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Revision History
Author
Prepared
Date Document Version Reviewed by Approved by
by
2011-1-25 V1.0 Kang
Zhigang
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ZTE Confidential Proprietary 2017 ZTE CORPORATION. All rights reserved. III
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
Summary
Chapter Description
1 Basic Conception of Briefly describes the conception of system bandwidth, signal
Communications bandwidth, Erlang, Blocking rate, GoS, dB, dBm, dBd, dBi,
dBc, dBW, bit, and Byte.
2 Radio Propagation Briefly describes the radio propagation theory, Radio
propagation model.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2 Radio Propagation...........................................................................................7
2.1 Radio Propagation Theory.................................................................................7
2.1.1 Overview............................................................................................................
2.1.2 Free Space Propagation....................................................................................
2.1.3 Relation Between Electric Field and Power......................................................
2.1.4 Three Fundamental Propagation Mechanisms.................................................
2.2 Introduction to Radio Propagation Models.......................................................19
2.2.1 Overview..........................................................................................................
2.2.2 Categories of Propagation Models...................................................................
2.2.3 Macro Cell Propagation Model.........................................................................
2.2.4 Micro Cell Propagation Model..........................................................................
2.2.5 Indoor Propagation Model................................................................................
2.2.6 Application of Propagation Model in Cellular Design........................................
FIGURES
ZTE Confidential Proprietary 2017 ZTE CORPORATION. All rights reserved. VII
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
1. Define the system bandwidth by the equivalent noise bandwidth: Suppose the
systems transmission function is H(f), then the equivalent noise bandwidth is given
by:
1
Wn | H ( f ) |
2
df
| H max | 2 0
For example, the equivalent noise bandwidth Wn of the low-pass filter is illustrated
in Figure 1 -1
average power of the white noise passing Wn = power of the white noise passing
the actual filter
f
For the band-pass filter with 0 as the center frequency as shown in Figure 1 -2,
the definition of the equivalent noise bandwidth Bn is: average power of the white
noise passing Bn = power of the white noise passing the actual filter.
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
2. Definition of the half-power point bandwidth or the so-called 3dB bandwidth byh the
half-power point of the power transfer function:
For the low-pass filter, the power transfer function at the half-power point W1/2 is:
1
| H ( f ) |W2 1 / 2 | H ( f ) | 02
2
For the band-pass filter, the power transfer function at the half-power point W1/2 is:
1
| H ( f ) | 2B1 / 2 | H ( f ) | 2f 0
2
f 0 Be / 2
| H ( f ) | df (1 e) | H ( f ) | 2 df
2
f 0 Be / 2
|H(f)|2(dB)
In this case, bandwidth is also defined with respect to the power declinnation, with
the only exception that the declination is not fixed to 3dB, but at random, such as
1dB, 2dB, and so onand so on
For some low-pass filters such as the loop filter, the bandwidth is usually defined
with respect to the equivalent noise; for the band-pass filters, the bandwidth is
usually defined with a fixed 3dB declination or energy percentage.
The system bandwidth is to the signal bandwidth as the car is to the road.
A certain main lobe bandwidth is the requirement on the system bandwidth of the signal
bandwidth. For example, to transmit voice signals with a rate of 32Kbps through BPSK,
the system bandwidth should be 64kHz or above; another example is that the system
bandwidth determines the bandwidth of signals that can be transmitted. For example,
the ordinary digital voice channel cannot transmit digital color signals, and a 14kHz
system can transmit 216Kbps voice signals.
The traffic load produced (or shouldered) by a source (or a server) during the period T is
the total sum of the lasted time of all services during this period. Two factors are related
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
to the traffic load: the call intensity (degree of demand frequency) and call duration (time
lasted for each service).
Suppose n calls occur during the period T, and the average call duration of the calls is
hav, then the traffic load is: AT=n*hav. In order to calculate the traffic density, first define
the traffic flow as: A1=AT/T=n*hav/T=*hav, where =n/T is the call intensity of the
source or the average calls within a unit period. The traffic flow is the total of service time
within the unit period, which represents the occupation ratio of a single source or server.
The occupation ratio is forever less than or equal to 1. The unit of the traffic flow is
Erlang. In practice, the traffic flow is usually called the traffic.
Note: The dimension of traffic is time, but the traffic flow has no dimension.
