goal Adjustment). Both scales predict high life
satisfaction and low depression and are positively related to generalized internal control beliefs. The
scales evinced an opposite relation to age: Cross-sectional analyses on a sample of 890 Ss in the age
range from 34 to 63 years revealed a gradual shift from an assimilative to an accommodative mode
of coping. Implications for theories of depression and successful aging are discussed.

Developmental change involves gains and losses in different
functional and life domains. Efforts to keep this balance favor-
able represent an essential aspect of human action and an im-
portant momentum of personal development over the life span
(cf. Baltes, 1987; Brandtstadter, 1986). Attempts to avoid or
correct developmental problems through deliberate readjust-
ments of behavior or life-style may, of course, prove unavailing.
Problems defying intentional modification often can be over-
come only by more or less radical revisions of personal prefer-
ences and life designs. Thus, we distinguish two alternative
strategies or processes of optimizing the balance of gains and
losses in personal development: On the one hand, discrepancies
between the actual and the desired course of development can
be eliminated by actively adjusting developmental and life cir-
cumstances to personal preferences. On the other hand, these
discrepancies may be removed by adopting the opposite strategy
of adjusting personal preferences and goal orientations to given
situational forces and constraints. We have designated these two
basic processes as assimilative coping and accommodative cop-
ing, respectively (Brandtstadter, 1989; Brandtstadter & Baltes-
Gotz, in press).1 The accommodative mode of coping should be
considered as a neutralization rather than as an active solution
of the problem. In this mode, the structure of individual cogni-
tions and valuations is modified to make the given situation ap-
pear less negative or more acceptable. Such accommodation of
preferences may account for the well-known paradoxes in re-
search on life satisfaction, that is, the phenomenon of high satis-
faction under circumstances of living that are commonly re-
garded as highly aversive (cf. Hofstatter, 1986). This theoretical
point of view may also contribute to a better understanding of
the conditions and processes that help individuals maintain
positive developmental perspectives in later phases of life, when
irrevocable losses and uncontrollable events cumulate.
Assimilative and accommodative modes of coping are not
mutually exclusive but may operate simultaneously in concrete
situations. However, we expect that in the initial stage of a cop-
ing episode, assimilative tendencies dominate (unless the situa-
tion appears unalterable from the start). Accommodative tend-
encies, on the other hand, should be activated to the extent that
active, assimilative attempts to change the situation become in-
effective.
In this article, we begin by elaborating the theoretical back-
ground for these distinctions. Next, we briefly describe the con-
struction of the questionnaire used to assess assimilative and
accommodative strategies on a dispositional level. Finally, we
present findings from a larger panel study that bear on age-re-
lated changes in these modes of coping, as well as on their rela-
tionships to subjective appraisals of personal development.
Theoretical Background
Both accommodative and assimilative coping processes aim
at eliminating discrepancies between actual life perspectives
and salient concerns of personal development, which typically
occur in aversive life situations and especially in later phases of
life, when individuals tend to experience an increasingly unfa-
vorable balance of developmental gains and losses (cf. Brandt-

This study was supported by a research grant from the German Re-
search Foundation (DFG) to Jochen Brandtstadter.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Jochen Brandtstadter, Fachbereich IPsychologic, Universita't Trier,
Postfach 3825, D-5500 Trier, Federal Republic of Germany.
1
To prevent misunderstanding, we emphasize that the concepts of
assimilation and accommodation are discussed in this article in a ge-
neric sense, without implying meanings that these terms may have in
other (e.g., Piagetian) theoretical contexts.

