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Antipsychotic Drugs
Objectives
AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER, THE STUDENT WILL BE ABLE TO:
1. Discuss common manifestations of psychotic 4. Describe the main elements of acute and long-
disorders, including schizophrenia. term treatment of psychotic disorders.
2. Discuss characteristics of phenothiazines and 5. State interventions to decrease adverse
related antipsychotics. effects of antipsychotic drugs.
3. Compare characteristics of atypical anti- 6. State interventions to promote compliance with
psychotic drugs with those of typical outpatient use of antipsychotic drugs.
phenothiazines and related antipsychotic drugs.
Reflect on:
How would you feel if someone you love is diagnosed with a serious, chronic mental health condition?
How are these feelings similar to or different from when a loved one is diagnosed with a chronic physical
condition?
What questions do you think these family members might ask about schizophrenia or the medications
prescribed to control it?
What factors might influence compliance with antipsychotic medications?
cocaine, and others; and drug withdrawal after chronic use brain (eg, bromocriptine, cocaine, levodopa) can cause signs
(eg, alcohol, benzodiazepine antianxiety or sedative-hypnotic and symptoms of psychosis.
agents). In addition, acute psychotic episodes may be super- In addition to the increased amount of dopamine, dopamine
imposed on chronic dementias and psychoses, such as schizo- receptors are also involved. Two groups of dopamine recep-
phrenia. This chapter focuses primarily on schizophrenia as tors have been differentiated, mainly by the effects of the
a chronic psychosis. dopaminereceptor complex on intracellular functions. One
group stimulates cellular functions while the other group de-
creases cellular functions and alters the movement of calcium
SCHIZOPHRENIA and potassium ions across neuronal cell membranes. The sec-
ond group (D2 receptors) is considered important in the
Although schizophrenia is often referred to as a single dis- pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Thus, at the cellular level,
ease, it includes a variety of related disorders. Risk factors in- dopamine activity is determined by its interaction with various
clude a genetic predisposition and environmental stresses. receptors and the simultaneous actions of other neurotransmit-
Symptoms may begin gradually or suddenly, usually during ters at the same target neurons. In general, overactivity of
adolescence or early adulthood. According to the American dopamine in some parts of the brain is thought to account for
Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, and underactivity in
of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, Text Revision, overt psy- another part of the brain is thought to account for the nega-
chotic symptoms must be present for 6 months before schiz- tive symptoms.
ophrenia can be diagnosed. The serotonergic system, which is widespread in the brain,
Behavioral manifestations of schizophrenia are categorized is mainly inhibitory in nature. In schizophrenia, serotonin ap-
as positive and negative symptoms. Positive symptoms are parently decreases dopamine activity in the part of the brain
characterized by central nervous system (CNS) stimulation and associated with negative symptoms and causes or aggravates
include agitation, behavioral disturbances, delusions, disorga- these symptoms.
nized speech, hallucinations, insomnia, and paranoia. Negative The glutamatergic neurotransmission system involves
symptoms are characterized by a lack of pleasure (anhedonia), glutamate, the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS.
a lack of motivation, a blunted affect, poor grooming and Glutamate receptors are widespread and possibly located on
hygiene, poor social skills, poverty of speech, and social with- every neuron in the brain. They are also diverse and their
drawal. However, all of these symptoms may occur with other functions may vary according to subtypes and their locations
disorders. in particular parts of the brain. When glutamate binds to its
receptors, the resulting neuronal depolarization activates sig-
naling molecules (eg, calcium, nitric oxide) within and be-
Etiology tween brain cells. Thus, glutamatergic transmission may
affect every CNS neuron and is considered essential for all
The etiology of schizophrenia is unclear. However, there is ev- mental, sensory, motor, and affective functions. Dysfunction
idence that it results from abnormal neurotransmission systems of glutamatergic neurotransmission has been implicated in
in the brain, especially in the dopaminergic, serotonergic, and the development of psychosis.
