"Take Picture! Take Picture!

" A Technical Introduction to the use

of Photography in Social Research1

Terence Heng
t.heng@hurricadia.com

Abstract This paper aims to provide an introduction to researchers who are interested in using
photography in their research, but are unfamiliar with the technology. I intend to introduce both
technology (what is currently at hand for the researcher) as well as basic photographic
techniques that can be used. Drawing on my work in conducting visual ethnographies of ethnic
Chinese weddings in Singapore, I will consider the various factors that researchers need to take
into account when capturing visual data.

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First presented at BSA 2007 Conference, University of East London
The camera has been a very important tool in many disciplines, and within the social
sciences Anthropology has led the way in the use of both still and moving images to
record and present data, even spawning a sub-discipline dedicated to the study of the
visual. But within other social science disciplines, cameras have yet to gain significant
popularity, although this has been changing. Researchers like Pink (2001) and Knowles
(2000) have introduced visual methods into the field of sociology, and several texts are
now available for scholars to consider the visual aspect of social research. (Banks 1998,
Harper 1998, Caldarola 1985, Collier 1979)

This paper was crafted in response to a growing need to educate researchers into the
technical possibilities of using digital cameras in their chosen field of research. As such, I
do not intend to frame it within any set of theory, but rather give a practitioners
presentation on the basics of photography, and how it can help a researcher record data
in the field. I intend to introduce both basic camera techniques, as well as equipment
that would be useful for ethnographic research, whilst at the same time give examples of
my own experience in using photography as part of my research.

The two fields I intend to use as examples are one, ethnic Chinese weddings in
Singapore, where I have spent the last 3 years recording social interactions of wedding
rituals, taking the role of the wedding photographer, and two, a brief ethnography I
conducted of an immigrant Chinese church in central Oxford. At the same time, I plan to
provide illustrations of my field work to show how a camera can create different kinds of
data for the researcher when it is used differently.

Equipment Considerations

Whilst it is important to remember, as Collier and Collier (1986) have mentioned, that we
should not get obsessed with the tools that we use to capture images, it is nonetheless
important to consider which camera is suited for what occasion. The researcher may
sometimes find himself in a position where the taking of photographs is both acceptable
and expected, which was the case in Chinese wedding rituals, where I was participating
and observing as a professional wedding photographer. As the camera marked me as a
member of the wedding party (like a symbol of membership Van Mannen 1960) I
was able to choose a large, digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) camera to record my data.

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From left to right: compact, prosumer and digital SLR cameras

The DLSR is now a predominant feature in professional photography, and when in a

situation which demands a fast response time and excellent image quality it is usually
the camera of choice. The DSLR camera comprises of a body with interchangeable
lenses, and its characterizing feature is that the user is able to see the whole image that
the lens is capturing because of a series of mirrors within the camera body.

Advantages of using a DLSR camera are numerous for the researcher. The quality of
images captured is excellent, and the researcher may change lenses to give either a
wide-angle, standard or telephoto (close-up) view of the situation he is recording. The
DSLR camera also performs very well in low lighting conditions, which is important if the
researcher chooses not to shoot with a flash and record interactions using natural light.

However, there are certain disadvantages to using a DSLR and it mainly comes down
to the size of the equipment. If for example I was not fulfilling a role of wedding
photographer in my ethnography, carrying large amounts of equipment would make me
both conspicuous and appear suspicious to the other participants at the event. In fields
of study where the researcher is required to behave in a certain manner that does not
include the taking of photographs, the DSLR becomes a difficult choice.

This problem of conspicuous equipment became a noticeable problem during my second

ethnography where I had taken on the role of a worshipper in the church (as opposed to

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the band, or ushers, or otherwise). In other words, I was placed in a situation where
during the rituals and interactions I was observing, I was unable to move freely to
capture what was going on. I managed to overcome this by introducing myself to the
pastor in charge, and mention my intentions added to this was a certain social
politeness amongst other worshippers who did not usually question why I was taking
pictures with a DSLR camera.