58
 ASSIMILATIVE AND ACCOMMODATIVE STRATEGIES
stadter, Krampen, & Heil, 1986; Heckhausen, Dixon, & Baltes,
1989). In Figure 1, both modes of coping have been integrated
into a general model of personal self-regulation of development.
The model delineates typical patterns of cognitive appraisals,
control beliefs, and emotions that induce, moderate, or accom-
pany assimilative and accommodative modes of coping (cf.
Brandtstadter, 1986,1989).
Assimilative Phase
Components 1-10 of the model depict different cognitive,
evaluative, and behavioral elements involved in assimilative
control activities, as well as associated emotional reactions.
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These control activities are induced by a self-monitoring pro-
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cess in which the individual evaluates his or her current or antic-
ipated life situation with reference to personal plans, develop-
mental goals, or life designs (1 and 2). If this appraisal signals a
satisfying state of affairs (+), the tendency to change established
behavioral patterns or ways of living is low (3). Of special inter-
est, however, is the case in which actual life perspectives are neg-
atively evaluated (). A negative evaluation induces a motiva-
tional tendency to alter the situation, the execution of which,
however, critically depends on subjectively available instrumen-
tal resources and control capacities (4 and 5); the branching
points in the graph delineate alternative sequences of action. If
personal resources and capabilities are considered sufficient (+)
to cope with the problem, corrective actions (e.g., changes in
personal behavior or life-style) are prepared and tentatively exe-
cuted (6). The implementation of behavioral goals formed dur-
ing the preparatory stages of such self-corrective actions may
involve heuristic processes on different levels of planning; in
this case, our model simplifies (cf. Carver & Scheier, 1981). If,
however, personal resources are considered insufficient to solve
the problem (5, -), the person may first try to improve the
chances to succeed by searching for information, acquiring new
skills, etc. (7 and 8). Activation of such exploratory and compe-
tence-building tendencies in the context of crises and critical
life events characteristically occurs when the initially perceived
lack of instrumental resources is seen not as stable or unalter-
able but as open to change (7, +). If this condition does not (or,
after repeated ineffective attempts, does no longer) hold (-), the
individual may eventually attempt to manage the situation by
using external help (9 and 10; cf. the concept of "proxy control,"
Bandura, 1977).
Accommodative Phase
According to the model, accommodative tendencies (see Fig-
ure 1, Components 11, 12, and 13) are induced to the extent
that assimilative problem-solving attempts on the different lev-
els described above are seen as, or have become, ineffective in
improving the person's situation and developmental perspec-
tives (7, -), that is, when assimilative tendencies and prior con-
trol beliefs backing them have been sufficiently weakened. Emo-
tions of hopelessness, resignation, and depression characterize
an intermediate stage of disorganization and disorientation
(11). The duration of this phase depends on the importance of
the blocked goal perspectives with regard to the person's basic
59
life themes and value orientations. The phase of depression and
disorientation is terminated by disengaging from barren goals
and building up new action orientations and perspectives for
personal development (12 and 13). Such accommodative reori-
entations may include adjustments of aspiration level, revision
of value priorities and evaluative standards, neutralization of
aversive evaluations by selectively focusing on specific conse-
quences, and cognitive reappraisals that aim at the construction
of meaning (cf. Campbell, Converse, & Rodgers, 1976; Pearlin,
1980; Thompson, 1985). Eventually, such processes may lead
to radical changes in a person's system of beliefs about him- or
herself and the world, changes comparable to a revolutionary
paradigm shift in the domain of scientific theories (cf. Break-
well, 1986; Taylor, 1983).
To put our formulation into a broader perspective, note that
the antagonism between active-offensive and complacent-ac-
cepting modes of coping with life problems is a traditional topic
in philosophical anthropology (cf. the distinction between
offensive and defensive conceptions of happiness, Tatarkiewicz,
1984). The problem of achieving an adequate balance between
these contrasting attitudes has been addressed as a key problem
in various philosophical conceptions of wisdom and optimal liv-
ing (cf. Kamlah, 1973; Schopenhauer, 1851). Conceptually re-
lated constructs also appear in psychological formulations of
the coping process; for example, the distinctions between pri-
mary and secondary control (Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder,
1982), between problem-focused and emotion-focused coping
(Lazarus & Golden, 1981; Lazarus & Launier, 1978; Moos &
Billings, 1982), and between active and passive mastery (Neu-
garten, 1973). Our position converges with these formulations
in the assumption that a sense of personal efficacy and a satisfy-
ing developmental perspective may be enhanced not only by ac-
tive, instrumental efforts at control but also by the adaptation
of personal preferences and life designs to situational con-
straints (cf. Elster, 1983). Instrumental efforts at control, how-
ever, should not be confounded with reactive processes that do
not involve personal agency. The constructs of primary versus
secondary control or of problem-focused versus emotion-fo-
cused coping partly cut across these categories. In our formula-
tion, the notions of control and personal agency primarily apply
to assimilative coping strategies. Accommodative changes in be-
liefs or preferences, by contrast, can hardly be considered as
reasoned actions or as a deliberately chosen strategy; gener-
ally, such changes simply happen to people. The common moti-
vational background of assimilative and accommodative pro-
cesses is not an overarching need to maintain control, but rather
a tendency to achieve consistency between actual and intended
courses of personal development.
Some implications for a theory of depression should be
briefly considered because they bear on issues of well-being and
successful aging (see also Brandtstadter & Baltes-Gotz, in
press). According to our formulation, the duration and severity
of depressive episodes depend not only on insidious attribu-
tional styles and control beliefs, as explicated in the learned
helplessness approach (e.g., Peterson & Seligman, 1984), but
just as much on the individual's readiness or capability to revise
and readjust personal preferences. This assumption converges
with observations by Coyne, Aldwin, and Lazarus (1981) indi-
 60 JOCHEN BRANDTSTADTER AND GEROLF RENNER