glutamatergic systems. There is also evidence of extensive in- In addition, the glutamatergic system interacts with the
teractions among neurotransmission systems. For example, the dopaminergic, GABAergic, and possibly other neurotrans-
serotonergic and glutamatergic systems can alter dopaminer- mission systems. In schizophrenia, evidence indicates abnor-
gic activity, and drugs that may cause psychosis affect sev- malities in the number, density, composition, and function of
eral systems (eg, adrenergics increase norepinephrine and glutamate receptors. In addition, glutamate receptors are ge-
antidepressants increase norepinephrine, serotonin, or both). netically encoded and can interact with environmental factors
Thus, schizophrenia probably results from imbalances and ab- (eg, stress, alcohol and other drugs) during brain develop-
normal integration among several neurotransmission systems. ment. Thus, glutamatergic dysfunction may account for the
In addition, illnesses or drugs that alter neurotransmission in roles of genetic and environmental risk factors in the devel-
one system are likely to alter neurotransmission in other sys- opment of schizophrenia as well as the cognitive impairments
tems. The most-studied systems are the dopaminergic, sero- and negative symptoms associated with the disorder.
tonin, and glutamatergic; these are discussed below.
The dopaminergic system has been more extensively
studied than other systems because schizophrenia has long ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS
been attributed to increased dopamine activity in the brain.
Stimulation of dopamine can initiate psychotic symptoms Antipsychotic drugs are derived from several chemical groups
or exacerbate an existing psychotic disorder. The impor- and broadly categorized as typical, conventional, or first-
tance of dopamine is further supported by the findings that generation (phenothiazines and older nonphenothiazines
antipsychotic drugs exert their therapeutic effects by de- with similar pharmacologic actions), and the atypical or
creasing dopamine activity (ie, blocking dopamine recep- second-generation agents, which can also be called newer
tors) and that drugs that increase dopamine levels in the nonphenothiazines.
146 SECTION 2 DRUGS AFFECTING THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Phenothiazines tions. Although these drugs are more expensive than the older
ones, studies indicate that they reduce the overall cost of care
These drugs are historically important because chlorpro- by reducing acute psychotic episodes and hospitalizations.
mazine (Thorazine), the first drug to effectively treat psy- Because typical and atypical nonphenothiazines vary
chotic disorders, belongs to this group. These drugs have in their characteristics, individual drugs are described in
been used since the 1950s, but their usage and clinical im- later sections and in Table 91 and Drugs at a Glance: Non-
portance have waned in recent years. phenothiazine Antipsychotic Drugs.
The phenothiazines are well absorbed after oral and par-
enteral administration. They are distributed to most body tis-
sues and reach high concentrations in the brain. They are Mechanism of Action
metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 enzyme sys-
tem; several produce pharmacologically active metabolites. Most antipsychotic drugs bind to D2 dopamine receptors and
Metabolites are excreted in urine. These drugs do not cause block the action of dopamine (Fig. 91). However, drug
psychological dependence, but they may cause physical de- binding to the receptors does not explain antipsychotic ef-
pendence manifested by withdrawal symptoms (eg, lethargy fects because binding occurs within a few hours after a drug
and difficulty sleeping) if abruptly discontinued. dose and antipsychotic effects may not occur until the
Phenothiazines exert many effects in the body, including drugs have been given for a few weeks. Manifestations of
CNS depression, autonomic nervous system depression (anti- hyperarousal (eg, anxiety, agitation, hyperactivity, insomnia,
adrenergic and anticholinergic effects), antiemetic effects, aggressive or combative behavior) are relieved more quickly
lowering of body temperature, hypersensitivity reactions, and than hallucinations, delusions, and thought disorders. One
others. They differ mainly in potency and adverse effects. view of the delayed effects is that the blockade of dopamine
Differences in potency are demonstrated by the fact that some receptors leads to changes in the receptors and postreceptor
phenothiazines are as effective in doses of a few milligrams effects on cell metabolism and function. With chronic drug
as others are in doses of several hundred milligrams. All phe- administration (ie, chronic blockade of dopamine receptors),
nothiazines produce the same kinds of adverse effects, but in- there is an increased number of dopamine receptors on post-
dividual drugs differ in the incidence and severity of synaptic and possibly presynaptic nerve cell membranes (up-
particular adverse effects. Selected adverse effects, dosages, regulation). Clozapine (Clozaril) and other atypical agents
and pharmacokinetic characteristics of individual drugs are interact with dopamine, serotonin, and glutamate receptors.
listed in Drugs at a Glance: Phenothiazine Antipsychotic Drugs Overall, the drugs reregulate the abnormal neurotransmission
and Table 91. systems associated with psychosis.