However, had I needed to be more surreptitious about my work, a DLSR would have
been inappropriate. The alternative would have been to use a prosumer or a compact
digital camera. Both of these types of cameras do not use mirrors to reflect an image
that is captured by the lens of the camera rather, the user looks through a separate
viewfinder. This means a general loss of accuracy in determining what is and what is not
in the picture. However, many digital cameras today are doing away with the need for
viewfinders, and instead use electronic viewfinders in other words, the user does see
the full picture in the LCD screen mounted on the back of the camera.

The difference between these kinds of cameras and the DSLR then boils down to
flexibility (the DSLR can change lenses whilst the other two cannot), size, speed, quality
and control. Compacts may be more agile and less threatening, but it also means that
the quality normally associated with large professional prints is lost. However, because
our aim is not simply to take the best picture in a photographic sense, but to capture the
social interactions and ethnographically significant moments, the compact becomes a
viable option when carrying a larger camera creates animosity amongst the actors the
researcher is observing.

A third alternative is what is known as the Prosumer (Professional-consumer) camera.

Prosumer cameras are the in-betweens of compacts and digital SLRs. Current
examples of these cameras in the market are the Canon G7 and the Nikon Coolpix
P5000. Many of them share a look and feel of a DSLR, but the user is unable to change
lenses, and the speed of which the camera is able to focus and capture the photograph
can sometimes be noticeably different. However, the prosumer camera also can present
the researcher as a hobbyist or amateur, and thus appearing less threatening to the
actors he is interacting with. This situation would apply to when the researcher is taking
a role that does not allow obtrusive photo taking with a large camera.

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 Thus whichever the choice of camera,
the researcher should take into account
several considerations. These include
the following: One, the role the
researcher is taking in the field. If the
researcher has a role where it is
acceptable, even expected to take
photos, a large DSLR which gives the
most control over lighting and variables
should be used. Two, the context of the
field of study. In my time as a wedding
photographer observing Chinese
wedding rituals, actors and participants
were noticeably less shy of having their
picture taken during a wedding as
opposed to outside the context of a
wedding, often calling out to me take
picture!, which is a common phrase in colloquial Singaporean English to take a
photograph. Combined with my role as a wedding photographer, I was able to use any
equipment I wanted in the presence of the actors. However, in my other ethnography of
the church, I was only able to bring a large camera in because I worked hard at
remaining inconspicuous when taking pictures, and because of a shared ethnicity with
the members of the church, I was able to blend in much more with the congregation. The
church leadership was also aware of my research, and thus made my taking of photos
much easier.

Finally, the researcher might want to consider the purpose and use of the photographs
he or she is capturing. Should the intention be to enlarge photographs to poster size and
beyond, it might be necessary to use a camera capable of taking very high quality
photographs, often meaning a DSLR. However, with the advent of web publishing and
presentation of data online, researchers may find that capturing low-resolution pictures is
often enough for their needs. If the aim is more to capture social interactions than

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present the subjects in a certain photographic manner, almost any camera that allows
the researcher to react fast enough would be suitable.

The next section deals with using the camera, and for the purpose of this study I will
assume that the researcher is working with a DSLR. This does not mean that the
settings and principles outlined in the next section are redundant to prosumer and
compact users, as many cameras in these categories allow for a certain amount of
manual override. Indeed, some items I will cover, like focus-lock, are crucial to users of
any camera.

Basic Settings

Although this paper aims to give a technical introduction to photography, I will attempt to
use as plain a language as possible in describing the various settings and techniques
commonly used in basic photography. This means that I have intentionally left out much
of the jargon in photography in favor of providing an easy to understand summary about
how to start using a camera in the field.

Aperture and Depth of Field

The aperture refers to the hole in the lens of the camera that allows a certain amount of
light to enter the camera. The smaller the number (or f-stop as is commonly known), the
larger the aperture. The more light the camera is able to take in (with a larger aperture)
the less need there is for the user to use a flash. In my ethnography of the Chinese
wedding, I worked to present the actors in as accurate a setting as possible, using only
the light that was available to me. This meant that I needed to have as large an aperture
as possible, so that I would not suffer from slow shutter speeds which would result in a
blurry picture.