Evaluation
of personal Is developmental Static orientation.
developmental situation low corrective
prospects satisfactory ? tendency
and conditions

(DISAPPOINTMENT^
ANNOYANCE

Appraisal
of potentials and
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limitations for
corrective action
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Development-related
Is personal Enhancement of
change efforts
(planning, control potential personal control
executive control) sufficient ? potential

Is improvement
of personal
control potential
possible ?

Involvement Are external

of external supports and
support systems resources
(proxy control) available ?

Restabllization, Accommodative
formation of Disorganization,
reappraisal, search identity crisis,
new developmental for meaning. Identity
perspectives dlsorientation
transformation

Figure 1. Assimilative and accommodative phases of coping, as related to cognitive and emotional appraisals
of personal development (from Brandtstadter, 1989). (See text for further explanations; components are
numbered for reference in text.)
 ASSIMILATIVE AND ACCOMMODATIVE STRATEGIES
eating that depressed persons view fewer events as necessitating
acceptance and accommodation. A strong sense of personal
control and efficacy may in fact reduce the individual's readi-
ness to adjust preferences and revise goal perspectives and thus
may even aggravate depressive problems in cases in which the
individual is faced with uncontrollable events (cf. Janoff-Bul-
man & Brickman, 1982; Perloff, 1987; Rotter, 1975). These as-
sumptions and findings do not easily fit with theoretical ac-
counts of depression that primarily center on perceived control
and learned helplessness, but they are consistent with an ex-
tended dual-process conception of coping as proposed herein.
Our focus so far has been on functional interdependencies
between assimilative and accommodative processes in actual
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episodes of coping. Which of these processes predominates in
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concrete episodes of coping or at which point in the coping pro-
cess active, assimilative efforts are relinquished and accommo-
dative changes in personal preferences and beliefs are induced
should depend on situational parameters, such as perceived
controllability and personal valence of the critical events, as well
as on generalized behavioral tendencies that reflect differences
in prior learning history, competence, and personality traits. As
will be shown later, assimilative and accommodative tendencies
can be assessed as habitualized styles or tendencies of coping on
a dispositional level.
Construction of Scales
On the basis of the theoretical premises outlined earlier, we
developed a questionnaire to assess assimilative and accommo-
dative tendencies on a dispositional level. In this section, we
briefly describe the construction of the scales, as well as their
psychometric properties and relationships to conceptually re-
lated scales.
In generating the item pool for a starting version, we consid-
ered different facets of accommodative processes related to dis-
engagement, reorientation, and acceptance (e.g., palliative com-
parisons, selective focusing on favorable effects, construction of
meaning, compromising and rescaling of aspiration levels, and
flexible disengagement from blocked goals). For discriminative
purposes, other items were included that referred to assimila-
tive tendencies (e.g., maintaining a chosen course of action even
under difficulty, increasing the valence of blocked goal perspec-
tives). Originally, 73 items were formulated and administered
in a preliminary study with a sample of 97 women and 109 men
(age, M = 34.4 years, SD = 15.2 years; range = 18-81 years).
To investigate convergent and discriminant aspects of validity,
the following reference variables were included in this pilot
study: (a) the Life Orientation Test, which is used to assess opti-
mistic attitudes toward life (Scheier & Carver, 1985); (b) a Ger-
man adaptation of Levenson's (1972) scales of generalized con-
trol beliefs (internality, powerful others, and chance control
[IPC] scales, Krampen, 1981); (c) a scale to measure life satis-
faction, comprising a selection of items from scales developed
by Wiendieck (1970) and by Lohr and Walter (1974); (d) a scale