If the unit of the call intensity is call/hour, and the unit of the call duration is 100s, then
another unit of the traffic flow is hundred call seconds (ccs), which is a unit frequently
used in North American countries. The unit of call duration in Erlang definition is hour,
therefore: 1erl=36ccs.
Pblocking
S S!
S
K
K!
k 0
Where, the unit of / is Erlang. In physics, / means the number of simultaneous call
links. In Poisson distribution, / means the frequency of occurrence of a certain
parameter. For example, in the queue events, the physical meaning of / is the amount
of increased queue length in a unit time. Another example can also explain the Poisson
distribution.
Suppose that during a given period of time [0, 1], the number of accidents at a crossroad
is . Now divide the time equally into n parts, n
l1 [0,1 n], l2 [1 n, 2 n], L
Supposition 2: Within each part of the period, events of accident occurrence are mutually
independent.
i n i
n
P ( x i ) 1
i
n n
n
n
When , i n! 1 n!, 1 e
n
P ( x i ) e i i!
In the above formula, the meanings of the various parameters of the Poisson distribution
are: is the frequency of occurrence, the index i means that the same event occurs i
times within a given period of time, and the formula gives the probability of having i
events within a given period of time.
The trunk seizure in fixed line communication can be described with the Poisson
distribution. Suppose that, in a given period, the average call duration is 1/. Now divide
the duration equally into n parts, then each part is 1/(n). Now, repeat the same
analysis, hence:
P( x i) e
i
i!
When there are only n trunk lines, the concept of i=n is the blocking rate. Hence:
e n
n
n! n!
Pblocking n
n
e i!
i i
i!
0 0
Given the same capacity in Erlang, the higher the allowed blocking rate is, the fewer the
required links.
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
1.4 GOS
GOS means Grade of Service (Quality of Service). The blocking rate, together with other
performance indexes of system quality, constitutes the GOS provided by the system to
the subscribers.
dBm is the absolute value of power, equivalent to 1mW. Calculation of 1dBm is 10lg
(P value /lmW).
2. dBi, dBd
dBi and dBd are both relative values for power gain, but have different references.
The reference of dBi is the omni-antenna (isotrophic radiator), while that of dBd is
the dipole (half-wave dipole antenna). Therefore, the values of dBi and dBd are
slightly different, and the gain expressed in dBi is 2.15 larger than the same gain
expressed in dBd.
For example: the antenna gain of 16 dBd can be converted into 18.15 dBi (the
integral value is 18 dBi).
3. dB
dB is the relative value of power. To calculate how much dB power A is more or less
than power B, use the formula: 10lg (power A/power B).
For example, if the gain of antenna A is 20dBd, and that of antenna B is 14dBd,
then the gain of antenna A is 6dB larger than that of antenna B.
4. dBc
5. dBW
2. 1 byte=8 bits. At the earlier stage, the AUX adder uses 8 bits for one calculating
action. Therefore, it is called the eight-bit system. The concept byte is seldom used
in CDMA baseband processing;
2 Radio Propagation
2.1.1 Overview
Mechanisms of electromagnetic wave propagation are diverse, but in general the
electromagnetic waves can be propagated through reflection, diffraction, and scattering.
The majority of cellular wireless systems operate in urban areas where there is no LOS
path between the transmitter and the receiver and the high-rises cause strong diffraction
loss. Besides, as there are multiple paths of propagation through different materials and
the paths have varying lengths; electromagnetic waves propagated along such paths
interact with each other and this causes multi-path loss. As the distance between the
transmitter and the receiver increases, the electromagnetic intensity decreases.
When the mobile station moves within an extremely small area, it may cause rapid
fluctuation in the instant receiving field intensity, which is called small-metric fading. The
reason is that the phase changes in random, which in turn causes synthesis of received
signals from different directions to fluctuate greatly. For the small-metric fading, the
receiving field intensity may change by 3 or 4 levels (30dB or 40dB) if the length of the
mobile station movement equals to the wave length. As the mobile station moves away
from the transmitter and the local field intensity decreases, the mean receiving field
intensity should be predicted by applying the large-metric propagation model. Typically,
the local field intensity is calculated with the mean value of signal measurements within
5 - 40. For the cellular system with a frequency range between 1 GHz and 2 GHz, the
measuring range should be between 1m and 10m.
Figure 2 -5 shows the rapid small-metric fading and slow large-metric fluctuation of an
indoor wireless communication system.
Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr (d ) (1)
( 4 ) 2 d 2 L
Where Pt is the transmitting power; Pr (d ) is the receiving power, a function of the T-R
distance; Gt is the gain of the transmitting antenna; Gr is the gain of the receiving
antenna; d, in meters, is the T-R distance; L is the system loss factor which is
independent of propagation; , in meters, is the wave length.
The antenna gain is subject to the effective section area of the antenna:
4Ae
G
2 (2)
The effective section area Ae is related to the physical dimensions of the antenna,
while is related to the frequency:
c 2c
f c (3)
Where f , in Hz, is the frequency; c , in rad/s, and c, in m/s, is the light speed. Pt
and Pr shall have the same unit, and Gt and Gr are dimensionless values.
Aggregate loss L (L 1) is, typically, the total of transmitting line fading, filter loss, and
antenna loss. L=1 indicates that the system hardware has no loss.
As revealed in Formula (2.1), the receiving power decreases with the square of the T-R
distance. That is, the ratio of the fading of the receiving power to the T-R distance is
20dB/10 octave.
The ideal omni-antenna that has the same unit gain in all directions is usually used as
the reference antenna of the wireless communication system. The effective omni-
directional radiation power (EIRP) is defined as:
EIRP Pt Gt
(4)
which is the maximum radiation power of the transmitter in the direction of maximum
antenna gain as compared with the omni-antenna.
But in practice, the effective radiation power (ERP) is usually used instead of the EIRP
to indicate the maximum radiation power against the half-wave bipolarized sub-antenna.
As the bipolarized sub-antenna has 1.64 units of gain (which is 2.15dB higher the omni-
antenna), ERP is 2.15dB lower than EIRP for the same transmission system. In effect,
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
the antenna gain is in dBi (the gain in dB against the isotropic radiator) or in dBd (the
gain in dB against the half-wave bipolarized sub-antenna).
The path loss, a positive value in dB indicating signal fading, is defined as the difference
between the effective transmitting power and the receiving power, including or excluding
the antenna gain. If the antenna gain is included, the free space path loss is:
Pt G G 2
PL( dB ) 10 log 10 log t r2 2 (5)
Pr ( 4 ) d
If the antenna gain is excluded and it has the unit gain, the path loss is:
Pt 2
PL( dB ) 10 log 10 log 2 2 (6)
Pr ( 4 ) d
The Friis free space propagation model applies if and only if d indicates the value of the
far field of the transmitting antenna. The far field of the antenna is defined as the area
beyond d f , the far field distance that is related to the maximum linear dimensions of the
transmitting antenna and the wave length of the carrier.
d f 2D 2 (7)
Where, D is the maximum physical dimension of the antenna. Also, for the far field, df
shall meet the following condition:
d f D and d f
Obviously, equation (1) does not allow d = 0. Therefore, the large-metric propagation
model uses the near distance d 0 as the reference value of the receiving power. When
d d 0 , the receiving power Pr (d ) is related to Pr at the distance d 0 . Pr (d 0 )
can be predicted from the equation (1) or derived from the mean measurement. The
reference distance must be in the far field, that is, d 0 d f , where d 0 is smaller than
the actual distance applied in the mobile communication system. Hence, derived from
equation (1) in the distance beyond d 0 , the receiving power in the free space is:
2
d0
Pr ( d ) Pr ( d 0 ) d d0 d f (8)
d
In the wireless mobile system, it is common for Pr to have changes of several quantity
levels within the typical coverage area of several square kilometers. As the receiving
level varies violently, it is usually represented in dBm or dBW. The equation (11) can
have dBm or dBW as the unit, if both ends of the equation are multiplied by 10. For
example, if Pr is in dBm, the receiving power is calculated by:
Pr (d 0 ) d
Pr ( d )dBm 10 log 20 log 0 d d0 d f
0.001W d (9)
Where Pr ( d 0 ) is in watts.
In the actual system which uses low gain antenna, if the indoor value of d 0 is 1m, and
the value outdoor is 100m or 1km, the numerators in equation 8 and 9 are multiplied by
10 to make it easy to calculate the path loss in dB.
[Example 1]
If the transmitter sends 50W power, convert it to unit dBm and dBW. If the transmitter
has unit gain antenna and the frequency is 900MHz, analyze how many dBm is
receiving power at the distance 100m from free space to the antenna, and what is at
the distance of 10km (suppose that the receiving antenna has unit gain)?