The older nonphenothiazines (eg, haloperidol [Haldol]) are The major clinical indication for use of antipsychotic drugs
similar to phenothiazines in their pharmacologic actions, is schizophrenia. The drugs also are used to treat psychotic
clinical uses, and adverse effects. The atypical, or newer symptoms associated with brain impairment induced by head
nonphenothiazines have become the drugs of first choice in injury, tumor, stroke, alcohol withdrawal, overdoses of CNS
recent years and have virtually replaced phenothiazines and stimulant drugs, and other disorders. They may be useful in
related drugs except for clients doing well on older drugs and the manic phase of bipolar affective disorder to control manic
for treatment of acute psychotic episodes. behavior until lithium, the drug of choice, becomes effective.
The atypical drugs (eg, risperidone [Risperdal]) have both The phenothiazines are also used for clinical indications
similarities and differences compared with other antipsychotic not associated with psychiatric illness. These include treat-
drugs and with each other. The main similarity is their effec- ment of nausea, vomiting, and intractable hiccups. The drugs
tiveness in treating the positive symptoms of psychosis; the relieve nausea and vomiting by blocking dopamine receptors
main differences are greater effectiveness in relieving nega- in the chemoreceptor trigger zone, a group of neurons in the
tive symptoms of schizophrenia and fewer movement dis- medulla oblongata that causes nausea and vomiting when ac-
orders (ie, extrapyramidal symptoms such as acute dystonia, tivated by physical or psychological stimuli. Promethazine
parkinsonism, akathisia, and tardive dyskinesia). Although (Phenergan) is not used for antipsychotic effects, but is often
adverse effects are generally milder and more tolerable than used for antiemetic, sedative, and antihistaminic effects. The
with older drugs, clozapine may cause life-threatening agran- mechanism by which the drugs relieve hiccups is unclear.
ulocytosis and some have been associated with weight gain,
hyperglycemia, and diabetes.
The drugs ability to decrease adverse effects is seen as a Contraindications to Use
significant advantage because clients are more likely to take
the drugs. Better compliance with drug therapy helps to pre- Because of their wide-ranging adverse effects, antipsychotic
vent acute episodes of psychosis and repeated hospitaliza- drugs may cause or aggravate a number of conditions. Thus,
CHAPTER 9 ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS 147
Extrapyramidal
Generic/Trade Name Routes of Administration and Dosage Ranges Sedation Reactions Hypotension
Chlorpromazine Adults: PO 200600 mg daily in divided doses. Dose may High Moderate Moderate to high
(Thorazine) be increased by 100 mg daily q23 days until symptoms
are controlled, adverse effects occur, or a maximum
daily dose of 2 g is reached. IM 25100 mg initially for
acute psychotic symptoms, repeated in 14 hours PRN
until control is achieved.
Elderly or debilitated adults: PO one third to one half usual
adult dose, increased by 25 mg daily q23 days if neces-
sary. IM 10 mg q68h until acute symptoms are controlled
Children: PO, IM 0.5 mg/kg q48h. Maximum IM dose,
40 mg daily in children under 5 y of age and 75 mg for
older children
Fluphenazine Adults under 50 y: IM; SC 12.5 mg initially followed by Low to moderate High Low
decanoate and 25 mg every 2 weeks. Dosage requirements rarely
enanthate (Prolixin exceed 100 mg q26 wk.
Decanoate; Prolixin Adults over 50 y, debilitated clients, or clients with a history
Enanthate) of extrapyramidal reactions: 2.5 mg initially followed by
2.55 mg q1014 days
Children: No dosage established
Fluphenazine Adults: PO 2.510 mg initially, gradually reduced to mainte- Low to moderate High Low
hydrochloride nance dose of 15 mg (doses above 3 mg are rarely
(Prolixin, Permitil) necessary). Acute psychosis: 1.25 mg initially, increased
gradually to 2.510 mg daily in 34 divided doses
Elderly or debilitated adults: PO 12.5 mg daily; IM one third
to one half the usual adult dose
Children: PO 0.7510 mg daily in children 5 to 12 y. IM no
dosage established
Mesoridazine Adults and children over 12 y: PO 150 mg daily in divided High Low Moderate
(Serentil) doses initially, increased gradually in 50-mg increments
until symptoms are controlled. Usual dose range,
100400 mg. IM 25175 mg daily in divided doses
Elderly and debilitated adults: one third to one half usual
adult dose
Children under 12 y: no dosage established
Perphenazine Adults: PO 1664 mg daily in divided doses. Acute psy- Low to moderate High Low
(Trilafon) choses: IM 510 mg initially, then 5 mg q6h if neces-
sary. Maximum daily dose, 15 mg for ambulatory clients
and 30 mg for hospitalized clients
Elderly or debilitated adults: PO, IM one-third to one-half
usual adult dose
Children: PO dosages not established, but the following
amounts have been given in divided doses: ages 1 6 y,
46 mg daily; 612 y, 6 mg daily; over 12 y, 612 mg
daily
Prochlorperazine Adults: PO 10 mg 34 times daily, increased gradually Moderate High Low
(Compazine) (usual daily dose, 100150 mg). IM 1020 mg; may be re-
peated in 24 h. Switch to oral form as soon as possible.