to assess Type A patterns of behavior, comprising a selection of
items from the Jenkins Activity Survey (Jenkins, Zyzanski, &
Rosenman, 1971); (e) a subscale denoted Action Orientation
After Failure, from the Action-Control Scale developed by Kuhl
61
(1985); (0 a depression index, which was derived from self-rat-
ings on selected adjective scales (see Brandtstadter & Baltes-
Gotz, in press); and (g) the depression scale of the Freiburger
Personlichkeitsinventar (Freiburg Personality Inventory, FPI,
short version; Fahrenberg, Hampel, & Selg, 1973).
In exploratory factor analyses of the starting version, two ho-
mogeneous groups of items emerged that closely corresponded
to our theoretical intentions (Brandtstadter & Renner, 1988).
One group of items indicated a tendency to tenaciously pursue
goals even in the face of obstacles and under high risk of failure
(or, at the opposite pole, the tendency to give up readily). Ac-
cording to our formulation, this tendency corresponds to an as-
similative mode of coping or control. A second group of items
indicated a tendency to positively reinterpret initially aversive
situations and to relinquish blocked goal perspectives easily (or,
at the opposite pole, difficulty or reluctance in withdrawing
emotionally from barren commitments). This tendency obvi-
ously corresponds to an accommodative style. From both
groups of items, two scales were compiled, each consisting of
15 items that were selected on the basis of internal consistency
considerations: Tenacious Goal Pursuit and Flexible Goal Ad-
justment.2 The internal consistency of both scales was found
to be satisfactory (flexibility, Cronbach's a = .83, item-total
correlations ranged from .35 to .60; tenacity, Cronbach's a =
.80, item-total correlations ranged from .30 to .59). Flexibility
and tenacity have low variance overlap. The pattern of corre-
lations with the reference variables that were included in this
preliminary study are shown in Table 1.
In spite of the fact that tenacity and flexibility are nearly inde-
pendent, both scales showed significant negative correlations
with both indexes of depression and positive correlations with
life satisfaction and optimism. This correlational pattern is con-
sistent with the coping theoretical interpretation of these scales.
However, optimistic and positive attitudes toward life (as mea-
sured by the Life Orientation Test) are more closely related to
flexibility than to tenacity. In contrast, tenacity is more closely
related to the IPC scales of generalized control beliefs. Further-
more, both scales are positively correlated with action orienta-
tion after failure, with flexibility apparently having more over-
lap with the action orientation scale.
Given the convergent correlational behavior of flexibility and
tenacity with regard to reference measures of depression, well-
being, and perceived control, it is remarkable that the two scales
showed clearly opposite regressions on the age variable (flexi-
bility, r = .34, p < .01; tenacity, r = -. 18, p < .01; the difference
between these correlation coefficients was significant, p< .001).
2
Examples of Tenacious Goal Pursuit Scale items: "The harder a goal
is to achieve, the more desirable it often appeals to me," "I can be very
obstinate in pursuing my goals," "Even if everything seems hopeless, I
still look for a way to master the situation," and "If I run into problems,
I usually double my efforts." Examples of Flexible Goal Adjustment
Scale items: "In general, I am not upset very long about an opportunity
passed up," "I can adapt quite easily to changes in a situation," "After
a serious disappointment, I soon turn to new tasks," "I usually recog-
nize quite easily my own limitations," and "Even if everything goes
wrong, I still can find something positive about the situation." The origi-
nal version of the scales can be obtained from us on request.
 62 JOCHEN BRANDTSTADTER AND GEROLF RENNER

From a developmental point of view, this is an intriguing result,

clearly suggesting an age-related shift from active and tenacious
rr to a more accepting, accommodative mode of coping. In the
following section, we provide some theoretical arguments in fa-
$^oofir~r<io,^<N<sooo
$* $ : $ vor of this assumption and present some corroborating research
f>' O O < N O < N O O results from a larger, panel study covering the age range from
'i rr 'r middle to later adulthood.