Solution:
Known:
a) Transmitting power
Pt ( dBm) 10 log Pt ( mW ) /(1mW ) 10 log 50 10 3 47.0dBm
b) Transmitting power
Pt Gt G r 2 50(1)(1)(1 / 3) 2
Pr 3.5 10 6 W 3.5 10 3 mW
(4 ) 2 d 2 L (4 ) 2 (100) 2 (1)
Pr (dBm) 10 log Pr (mW ) 10 log 3.5 10 3 mW 24.5dBm
Receiving power at the distance 10km:
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
100
Pr (10km) Pr (100m) 20 log 24.5dBm 40dB 64.5dBm
10000
Pd (W m 2 )
In a free space, the energy stream density is:
EIRP Pt Gt E2 E2
Pd W m2 (10)
4d 2
4d 2
R fs
2
E
Pd W m2 (11)
377
Figure 2-6 Energy stream density and input voltage of the receiver in the place with a
distance d from point source
Figure 2 -6 (a) shows the energy stream density situation from omni-antenna in free
space. Pd is EIRP insulated by a ball surface whose radius is d. The receiving power in
d is the product of energy stream density and receiving antennas valid acreage:
2
E Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr ( d ) Pd Ae Ae W (12)
120 ( 4 ) 2 d 2
The equation (12) associates field intensity unit V/m with receiving power unit Watt,
which is the same as equation (1) when L =1.
Generally it is very useful to associate the receiving level and receiver input voltage with
induced electric field E. If the receiving antenna is modeling as a matching impedance
load of the receiver, the receiving antenna will induce a voltage into the receiver, which is
half of open circuit voltage in antenna.
Hence, if V is the receivers input voltage and Rant is matching receivers impedance,
the receiving power is:
V2 [Vant 2] 2 2
Vant
Pr (d )
Rant Rant 4 Rant (13)
By formula (11) and formula (13), the relation between receiving power and receiving
electric field or receiving electric field and receiving antenna terminal open circuit voltage
is established. Note that Vant =V without load.
[Example 2]
Supposing the distance between receiver and transmitter is10km, the transmitters
power is 50W, carrier is 900MHz, and free space propagation exists, Gt 1 and
Gr 2 ,ask:(a) the receivers power; (b) receiving antenna electric field; (c) receivers
input voltage supposing receiver antenna has 50 ideal impedance and matches with
the receiver.
Answer:
Known:
Pt Gt G r 2 50 1 2 (1 / 3) 2
Pr ( d ) 10 log 2 2
10 log
(4 ) d L (4 ) 10000
2 2
91.5dBW 61.5dBm
When the electromagnetic wave encounters obstacles such as the earth surface,
buildings, and building walls that have a much longer wave length, reflection occurs.
When the wireless link between the transmitter and the receiver is blocked by sharp
edges, diffraction occurs. The resulting secondary waves are diffracted in the space,
even to the back of the obstacle. Even if there is no LOS path between the transmitter
and the receiver, wave bending can occur around the obstacle. In the high frequency
band, diffraction, just as reflection, is subject to the shape of the obstacle as well as the
incident wave amplitude at the diffraction point, its phase, and polarization.
When the transmitting medium of the electromagnetic wave has materials smaller than
the wave length and the quantity in the unit volume is prodigious, scattering occurs. The
scattering wave is produced on the rugged surface, small materials, or other things with
irregular shapes. In the actual communication system, leaves, the street signs. and light
posts all cause scattering.
1. Reflection
reflected waves and the transmitting waves depend on Fresnel reflection coefficient
( ), which is a function of the material and related to the polarization, incident angle,
and frequency.
In case that the electromagnetic waves penetrate into the intersecting plane of the
medium and have no reflection, such an incident angle is called Brewster Angle. In
this case, the reflection coefficient is 0. Note that Brewster Angle only occurs in
case of vertical polarization.