Children over 2 y: PO, rectal 2.5 mg 23 times daily,
IM 0.06 mg/lb
Promazine (Sparine) Adults: Initially, 50150 mg IM; maintenance, PO, Moderate Moderate Moderate
IM 10200 mg q46h
Children over 12 y: 1025 mg q46h
Trifluoperazine Adults: Outpatients PO 24 mg daily in divided doses. Hospi- Moderate High Low
(Stelazine) talized clients, PO 410 mg daily in divided doses. Acute
psychoses: IM 12 mg q45h, maximum of 10 mg daily
Elderly or debilitated adults: PO, IM one third to one half
usual adult dose. If given IM, give at less frequent inter-
vals than above.
Children 6 y and over: PO, IM 12 mg daily, maximum
daily dose 15 mg
Children under 6 y: no dosage established
148 SECTION 2 DRUGS AFFECTING THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Action
they are contraindicated in clients with liver damage, coronary movements). For clients who are unable or unwilling to take
artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, parkinsonism, bone the oral drug as prescribed, a slowly absorbed, long-acting
marrow depression, severe hypotension or hypertension, coma, formulation (haloperidol decanoate) may be given intra-
or severely depressed states. They should be used cautiously in muscularly, once monthly.
seizure disorders, diabetes mellitus, glaucoma, prostatic hyper- Loxapine (Loxitane) is similar to phenothiazines and re-
trophy, peptic ulcer disease, and chronic respiratory disorders. lated drugs. It is recommended for use in only the treatment
of schizophrenia.
Molindone (Moban) differs chemically from other agents
Individual Phenothiazine-Similar Drugs but has similar pharmacologic actions.
Pimozide (Orap) is approved only for the treatment of
Haloperidol (Haldol) is a butyrophenone used in psychiatric Tourette syndrome in clients who fail to respond to haloperi-
disorders; a related drug, droperidol, is used in anesthesia and dol. Potentially serious adverse effects include tardive dys-
as an antiemetic. Haloperidol is a frequently used, potent, kinesia, major motor seizures, and sudden death.
long-acting drug. It is well absorbed after oral or intra- Thiothixene (Navane) is used only for antipsychotic
muscular administration, metabolized in the liver, and ex- effects, although it produces other effects similar to those of
creted in urine and bile. It may cause adverse effects similar the phenothiazines.
to those of the phenothiazines. Usually, it produces a rela-
tively low incidence of hypotension and sedation and a high
incidence of extrapyramidal effects. Atypical Antipsychotic Drugs
Haloperidol may be used as the initial drug for treating psy-
chotic disorders or as a substitute in clients who are hyper- Clozapine (Clozaril), the prototype of the atypical agents,
sensitive or refractory to the phenothiazines. It also is used for is chemically different from the older antipsychotic drugs.
some conditions in which other antipsychotic drugs are not It blocks both dopamine and serotonin receptors in the brain.
used, including mental retardation with hyperkinesia (abnor- It is recommended only for clients with schizophrenia, for
mally increased motor activity), Tourette syndrome (a rare whom it may improve negative symptoms and does not cause
disorder characterized by involuntary movements and vocal- the extrapyramidal effects associated with older antipsychotic
izations), and Huntingtons disease (a rare genetic disorder that drugs. Despite these advantages, however, it is a second-line
involves progressive psychiatric symptoms and involuntary drug, recommended only for clients who have not responded
CHAPTER 9 ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS 149
(continued )
150 SECTION 2 DRUGS AFFECTING THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Risperidone (Risperdal) PO, initially 1 mg twice daily (2 mg/d); increase to 2 mg <12 y: Dosage not established
twice daily on the second day (4 mg/d); increase to
3 mg twice daily on the third day (6 mg/d), if neces-
sary. Usual maintenance dose, 4 to 8 mg/d. After ini-
tial titration, dosage increases or decreases should
be made at a rate of 1 mg/wk.