i $ f .! . Age Differences in Coping Strategies^From Tenacious

8 2 2 **
Goal Pursuit to Flexible Goal Adjustment
There is only sparse and inconclusive evidence about whether
and how strategies of coping and control change with age (cf.
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Fblkman, Lazarus, Pimley, & Novacek, 1987; Lazarus &

r r ' -r
) CN ^ O >
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DeLongis, 1983; McCrae, 1982; Saup, 1987). Nevertheless,

there are some vantage points for approaching this issue from
s:. 11 s a life-span developmental perspective. Several studies indicate
that elderly people to a greater degree than younger people per-
ceive their development as heteronomously controlled, that is,
as being dependent on factors they are unable to influence, al-
S . S S 8 S though a sense of personal control may be maintained (cf.
-r t- tr^ ^ os m oo
C*-
* p cs rn Brandtstadter, Krampen, & Baltes-Gotz, 1989; Lachman,
r i' f ' ' r ' 1986; Rodin, 1987). These findings converge with the com-
monly accepted view that uncontrollable and aversive events
*rs f >r>: \o* m. oo$ and life transitions cumulate in later stages of life (cf. Seligman
& Elder, 1986). On the other hand, research on life satisfaction
i
p ts r has not revealed any general or consistent age-related change
(for a review, see Diener, 1984, and Larson, 1978). We assume
$ $$$ . that these various pieces of evidence can be brought into a co-
jqS herent picture by assuming a gradual shift from assimilative-
rr offensive to accommodative coping strategies in middle and
later adulthood.
These considerations lend theoretical substance to the sig-
nificantly opposite regressions of tenacity and flexibility on age
that were observed in the preliminary study (Table 1). To cor-
roborate this result on a broader statistical basis, we included
.:, the scales in the third wave of a larger research project centering
fi t** en
on personal self-regulation of development in adulthood. In this
rrr project, perceptions, emotional evaluations, and control beliefs
related to different facets and goal dimensions of personal devel-
opment were assessed by a broad array of variables (for details
of the research approach and theoretical rationale, see also
Brandtstadter, 1989, and Brandtstadter et al., 1986). Partici-
pants were recruited from an urban area in southwestern Ger-
many via the local bureau of population statistics. The sampling
procedure corresponded to a cross-sequential design that com-
bines cross-sectional and longitudinal comparisons (e.g.,
Schaie, 1977). More than 1,200 subjects (married couples) were
sampled over the age range from 30 to 60 years within five age
cohorts. Because the age range spanned by the study covers the
critical life transitions from early to late middle age, it seemed
broad enough to reflect long-term developmental change in
adulthood. For the third wave (1987), from which these data
were obtained, age ranges and numbers of subjects within age
cohorts were as follows: Cohort 1, 34-39 years (n = 167); Co-
hort 2,40-45 years (n = 160); Cohort 3,46-51 years (n = 196);
Cohort 4, 52-57 years (n = 186); and Cohort 5, 58-63 years
1& (n = 181). According to educational level and income, most
 ASSIMILATIVE AND ACCOMMODATIVE STRATEGIES
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9 spect to the past 3 years of life) was assessed on bipolar 17-point
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<f
Cohl Coh2 Coh3 Coh4 CohS
34-39 40-45 46-51 52-57 58-63
Figure 2. Tenacious goal pursuit by age and sex (solid circles = female;
open circles = male). (Age ranges for cohorts [Coh] refer to 1987 occa-
sion.)
subjects belonged to the middle class. The subjects participated
on a voluntary basis, and respondents were paid. Because
married couples were recruited for participation, the gender
variable was approximately equally distributed within co-
horts. For the total sample, the intradyadic (or intraclass) cor-