0 8.85 10 12
F / m . If the electric media has spoilage, it will absorb a
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
0 r j (14)
(15)
2f
Er 2 sin t 1 sin i
// (16)
Ei 2 sin t 1 sin i
E r 2 sin i 1 sin t
(17)
Ei 2 sin i 1 sin t
The Maxwell formula boundary term deduces the formula (16) with (17) and
formula (18), (19) with (20).
i r (19)
And
E r Ei (20)
Et (1 ) Ei (21)
When the first media is free space and 1 2 , in vertical polarization and
horizontal polarization cases reflectance is simply:
r sin i r cos 2 i
// (22)
r sin i r cos 2 i
sin i r cos 2 i
(23)
sin i r cos 2 i
In case that the electromagnetic waves penetrate into the intersecting plane of
the medium and have no reflection, such an incident angle is called Brewster
Angle. In this case, the reflection coefficient is 0.
1
sin( B ) (24)
1 2
When the first media is free space and the second media relative coefficient is
r , formula (24) is:
r 1
sin( B ) (25)
r 1
2
Because the electromagnetic wave can't penetrate the ideal conductor, plane
wave shoots the ideal conductor and all its energy is reflected back. To abide
by Maxwell formula, anytime electric field surface of the conductor must be 0,
and the reflection wave must equal to the incidence wave. In term of electric
field polarization is on the incidence wave plane, the boundary condition
requires:
i r (26)
And
Ei E r
(27)
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
Electric field is parallel to incidence wave plane Also, Electric field is vertical
polarization, boundary condition requires:
i r (28)
And
Ei E r
(29)
2. Diffraction
Diffraction enables the wireless signals to propagate around the earth curve and
reach the back of the obstacle. Although when the receiver moves into the shadow
of the obstacle, the receiving field intensity attenuates very rapidly, the diffraction
field still exists and usually has a strong enough intensity.
3. Scattering
The smooth plane with a width much larger than the wave length can be modeled
into a reflection plane. For the rugged plane, the reflection coefficient should be
field. The degree of ruggedness can be calculated with the Rayleigh distribution
hc (30)
8 sin i
If the maximum height h of the obtrusion of the plane is smaller than hc , then
the plane is considered smooth. Otherwise, it is considered rugged.
2.2.1 Overview
During the planning and optimization phases of the mobile communication network, the
most important propagation issue is path loss that represents large-metric propagation
features and is characteristic of the idempotent law. Path loss is an important reference
for mobile communication system planning and design, and has influence on coverage,
S/N, near-far effect for cellular design. Therefore, at the initial stage of mobile
communication system design or future capacity expansion and network optimization,
anticipation of path loss should be made. The radio propagation model can be used to
anticipate the path loss in different propagation environments so as to build a better local
wireless communication network.
Radio waves sent from the base station suffer not only from path loss in atmospheric
transmission, but also from loss in the ground propagation path that depends heavily on
topographic conditions. The antenna of the mobile station is usually very low and close
to the ground, which is one of the causes for extra propagation loss. Generally speaking,
the ground quality and ruggedness usually cause energy loss and reduce the intensity of
signals received by the mobile station and base station. Such kind of loss, combined
with free space loss, constitutes the transmission path loss.
It is an extremely arduous task to precisely prescribe the signal change in such complex
environments. The various models introduced in the following part describe the local
radio signal changes predicted by a large amount of field data or precise theoretic
electromagnetic calculations.
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
By the characteristics of radio propagation models, they can be divided into the following
categories:
1. Empirical model
3. Assured model
The empirical model is an equation derived from statistics and analysis of a host of test
results. Prediction of path loss with the empirical model is very simple and does not
require precise information of the related environment, but cannot produce extremely
precise value of evaluation of the path loss.
The assured model is a method that calculates the specific field environment by directly
applying the electromagnetic theory. Environment description, which may have different
levels of precision, can be made from the topographic condition database. In the
assured model, the several technologies that have been applied are usually based on
radiation tracking. They are: Geometric diffraction theory (GTD), Physical Optics (PO),
and the precision methods not frequently used, such as Integral Equation (IE) method or
Finite Differentiation of Time Domain method (FDTD). In downtown area, mountainous
area and indoor environments, assured radio propagation prediction is an extremely
complex electromagnetic task.
Due to the diversity of the mobile communication environments, each propagation model
is targeted for a special kind of environments. Therefore, they can be classified by the
environment where the propagation model is applied. There are three commonly seen
kinds of environments (cells): the macro cell, micro cell and Picocell.
The macro cell has a large area with a radius between 1 and 30km. In the macro cell,
the base station transmitting antenna is usually mounted on the top of neighboring
building, and there is no direct ray between the transmitting and receiving ends.