Elderly or debilitated adults: PO, initially 0.5 mg twice
daily (1 mg/d); increase in 0.5-mg increments to
1.5 mg twice daily (3 mg/d)
Renal or hepatic impairment: PO, same as for elderly or
debilitated adults
Ziprasidone (Geodon) PO 20 mg twice daily with food, initially, gradually
increased up to 80 mg twice daily, if necessary
to treatment with at least two other antipsychotic drugs or who dal effects and less likely to cause agranulocytosis. Compared
have disabling tardive dyskinesia. The reason for clozapines with typical antipsychotics, olanzapine reportedly causes less
second-line status is its association with agranulocytosis, a life- sedation, extrapyramidal symptoms, anticholinergic effects,
threatening decrease in white blood cells (WBCs), which and orthostatic hypotension. However, it has been associated
usually occurs during the first 3 months of therapy. Weekly with weight gain, hyperglycemia, and initiation or aggrava-
WBC counts are required. In addition, clozapine is reportedly tion of diabetes mellitus.
more likely to cause constipation, dizziness, drowsiness, hypo- The drug is well absorbed after oral administration; its ab-
tension, seizures, and weight gain than other atypical agents. sorption is not affected by food. A steady-state concentration is
Olanzapine (Zyprexa) has therapeutic effects similar to reached in approximately 1 week of once-daily administration.
those of clozapine, but adverse effects may differ. Compared It is metabolized in the liver and excreted in urine and feces.
to clozapine, olanzapine is more likely to cause extrapyrami- Quetiapine (Seroquel), like the other atypical agents, blocks
both dopamine and serotonin receptors and relieves both posi-
tive and negative symptoms of psychosis. After oral adminis-
tration, quetiapine is well absorbed and may be taken without
regard for meals. It is extensively metabolized in the liver by
Receptor site the cytochrome P450 enzyme system. Clinically significant
Nerve ending on cell surface drug interactions may occur with drugs that induce or inhibit
the liver enzymes; dosage of quetiapine may need to be in-
creased with enzyme inducers (eg, carbamazepine, phenytoin,
rifampin) or decreased with enzyme inhibitors (eg, cimetidine,
Dopamine and erythromycin). Common adverse effects include drowsiness,
serotonin
headache, orthostatic hypotension, and weight gain.
Risperidone (Risperdal), like other atypical antipsychotic
agents, blocks both dopamine and serotonin receptors and re-
Antipsychotic lieves both positive and negative symptoms of psychosis. It
drugs
is a frequently prescribed, first-choice agent that is usually
well tolerated. In a study that compared risperidone and olan-
zapine, researchers concluded that both drugs were well tol-
erated and effective in treating schizophrenia, but risperidone
relieved positive symptoms, anxiety, and depression to a
Nerve cells in brain
greater degree and caused less weight gain than olanzapine.
Risperidone is well absorbed with oral administration.
Peak blood levels occur in 1 to 2 hours, but therapeutic effects
are delayed for 1 to 2 weeks. It is metabolized mainly in the
Figure 91 Antipsychotic drugs prevent dopamine and serotonin liver by the cytochrome P450 2D6 enzymes, and produces an
from occupying receptor sites on neuronal cell membranes and exert-
active metabolite. Effects are attributed approximately equally
ing their effects on cellular functions. This action leads to changes
in receptors and cell functions that account for therapeutic effects to risperidone and the metabolite. Most (70%) is excreted in
(ie, relief of psychotic symptoms). Other neurotransmitters and re- urine, some (14%) in feces. Adverse effects include agitation,
ceptors may also be involved. anxiety, headache, insomnia, dizziness, and hypotension. It
CHAPTER 9 ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS 151
Antipsychotic drugs are given to clients with schizophrenia, a These drugs should be tapered in dosage and discontin-
chronic mental illness. Because of the nature of the disease, ued gradually; they should not be stopped abruptly.
a responsible adult caregiver is needed to prompt a client
about taking particular doses and to manage other aspects Medication Administration
of the drug therapy regimen, as follows. Assist or prompt the client to:
General Considerations Take medications in the correct doses and at the correct
times, to maintain blood levels and beneficial effects.