relations for the target variables tenacity and flexibility were
nonsignificant (tenacity, r-K = .03; flexibility, ric = .09), which
indicates the absence of homogamy effects with regard to these
variables.
The cross-sectional results for tenacity and flexibility ob-
tained from the third wave (1987) confirmed our expectation
that the two constructs have opposite developmental gradients
within the age range studied. For tenacity, a nonorthogonal 5 X
2 (Cohort X Sex) analysis of variance yielded significant main
effects for cohort, F(4,865) = 2.92, p < .05, and sex, F( 1,865) =
14.91, p < .01. With flexibility as the dependent variable, the
effect related to cohort again was significant, F(4, 862) = 6.09,
p < .01, whereas sex differences did not reach significance. The
gradients are shown in Figures 2 and 3 (the linear correlations
with age were r = -.14, p < .01, for tenacity and r = .14, p <
.01, for flexibility; the difference was significant at the .01 level).
In this larger study, tenacity and flexibility were found again
to correlate negatively with depressive tendencies as assessed by
self-ratings and questionnaire measures of depression (flexibil-
ity and depression index, r = -.33, p< .01; flexibility and FPI-
depression, r = -.32, p < .01; tenacity and depression index,
r - -.25, p < .01; tenacity and FPI-depression, r = -.29, p <
.01) and positively with life satisfaction (flexibility and life satis-
faction, r = .37, p < .01; tenacity and life satisfaction, r = .29,
p < .01). However, the scales differed significantly in their rela-
tion to perceived marital quality as measured by the Dyadic
Adjustment Scale (Spanier, 1976): flexibility, r = .35, p < .01;
tenacity, r= .13,/><.01.
63
Perceptions of Personal Development as a Function of
Flexible Goal Adjustment and Tenacious Goal Pursuit
A further complex of findings from the larger panel study de-
scribed earlier highlights some interesting relationships of te-
nacity and flexibility with subjective appraisals of personal de-
velopment. As part of the general assessment procedure, sub-
jects were asked to rate the perceived distance from, as well as
the perceived change toward, 17 personally valued developmen-
tal goals (Table 2; these ratings were also obtained on two earlier
occasions of measurement, in 1983 and 1985). Perceived goal
distance was rated on 9-point, Likert-type scales. Retrospec-
tively perceived change toward developmental goals (with re-
scales. As an indirect measure of perceived change toward goals,
we also considered intraindividual changes in distance ratings
over the 4-year interval between the first (1983) and third (1987)
occasions of measurement (change scores were adjusted for au-
toregressive effects by partialling first from last measurements;
cf. Cohen & Cohen, 1983). Table 2 summarizes the findings.
For the third occasion of measurement, flexibility and tenacity
correlated negatively with perceived goal distance; that is, indi-
viduals scoring high on these scales reported lower developmen-
tal deficits. Furthermore, flexibility and tenacity were associ-
ated with perceived developmental gains, as assessed by retro-
spective ratings and residualized longitudinal changes in
perceived goal distance. For some of the goal dimensions con-
sidered (empathy, harmonious partnership, and friendship),
these relationships appeared to be more pronounced for flexi-
bility than for tenacity. Interestingly, retrospectively perceived
developmental gains were generally more closely associated
with flexibility than with tenacity in the retrospective mode
(differences between respective coefficients were significant,
withp < .05 for 10 of 17 developmental goal dimensions).
The negative relation of tenacity and flexibility to perceived
57
51
$
Cf
Cohl Coh 2 CohS Coh 4 CohS
34-39 40-45 46-51 52-57 58-63
Figure 3. Flexible goal adjustment by age and sex (solid circles = female;
open circles = male). (Age ranges for cohorts [Coh] refer to 1987 occa-
sion.)
 64 JOCHEN BRANDTSTADTER AND GEROLF RENNER