The micro cell has a radius between 0.1 and 1km, and is not necessarily round in shape.
The transmitting antenna can have the same height with, or slightly higher or lower than
the surrounding buildings. Usually, according to the position of the transmitting and
receiving antenna relative to the environmental obstacles, there are two categories: LOS
(line of sight) and NLOS (non-line of sight).
The picocell typically has a radius between 0.01 and 0.1km. It can be an indoor and an
outdoor cell. The transmitting antenna is under the roof or inside the building. Whether it
is indoor or outdoor cell, usually LOS and NLOS should be considered respectively.
Generally, the three kinds of models and the three kinds of cells are matched. For
example, the empirical and the quasi-empirical models are suitable for the uniform
macro cell, and the quasi-empirical model is suitable for uniform micro cell. In such
cases, parameters of the models can very well represent the entire environment. The
assured model is suitable for micro cells and picocells, whatever the shape is, but not
suitable for the macro cell, since the CPU time required by the macro cell makes such
technologies ineffective.
The Okumura-Hata model is fit with formulas by Hata who drew on the large quantity of
test data of Okumura. To apply the Okumura model, various curves should be found and
it is thus not suitable for computer-based prediction. Based on Okumuras basic mean
field intensity prediction curve, Hata matched the curves and introduced the empirical
formula of propagation loss, that is, , the Okumura-Hata model.
3. The propagation loss formula for urban area is taken as the standard, while the
formula for other areas is modified from the standard with the correction formula.
Applicable conditions:
2. The effective height of the base station antenna is between 30 and 200m;
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
Formula explanation:
L
b urban
The unit of d is km, and the unit of f is MHz; is the basic mean value of
propagation loss for the urban area; hb and hm, in meters, are the effective heights of
the base station and mobile station antennas.
Calculation of the base station antenna effective height: Suppose the height of the base
hs , the base station ground height above sea level
station antenna from the ground is
hg hm , the mobile station
is , the mobile station antenna height from the ground is
hmg
ground height above sea level is , then the effective height of the base station
antenna hb=
hs + hg - hmg , and the effective height of the mobile station antenna is
hm .
Note: There are many methods for calculation of the effective height of the base station
antenna. For example, the average of the ground height above sea level within 5 to
10km away from the base station; the topographic fitting curve of the ground height
above sea level within 5 to 10 km away from the base station and so on. Different
methods of calculation is not only related to the applied propagation model, but also
related to different calculation accuracy.
a ( hm ) Large cities
3.2(lg 11.75hm ) 4.97 f 400 MHz
2
0 h m 1 .5 m
1 d 20
4 3 d 0 .8
1 (0.14 1.87 10 f 1.07 10 hb )(lg ) d 20
20
Generally only the loss correction curve is given, which is horizontal or vertical with
spread direction, for the sake of calculation easily, with fitting formula of arbitrarily angle.
Supposing the clip angle between spread direction and street as , then:
11 10
(5.9 lg d ) sin (7.6 lg d ) cos 1 d
K street 6 6
(5.9 sin 7.6 cos ) d 1
Q r Q 0 5 .5
f 2
Ru (lg ) 2.39(lg f ) 2 9.17 lg f 23.17
28
0 h 15
K h (5.7 0.024h 6.96 lg h) (9.5 lg h1 7.2) h 15, h1 1
(5.7 0.024h 6.96 lg h) 7.2) h 15, h1 1
landform wave height. As shown in Figure 2 -8, extend 10km from MS to BTS, if
less than 10km, use actual distance to make the calculation. It is applicable to multi
wave to calculate difference between 10% and 90% of the wave height in this scope
(wave times) >3.
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
h 10%
90%
h1 hmg h / 8 hmin
, hmin is the minimum landform height of the h in calculating
section plane.
MS h2
BTS 1)
2)
h1 3) H
+m
d1 d3
d2
d
(a) positive slope+m
It is possible that slope landform produces the second ground reflection. When
horizontal distance d2>d1, as shown in Figure 2 -9, it is possible that the positive slope
and negative slope produce the second ground reflection.
Where,
m the average obliquity of the landform height, 1km in front of /behind MS on the
section plane of the connection line between MS and BTS.
Here, use diffraction over ridge loss to make the calculation. Though the calculated
quantity is larger, the result is exact.
