General Biochemistry

INTRODUCTION TO
METABOLISM
The Nature of Metabolism
Metabolism: the chemical reactions of biomolecules.
It is the biochemical basis of life processes
catabolism: the breakdown of larger molecules into
smaller ones; an oxidative process that releases
energy
anabolism: the synthesis of larger molecules from
smaller ones; a reductive process that requires energy
A Comparison of Catabolism and
Anabolism
Metabolism is the sum total of the chemical reactions
of biomolecules in an organism
Degradative & Biosynthetic Pathways are Related
The Role of Oxidation and Reduction in
Metabolism
Oxidation-Reduction reactions are those in which
electrons are transferred from a donor to an acceptor
oxidation: the loss of electrons; the substance that
loses the electrons is called a reducing agent
reduction: the gain of electrons; the substance that
gains the electrons is called an oxidizing agent
Carbon in most reduced form- alkane
Carbon in most oxidized form- CO2 (final product
of catabolism
Summary
In catabolism, large molecules are broken down to
smaller products, releasing energy and transferring
electrons to acceptor molecules of various sorts. The
overall process is one of oxidation.

In anabolism, small molecules react to give rise to

larger ones; this process requires energy and
involves acceptance of electrons from a variety of
donors. The overall process is one of reduction.
Coenzymes used in Biologically important
Redox Reactions
Conversion of ethanol to acetaldehyde is a two-
electron oxidation These are
transferred to
reducing
equivalents
Reducing equivalents

NAD+
FAD
NAD+/NADH: An Important Coenzyme
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is an
important coenzyme
Acts as a biological oxidizing agent
The structure of NADH is comprised of a
nicotinamide portion. It is involved in the reaction. It is
a derivative of nicotinic acid
NAD+ is a two-electron oxidizing agent, and is
reduced to NADH
The Structures and Redox States of the
Nicotinamide Coenzymes
 FAD/FADH2
Flavin adenine
dinucleotide
(FAD) is also
Reduction a biological
oxidizing
of FAD to agent
FADH2 Protons, as
well as,
electrons are
accepted by
FAD
Coupling of Production and Use of Energy
The coupling of energy-producing and energy-
requiring reactions is a central theme in the
metabolism of all organisms
Energy cannot be used directly, must by shuttled into
easily accessible forms of chemical energy
High Energy bonds- bonds that require or release
convenient amounts of energy, depending on the
direction of the reaction
ATP is essential high energy bond-containing
compound
Phosphorylation of ADP to ATP requires energy
Hydrolysis of ATP to ADP releases energy
The Phosphoric Anhydride Bonds in ATP
are High Energy Bonds
Organophosphates Important in Producing
Energy
Phosphoryl Group Transfer Potentials
High-Energy Phosphates
Low-Energy Phosphates
Role of ATP as Energy Currency
Summary
Hydrolysis of ATP to ADP releases energy

In the coupling of biochemical reactions, the energy

released by one reaction, such as ATP hydrolysis,
provides energy for another
Coenzyme A in Activation of Metabolic
Pathways
A step frequently encountered in metabolism is
activation
activation: the formation of a more reactive substance
A metabolite is bonded to some other molecule and
the free-energy change for breaking the new bond is
negative.
Causes next reaction to be exergonic
Coenzyme A
Coenzyme A (CoA-SH) contains units of 2-mercaptoethylamine,
pantothenic acid, and 3,5-ADP
Acetyl-CoA
Acetyl-CoA
The Hydrolysis of Acetyl-CoA
The metabolically active form of a carboxylic acid is the
corresponding acyl-CoA thioester, in which the thioester linkage is a
high-energy bond
The Role of Electron Transfer and ATP
Production in metabolism
Summary
Metabolic pathways proceed in many stages,
allowing for efficient use of energy

Many coenzymes, particularly coenzyme A(CoA) play

a crucial role in metabolism
Ways of generating energy in metabolism
Oxidative phosphorylation:
Reduction of NAD+ and FAD: the electrons can be
transferred to the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and
generate ATP
NADH + H+ ETC = 2.5 ATPs
FADH2 ETC = 1.5 ATPs
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
When the hydrolysis of high energy phosphate bonds from
metabolic substrates are transferred to ADP to form ATP