Table 2
Correlations of Flexible Goal Adjustment and Tenacious Goal Pursuit With Perceived Distance
From, and Change Toward, Developmental Goals
Flexible goal adjustment Tenacious goal pursuit

Distance Increase of Change Distance Increase of Change

Developmental goal from goal" distance1" toward goal0 from goal distance toward goal

Health -.10** -.08* .16** -.12** -.08* .11**

Emotional stability -.29** -.26** .34** -.21** -.19** .12**
Wisdom -.16** -.16** .32** -.11** -.10** .16**
Self-esteem -.15** -.15** .30** -.18** -.15** .20**
Social recognition -.07** -.05 .26** -.16** -.14** .18**
Occupational efficiency -.08* -.04 .17** -.20** -.21** .16**
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Assertiveness -.10** -.10** .26** -.27** -.21** .26**

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Harmonious partnership -.19** -.17** .30** -.10** -.08* .07*

Empathy -.20** -.19** .32** -.05 -.02 .07*
Personal independence -.11** -.10** .26** -.12** -.08* .10**
Family security -.09** -.09** .22** -.07* -.04 .08*
Prosperity -.03 -.03 .15** -.19** -.17** .15*
Intellectual efficiency -.11** -.07* .26** -.21** -.18** .22*
Self-development -.20** -.18** .29** -.22** -.19** .21*
Physical fitness -.11** -.07* .22** -.16** -.15** .13*
Satisfying friendship -.16** -.15** .29** -.08* -.15** .12*
Commitment to ideals -.13** -.11** .19** -.07* -.05 .10**

Note. N = 779-899 (pairwise deletion of missing data).

1
Ratings of actual distance from developmental goal. b Residualized change in distance ratings within a longitudinal interval of 4 years (1983-
1987). c Retrospectively perceived developmental change toward developmental goal.
*p<.Q5. **p<.01.