2 1 1
v hp ( )
r1 r2
During propagation path if there is a water area, consider two cases, as shown in Figure
2 -11
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
BTS BTS
MS MS
ds ds
d d
(a)land is near BTS (b) water area is near BTS
If there is a water area, 200 m near BTS on the section plane of MS and BTS, then:
K s ( K ( a ) K (b)) / 2
Or else
K s K (b)
( 30 25 lg a ) 5 a 100
S ( a ) ( 15.6(lg a ) 0.19 lg a 20)
2
1 a 5
20 a 1
0
Ks R
K u
h
L Lb K street S (a) K sp K mr
K im Q0
0
Qr
The COST231-Hata model is also based on the test results of Okumura and derived by
analyzing the Okumura propagation curve for relatively high frequency ranges.
Applicable conditions:
2. The effective height of the base station antenna is between 30 and 200m;
Formula explanation:
BTS antenna effective height: supposing BTS antenna is hs away from ground, BTS
ground height above sea level is h g , MS antenna is hm away from ground, MS
ground height above sea level is hmg , then BTS antenna effective height is hb= hs +
h g - hmg , MS antenna effective height is hm .
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1 d 20
d
1 (0.14 1.87 10 4 f 1.07 10 3 hb )(lg ) 0.8 d 20
20
The basis of the macro cell model is that the propagation loss between the base station
and the mobile station is decided by the surrounding environment of the mobile station.
But the building and streets within 1km of the base station heavily affect the propagation
loss between the base station and the mobile station. Therefore, the above mentioned
macro cell model is not suitable for prediction of the propagation loss within 1km.
This model is applicable for the condition that f is between 1500 MHz and 2000MHz.
The propagation feature formed in the gorge of the street is different from the
propagation feature formed in free space. If there is free view distance LOS path in
the gorge of the street, then
Lb L0 Lrts Lmsd
where,
Lbsh K a K d lg d K f lg f 9 lg b
Lmsd
0 if (Lmsd 0)
L0- the transmitting loss in free space, calculate loss in free space from BTS to the
latest roof;
Lrts-the diffraction and scatter loss from the latest roof to street, calculate diffraction
and reflection in the street;
-street width m;
f - calculating frequency MHz
hMobile Unit is m;
-Unit is degree;
hBase BTS
hBase
hMobile
hroof
hMobile
d b
(a)environment parameters
building
MS
Incidence
wave
(b)street parameter
54 hBase hroof
K a 54 0.8hBase d 0.5km & hBase hroof
54 0.8hBase d d 0.5km & hBase hroof
0.5
18 hBase hroof
Kd hBase
18 15 hroof
hBase hroof
In the above expression, Ka means path loss when BTS antenna is lower than adjacent
roof, Kd controls the relation between Lmsd and distance d, Kf controls the relation
between Lmsd and frequency f.
When the double-ray propagation model is applied to calculate the field intensity in the
receiving end, only the contribution of the direct rays and ground reflected rays is
considered. This model is suitable for the smooth countryside environment and the micro
cell that has a low base station antenna, where there are LOS paths linking the
transmitting and receiving antennas. In this case, if walls of buildings also reflect and
diffract the radio waves, it will cause the field intensity amplitude to fluctuate rapidly in
the simple double-ray model, but will not change the prediction of the entire path loss
(the value of power n in the idempotent law) made with the double-ray model.
The path loss equation produced with the double-ray model is represented by a function
of d, the distance between the transmitting and receiving ends. The distance can be
represented by the approximate value of two line segments with different slopes ( n1
and n 2 ). The distance of the mutation point (also known as point of reflection)
between the two segments from the transmitting end is:
Wireless Communication Basic Knowledge
4ht hr
db
h r and h t
Where, are the heights of the receiving and transmitting antennas
respectively.
d
L Lb 10n1 log d db
db
d
L Lb 10n 2 log d db
db
The above approximate equation is called the double-slope model. For the theoretical
double-ray ground reflection model, the values of n1 and n 2 are 2 and 4,
respectively. In the downtown area micro cell with a frequency range of 1800 ~
1900MHz, the test result shows that the value of n1 is 2.0 to 2.3, and the value of n 2
is 3.3 to 13.3. Lb is the path loss at the point of reflection derived from the following
equation.
2
8ht hr
Lb 10 log
2
The multi-ray model is already applied in downtown micro cell where there is the LOS
path and the transmitting and receiving antennas are much lower than the roof plane.
