Conductance Quantization and

Landauer Formula

Nina Leonhard
SS 2010
 Contents

1. Important length scales

2. Potential well
3. 2-dimensional electron gas
4. Landauer formula
5. Landauer-Bttiker formalism
6. S-Matrix
 Contents

1. Important length scales

2. Potential well
3. 2-dimensional electron gas
4. Landauer formula
5. Landauer-Bttiker formalism
6. S-Matrix
 Important length scales

Wavelength: at low temperatures current transport occurs for electrons

with energies near the Fermi-energy. The Fermi-wavelength is given as:
2 2 2
= =
2
For low temperatures, meaning , the Fermi distribution is
almost a step function
GaAs: 40 nm
Si: 35 - 112 nm
f(E)

E
 Important length scales

Wavelength: at low temperatures current transport occurs for electrons

with energies near the Fermi-energy. The Fermi-wavelength is given as:
2 2 2
= =
2
For low temperatures, meaning , the Fermi distribution is
almost a step function
GaAs: 40 nm
Si: 35 - 112 nm
f(E)

E
 Important length scales

Mean free path : distance an electron travels until its initial

momentum is destroyed
Phase-relaxation length : distance an electron travels until its initial
phase is randomized

Ballistic regime: < < Diffusive regime >

Coherent transport: < Incoherent transport: >

GaAs: 100 10000 nm 200 nm

Si : 37 118 nm 40 400 nm
 Contents

1. Important length scales

2. Potential well
3. 2-dimensional electron gas
4. Landauer formula
5. Landauer-Bttiker formalism
6. S-Matrix
 Potential well

Solve
2
+ = E
2
with boundary conditions

= + =0
2 2
2 2 2
=
22

=

with
Number of occupied states
2 2 2 2 2
= = =
2 22

=

L
 Potential well
Discrete energy-levels for small widths
For macroscopic systems energy bands
E E
 Contents

1. Important length scales

2. Potential well
3. 2-dimensional electron gas
4. Landauer formula
5. Landauer-Bttiker formalism
6. S-Matrix
 2-dimensional electron gas
E
Two semiconductor layers:
n-AlGaAs and i-GaAs layer
electrons flow from n- to i-layer
electrons are caught in z-direction

z

2-deg

z
 2-dimensional electron gas
E(k)
Wavefunction of a free particle
, , =
Its energy is given as:
2

() = + () + 2 + 2
2
()
: transverse energy in z-direction
2-deg: only = 1 is occupied 3 ()

1 () < 2 ()
>1 () >

1 () = 2 + 2
 2-dimensional electron gas

Ohms law for the resistance =


We can also use the conductance = 1 =

For 0 we would expect

contact 1 L contact 2
y
W < <

But: experiments show that G is quantized

 2-dimensional electron gas

First experimental results were obtained by B.J. van Wees in 1988

2-dimensional electron gas at an AlGaAs-GaAs interface

The width is controlled with the gate voltage

Width
 2-dimensional electron gas

Because W is so small, only a few modes are E(k)

occupied. We can rewrite the wavefunction:
, , = 1 ()
Its energy is given as: ()
2 2 4
() ()
= + 1 + +
2
()
() 3
: transverse energy in y-direction
(e.g. energies of the potential well)
()
2
() ()
+ 1 + < : open transport channel
() ()
+ 1 + > : closed transport channel ()
1 =
 Contents

1. Important length scales

2. Potential well
3. 2-dimensional electron gas
4. Landauer formula
5. Landauer-Bttiker formalism
6. S-Matrix
 Landauer formula
Assumptions:
Reflectionless contacts: the current flowing from the conductor to the
contacts is not reflected
Ballistic conductor: no reflection within the conductor
Low temperatures

Ballistic
contact 1 contact 2
-k conductor -k

1 2

+k +k
 Landauer formula

Result: finite contact resistance that is quantized for a ballistic

2 2
conductor =

How do we calculate M?
Number of modes can be estimated to be (for zero magnetic field)

=

because of =
 Landauer formula

A very large number of modes has to be carried by a few modes.

E E E

resistance =
contact resistance
1 1
2 2

k k k
 Landauer formula

Now consider a conductor with two ballistic leads. There is a

transmission probability T that an electron crosses the conductor.
2 2
1+ = [1 2 ] and 2+ = 1 2

2
1 = (1 )[1 2 ]

2 2 2
Total current: = 1+ 1 = 2+ = 1 2 =

transmission
1 + 2 +

1 Lead 1 conductor Lead 2 2

1
reflection
 Landauer formula

2 2
= Landauer formula

2 2
Generalization: =

Can we obtain Ohms law from the Landauer formula?

Yes, we can see that:
0
1 = +

 Contents

1. Important length scales

2. Potential well
3. 2-dimensional electron gas
4. Landauer formula
5. Landauer-Bttiker formalism
6. S-Matrix
 Landauer-Bttiker-formalism

More difficult problem, e.g.

1 3
 Landauer-Bttiker-formalism

The formula has to be modified

2
= with =

2 2
We can introduce =

and obtain
=

Sum rule (Kirchhoff-laws):

=
 Contents

1. Important length scales

2. Potential well
3. 2-dimensional electron gas
4. Landauer formula
5. Landauer-Bttiker formalism
6. S-Matrix
 S-Matrix

For a coherent conductor the transmission function can be expressed

with the scattering matrix.

The scattering matrix relates the incoming amplitudes for each state with
the outgoing amplitudes after the scattering process.

For the transmission Incoming states

probabilities: {a}
2 Scattering
= 1 2
S

= {b}
states after scattering

, , , are matrices
 S-Matrix

Properties of the S-matrix:

Calculating the S-matrix is equivalent to solving the problem.

dim = with () = ()

S has to be unitary S = =

Reversing the magnetic field transposes the S-Matrix

= ()
 S-Matrix

Combining S-matrices:

Instead of solving the problem rightaway, one can divide it into smaller
problems that have already been solved.

Example:

1 2
3
() ()
1 3
2
 S-Matrix
(1) (2)

1 (1) (1) 1 3 (2) (2) 3

= (1) 2 and = (2) 2
2 (1) 2 (2)

1 1
Eliminate 2 and 2 : = 3
3
(1+2)

(2) (1)
Where =
1 (1) (2)
(1) (2)
=
1 (2) (1)
(1) (1) (2) (1)
= +
1 (1) (2)
2 (2) (1) (2)
= +
1 (1) (2)
 Summary

2 2
For mesoscopic ballistic conductors the conductance is =

2 2
Conductor with 2 ballistic leads =

2 2
Generalization for many conductors =

We can use the S-matrix to calculate the conductance

Thank you for your attention.