developmental deficits (Table 2) may account for the reported
positive association of these scales with various indicators of
subjective well-being (life satisfaction and low depression). Ac-
cording to our theoretical model, emotional strain resulting
from perceived developmental losses and deficits should be alle-
viated by accommodative processes of coping as measured by
the Flexible Goal Adjustment. For a further test of this assump-
tion, we considered the relationship between perceived distance
from developmental goals and goal-specific ratings of satisfac-
tion with personal development (which were assessed together
with distance ratings on the same scaling format). Not surpris-
ingly, this relationship was found to be consistently negative (the
average correlation for 17 goals was -.43). We hypothesized
that the supposed palliative function of flexibility should mani-
fest itself in a moderating effect on this relationship; more spe-
cifically, the negative regression of satisfaction ratings on per-
ceived goal distance should be less pronounced or even vanish
for higher levels of flexibility. This effect was evaluated in a hier-
archical regression format, in which the variables of perceived
distance and flexible goal adjustment were entered first into the
multiple regression function (with satisfaction ratings as the de-
pendent variable), followed by the interaction term (Distance X
Flexibility) on the second step (cf. Cohen & Cohen, 1983).
For seven goal dimensions (social recognition, occupational
efficiency, harmonious partnership, empathy, family security,
prosperity, and self-esteem), the predicted moderation effect
reached significance. Figure 4 shows the results for family secu-
rity, Fchange(3,813) = 4.64, p < .05; social recognition, jFCtange(3,
813) = 5.21, p < .05; occupational efficiency, Fctonge(3, 813) =
4.61, p < .05; and prosperity, Fctanisl(3,813) = 13.06, p < .001.
The plotted functions for these goals relate the conditional re-
gressions of satisfaction on distance ratings (b^) to given values
of the moderator variable (flexible goal adjustment). Modera-
tion effects for the other goals were almost identical but were
not plotted, in the interest of graphic clarity.
In sum, persons scoring high on flexible goal adjustment not
only report lower developmental deficits but also seem less vul-
nerable to dissatisfaction and emotional strain, which may ac-
company such deficits. As we have shown elsewhere (Brandt-
stadter, 1989; cf. Heckhausen et al., 1989), perceived develop-
mental deficits tend to increase through middle and later
adulthood. The data presented in this study indicate that ac-
commodative modes of coping, as measured by flexible goal ad-
justment, may help to maintain a positive and optimistic atti-
tude toward life despite such adverse changes.
Discussion
We have advanced the proposition that crises and problems
of personal development activate two processes of coping,
termed assimilative tendency (adjusting developmental situa-
tions to personal preferences) and accommodative tendency (ad-
justing personal preferences to situational constraints). These
processes are considered as distinct but interrelated strategies
for achieving consistency between actual and desired develop-
mental options and thus for maintaining a satisfying perspective
on personal development. This formulation has implications for
understanding depressive reactions that often accompany the
experience of irreversible changes and developmental losses in
middle and later adulthood. More specifically, we assume that
 ASSIMILATIVE AND ACCOMMODATIVE STRATEGIES
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
Flexible Goal Adjustment
(standard deviation units)
Figure 4. Moderating effect of flexible goal adjustment on the regression
of satisfaction on perceived goal distance, for different developmental
goals (1 = family security, 2 = social recognition, 3 = occupational
efficiency, 4 = prosperity). (The plotted functions relate the conditional
regression weights ba [FLEX = x] to chosen values of the moderator
variable.)
onset, duration, and severity of depressive episodes depend not
only on the degree of perceived control over personally impor-
tant developmental domains (as postulated by learned helpless-
ness theories) but as well on the ability or willingness to disen-
gage from unfeasible goals and to build up new commitments
and developmental perspectives (cf. Klinger, 1975, 1977). The
distinction between accommodative and assimilative modes of
coping in fact points to possible hidden costs of perceived con-
trol that may easily be overlooked from a learned helplessness
perspective: Because shifting from an assimilative to an accom-
modative mode of coping depends on the perceived modifiabil-
ity of aversive situations, and thus on the strength of situation-
specific control beliefs, the necessary process of adjusting life
designs and developmental projects in the face of factually unal-
terable or irreversible events may be delayed in individuals with
a strong sense of personal control (cf. the concept of a "pathol-
ogy of high expectations" proposed by JanofF-Bulman & Brick-
man, 1982).
We have assessed interindividual differences in assimilative
and accommodative styles of coping by two independent scales,
denoted as Tenacious Goal Pursuit and Flexible Goal Adjust-
ment. The relations of tenacity and flexibility to various refer-
ence variables are conceptually consistent. The scales show a
roughly similar pattern of external correlations with various in-
dicators of optimism and personal well-being. The substantial
correlations with action orientation after failure and optimism,
which were obtained in the preliminary validational study, de-
serve further comment. The variance overlap between flexibil-
ity and action orientation after failure makes sense insofar as
low action orientation (high state orientation) is described as
involving a clinging to, and continual rumination about, un-
reachable goals (cf. Kuhl, 1985,1987). In regard to the correla-
tion between flexibility and optimism, note that the concept of
optimism dates back to the philosophical-theological theodi-
65
cies (defense of God's goodness in view of the existence of evil;
see particularly Leibniz, 1710). In this conceptual tradition, ac-
commodative reappraisals involving a search for hidden posi-
tive aspects of apparently unfortunate accidents appear as a
constitutive element of optimism (cf. Marquard, 1983), which
may be even more important than the presumed relation of op-
timism to generalized outcome expectancies stressed by Scheier
and Carver (1985).
Obviously, the reported relationships of tenacity and flexibil-
ity to measures of personal well-being are mediated by differ-
ences in the cognitive and emotional appraisal of personal de-
velopmental prospects that were found to be associated with
these constructs. Most noticeable in this respect is the buffering
effect of flexible goal adjustment on the impact of perceived
developmental deficits on dissatisfaction with personal develop-
ment, which indicates a lower vulnerability of flexible individu-
als to developmental stress. This is in line with our theoretical
formulations.
A central concern in this study was the investigation of age-
related differences in the Flexible Goal Adjustment and Tena-
cious Goal Pursuit scales. In cross-sectional comparisons, flex-
ibility shows a clear-cut increase over the age range considered,
whereas tenacity exhibits an opposite regression on the age vari-
able. These findings need to be corroborated by longitudinal
assessments that extend beyond the age range considered in this
study. We have advanced theoretical arguments about why the
observed cross-sectional differences should reflect a genuine on-
togenetic age-graded trend that is not limited to middle adult-
hood. The gist of our argument was that a growing impact of
uncontrollable events on personal development favors an in-
creasing dominance of accommodative over assimilative modes
of coping (cf. Clark & Anderson, 1967; Folkman et al., 1987)
and that this shift helps the aging individual to maintain a sense
of well-being and satisfaction.
The analysis of this coping pattern may be a promising van-
tage point for a theoretical explication of the wisdom concept
that recently has drawn increasing attention in developmental
psychology and gerontology (cf. Clayton, 1982; Dittmann-
Kohli, 1984). In sum, our research findings indicate that the
emphasis on active-offensive modes of coping, which pervades
psychological formulations of optimal development and suc-
cessful aging, may underrate the importance of accommodative
processes for coping with typical problems of aging.
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