This model assumes the so-called streets have medium valley structures (also known
as the wave-guide structures), and the field at the receiving end is composed of the
direct rays between the transmitting and receiving ends, the reflected rays along the
ground, and the rays reflected by the vertical planes (that is, , building walls) of the
valley. The double-ray model can be deemed as the multi-ray model that considers only
two rays. Four-ray and six-ray models are already introduced. The four-ray model is
composed of the direct rays, ground reflected rays and two rays reflected once by
building walls. The six-ray model has the same mechanism as the four-ray model,
except that it has two rays reflected twice by building walls.
When the multi-ray model is applied to the downtown environment, the buildings along
the streets are usually supposed to be lined consecutively and without slots. The multi-
slot wave-guide model proposed by Blaunstein and Levin, on the other hand, takes into
account the actual medium property of the building walls, the actual street width and
reflections from the road, as shown in the Figure 2 -13. This model assumes the city to
be composed of two parallel lines of screens (that is, , simulated building walls) with
randomly distributed slots (that is, , gaps between buildings) and takes into account the
direct signal field, multiple reflections from the building walls, multiple UTD (Uniform
Theory of Diffraction) reflections from the corners and reflections from the ground.
Ray
Building Receiver
Building
Building
Building
x
y
T ransmitter z
Mirror source
Laboratory research has found that, in case that the indoor system is covered by the
outdoor base station, the intensity of signals received within buildings increases as the
floor increases. In the first floor of the building, there is considerable fading due to the
urban building blocks which make the level of signals penetrating into the building very
small. In the floors of the higher part of the building, if there are LOS paths, relatively
strong direct signals can reach the wall of the building. The penetrating loss of signals is
a function of the frequency and the interior height of the building. The penetrating loss
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increases as the frequency increases. Measurements find that penetrating loss for
buildings with windows is 6dB less than that for buildings without windows.
The mean path loss is a function of the nth power of the distance:
d
L50 ( d ) L(d 0 ) 10n log( )
d0
Where L50 ( d ) is the mean path loss (in dB), d is the distance between the
end to the reference distance 0 (in meters), and n is the mean path loss index
d
subject to the environment. The reference path loss can be measured or calculated by
applying the free space path loss equation.
As shown by the above equation, the path loss has logarithmic normal distribution. The
mean path loss index n and standard dethroughtion depend on the building type,
building sidewall, and the number of floors between the transmitter and receiver. The
path loss in the distance of d from the transmitter is
d
L( d ) L(d 0 ) 10n1 log( ) FAF
d0
Where n1 is the path loss index for one entire floor, with a typical value of 2.8 but
subject to the building type. FAF is the floor fading factor, which is a function of the
number of the floor and the building type.
Pr Pt Gt G r Lt Lr Lbf
Where
Pr and Pt are receiving power and transmitting power in dBm, respectively;
Gr and Gt are the gains of the receiving and transmitting antennas in dB; Lr and
Lt are the feeder loss in the uplink and downlink in dB; Lbf is the propagation path
loss in dB, which can be predicted through the model described above.
To improve the accuracy of prediction and reduce the work of the wireless network
planning engineers, computer software is usually adopted to predict the propagation loss
and the coverage area. Path loss prediction is closely related to the topography, clutter
and distance etc near the base station. Therefore, we can store information of the
topography and conditions into the digital map and recall it when necessary for computer
operation. Figure 2 -14 is a digital map of one certain area, with different colors
representing different topographies.
By inputting the digital map and base station information and selecting an appropriate
model, the software can work out and display in the screen the receiving power and
other information at different distances from the base station. Figure 2 -15 shows
software prediction of the coverage area of a certain city, with different colors
representing different receiving powers.
Legends:
The software can also carry out reverse coverage prediction, as shown in the Figure 2
-16
Legends:
Propagation path loss in the urban, suburb and rural area is different. In this case, we
can adopt different propagation models and correction factors. Some prediction software
provides model parameter correction function through field tests. Such a model greatly
improves the accuracy of computer-aided simulated prediction of coverage. Take the
General model as an example. The formula is:
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Where
H eff
: Effective height of the base station antenna;
K1, K2, K3, K4, K5, and K6 are the correction factors of the above parameters
K K
respectively. Clutter is the correction factor of clutter. K1 to K5 and Clutter can be
used by the computer for correction of the actual propagation model with the actual test
data.