The size of the aperture would also determine the depth of field of the picture. The depth
of field is how much of the foreground and background of a subject is in focus, or is
sharp. This is most commonly seen in portrait photographs where only the subject is in
focus with a blurred background, and that relates to a shallow depth of field.

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The depth of field is especially important to the researcher because it will determine how
much of the picture is in focus. A shallow depth of field will blur out the background,
meaning that important data in the picture might be lost. In my research on Chinese
wedding rituals, I had to contend with large apertures that although allowed more light in
also gave a shallow depth of field. I usually attempted to overcome this by using wide-
angle lenses which only tend to have a shallow depth of field when photographing a
subject at a very close range.

Depth of field is important

in the first picture because
it shows the various
positions and interactions
occurring. The second
photo is more one-
dimensional, more flat,
and thus does not need
as deep a depth of field
as the first photo.

The researcher will thus need to consider what he is trying to capture. For instance, if
photographing a single artefact, the researcher would want to work with a shallow depth
of field, so as to prevent elements in the background from becoming distracting.
However, should the researcher need to photograph a scene of people interacting, he
would want to get as much of the foreground and background in focus as is possible,
which means a smaller aperture, although this then might give problems of low shutter
speeds if the photo is taken without an electronic flash.

Shutter Speed and the Reciprocal Rule

The shutter speed is speed at which the shutter of a camera opens and closes to expose
the film or digital sensor to light so as to capture a photograph. The shutter speed is

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normally expressed in seconds and fractions of seconds for example, 1/200 sec or
1/20 sec. The shutter speed is determined by the amount of light entering the camera
(hence the size of the aperture) and the ISO rating of the film or digital sensor (also
known as film speed, which measure the sensitivity of the film or digital sensor to light).

The shutter speed is important in photography because low shutter speeds are often the
cause of blurry and oftentimes unusable photographs. Slow shutter speeds can be
caused by poor lighting conditions, small apertures or low film sensitivity (although film
sensitivity is often indirectly correlated to the photographic quality of the photo
produced). In order to avoid blurry pictures, or what photographers call camera shake,
users can follow a simple guide called the reciprocal rule.

The reciprocal rule simply states that the shutter speed should be at least the reciprocal
of the focal length of the camera lens you are currently using. Thus if a camera has a
lens of 30mm for example, the corresponding shutter speed should be 1/30th of a
second. Simply put, the further you zoom in onto a subject, the faster the shutter speed
needs to be.

The issue of shutter speeds has tended to be a problem when I am recording

observations in the field, largely because of an absence of light, which causes the
shutter speed to slow down. There is no hard and fast rule to creating light some prefer
to use an electronic flash to give a flat light (and a constant shutter speed) in order to
record as much detail as possible, whereas others prefer a softer natural light at the
expense of detail and a greater risk of camera shake - resulting in blurred pictures but
with a tendency towards more textures and sometimes more emotion.

The researcher should then be concerned with first deciding how and what he plans to
present as data in the picture, and then choose the appropriate strategy when managing
shutter speeds. In order to achieve a constant shutter speed, one might use a flash, but
this would result in either very harsh or very flat lighting, coupled with increased
obtrusiveness. In a situation where the researcher is required to be relatively
unobtrusive, a flash would then prove to be impractical, and other techniques of shutter
speed management would have to be employed, such as steadying the camera against
a solid object, or using a tripod. In my first ethnography of the Chinese wedding I was

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allowed to be as obtrusive as I wanted to be, given that I was the main photographer for
the event, but chose to remain unobtrusive, often photographing without a flash, so as to
keep the subjects oblivious to my presence and act in a more natural way. I have found
that during a wedding, the presence of a professional camera meant that actors would
start to pose or request for posed pictures. While this in itself is an observation of social
interactions, too much of it means I would be unable to observe other actions that take
place. Thus, I choose to remain relatively inconspicuous despite my obvious role during
the wedding.

Using available light enables far more subtle features and nuances to be captured, but the user
has to be alert for low shutter speeds.

Focus Lock

The final section deals with the user ensuring that the primary subject(s) is/are correctly
in focus. This is not usually a problem if the subject is in the centre of the frame when a
photograph is taken, but oftentimes a researcher might need to move the subject to the
side of the frame so as to take in other artefacts and actors that give context to the
photograph. This requires the use of a focus lock, which can be found on almost all
compact, prosumer and DLSR cameras. The user first focuses on the subject at hand,

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then keeps the shutter release button on the camera half-pressed. Whilst half-pressed,
the user then re-frames the picture to include the other items he wished to show in the
picture. Once the picture is correctly framed, the user then depresses the shutter release
button on the camera to take the picture.

I have found focus lock to be a crucial aspect of photography when I am in the field. This
is not just because placing the subject in the centre of the frame at all times does not
work well creatively (and my role in the first ethnography also required me to present
myself as a professional who could deliver creative photographs), but also because
having the subject in the centre of the frame can sometimes ignore the other activities
taking place around the subject that give context or add meaning. This was especially so
when studying church activities, because I wanted to give a sense of where the church
was, and the locations in which the actors were interacting in. This involved moving the
actors out of the centre in order to capture high ceilings, large social halls, posters and
banners. Hence, by moving the primary subject out of the centre can generate more
data, while at the same time maintaining detail on the subject.

Focusing on the subject below and recomposing the photograph allows one to create a context in
which interactions are taking place

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Focus lock is also and important technique for the researcher to learn because it helps
to prevent misfocusing on another aspect of the scene. By remembering to keep a lock
on the primary subject of in the frame, the researcher is able to maintain sharpness and
detail that would be needed for further investigation. Focus lock is especially important
when the researcher is dealing with a very shallow depth of field (using large apertures
for example) and focusing on the wrong subject can sometimes end with an unusable
piece of data.

Possible Future Presentations

This paper was written to serve as a technical introduction to using cameras in social
research, and is by no means a complete walkthrough the concepts of photography.
Future papers can build on what has been done here by considering the next step in
camera basics composition rules, flash techniques, exposure locks and compensation,
film grain and digital noise as well as look at the ever changing world of digital
cameras. At the time of writing, manufacturers are now releasing face-recognition
cameras that go some way in eliminating the need for focus lock in simple, human-
oriented photographs.

One should also consider that digital post-processing is now an important asset to the
photographer and researcher. Using a computer, a researcher is not only able to
salvage some unusable photographs, but also large screens and magnification features
allow what are effectively free enlargements during the analysis phase of the
ethnography. Thus, papers introducing post-processing software and techniques to
researchers would also prove useful.

Conclusion

In this paper, I considered the various equipment choices available to social researchers
who wish to make a visual record of their time in the field. I also covered some basic key
techniques in using cameras, and what the considerations that researchers need to
make when taking photographs. To summarize, the researcher needs to take into
consideration issues of role (what role he intends to play in his field of study), levels of
access (how acceptable is it to carry a camera and take photographs), the purpose of

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the photograph and what mode it will finally be presented in (print or web), and other
technical details that might otherwise hinder the photographic process.

The camera has, over time, proven to be a very useful tool for those who wish to
complement their textual presentations and data, and with greater access to high quality
equipment, the trend looks set to continue.

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References

Banks, M. (1998) Visual Anthropology: Image, Object and Interpretation, In: Prosser, J. (ed)
Image-Based Research: A sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers, London: Falmer Press pp 9-
23

Caldarola, V. (1985) Visual contexts: A photographic research method in anthropology, Studies in

Visual Communication, Vol 11 No. 3, pp 33 - 53

Collier, J. (1979) Evaluating visual data. In: Wagner, J. (ed) Images of Information, Beverly Hills:
Sage

Collier, J., Collier, M. (1986) Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research Methods,

Alberquerque: University of New Mexico Press

Harper, D. (1998) In: Prosser, J. (ed) Image-Based Research: A sourcebook for Qualitative
Researchers, London: Falmer Press pp 24-41

Knowles, C. (2000) Bedlam on the Streets, London: Routledge

Pink, S. (2001). Doing visual ethnography : images, media and representation in research.
London: Sage.

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