Ask about the planned drug therapy regimen, including
Avoid taking these medications with antacids. If an antacid
the desired results, when results can be expected, and
is needed (eg, for heartburn), it should be taken 1 hour be-
the tentative length of drug therapy.
fore or 2 hours after the antipsychotic drug. Antacids de-
Maintain an adequate supply of medication to ensure
crease absorption of these drugs from the intestine.
regular administration. Consistent blood levels are nec-
Lie down for approximately an hour after receiving med-
essary to control symptoms and prevent recurring episodes
ication, if dizziness and faintness occur.
of acute illness and hospitalization.
Do not allow the client to drive a car, operate machinery, or Take the medication at bedtime, if able, so that drowsi-
perform activities that require alertness when drowsy from ness aids sleep and is minimized during waking hours.
medication. Drowsiness, slowed thinking, and impaired Practice good oral hygiene, including dental checkups,
muscle coordination are especially likely during the first thorough and frequent toothbrushing, drinking fluids,
2 weeks of drug therapy but tend to decrease with time. and frequent mouth rinsing. Mouth dryness is a com-
Report unusual side effects and all physical illnesses, be- mon side effect of the drugs. Although it is usually not
cause changes in drug therapy may be indicated. serious, dry mouth can lead to mouth infections and
Try to prevent the client from taking unprescribed med- dental cavities.
ications, including those available without prescription or Minimize exposure to sunlight, wear protective clothing,
those prescribed for another person, to prevent undesir- and use sunscreen lotions. Sensitivity to sunlight occurs
able drug interactions. Alcohol and sleeping pills should with some of the drugs and may produce a sunburn-type
be avoided because they may cause excessive drowsi- of skin reaction.
ness and decreased awareness of safety hazards in the Avoid exposure to excessive heat. Some of these med-
environment. ications may cause fever and heat prostration with high
Keep all physicians informed about all the medications environmental temperatures. In hot weather or climates,
being taken by the client, to decrease risks of undesir- keep the client indoors and use air conditioning or fans
able drug interactions. during the hours of highest heat levels.
undergo extensive first-pass metabolism in the liver so that a drugs, divided daily doses are recommended. For mainte-
significant portion of a dose does not reach the systemic cir- nance therapy, once daily dosing is usually preferred. A sin-
culation and low serum drug levels are produced. In contrast, gle bedtime dose is effective for most clients. This schedule
intramuscular (IM) doses avoid first-pass metabolism and increases compliance with prescribed drug therapy, allows
produce serum drug levels approximately double those of better nighttime sleep, and decreases hypotension and day-
oral doses. Thus, usual IM doses are approximately half the
oral doses.
Initial drug therapy for acute psychotic episodes may re- Nursing Notes: Ethical/Legal Dilemma
quire IM administration and hospitalization; symptoms are
usually controlled within 48 to 72 hours, after which oral
drugs can be given. When treatment is initiated with oral Mr. Seager, 37 years of age and homeless, has been diagnosed and
treated for schizophrenia and alcohol abuse for the last 15 years.
He is admitted to the hospital for pneumonia. When you enter his
room to administer his prescribed antipsychotic medication and
Nursing Notes: Apply Your Knowledge his antibiotic, he swears at you and tells you to leave the room
because he has no plans to take that poison.
You are assigned to care for John Chou, hospitalized 2 weeks ago Reflect on:
and started on fluphenazine hydrochloride (Prolixin) to treat acute Does Mr. Seager have the right to refuse to take his medication?
psychotic symptoms. During your assessment, John appears rest- Does his psychiatric history alter his rights?
less, unable to sit still, and uncoordinated. He also has a fine hand Role play how you would respond to Mr. Seager if you were
tremor. How would you interpret these data? the nurse in this situation.
154 SECTION 2 DRUGS AFFECTING THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
time sedation. Effective maintenance therapy requires close ences are attributed to variations in hepatic drug-metabolizing
supervision and contact with the client and family members. enzymes. Those with strong enzyme activity are known as ex-
tensive or fast metabolizers, whereas those with slower rates of
enzyme activity are poor or slow metabolizers. Fast metabo-
Duration of Therapy lizers eliminate drugs rapidly and may need a larger-than-usual
dose to achieve therapeutic effects; poor metabolizers eliminate
In schizophrenia, antipsychotic drugs are usually given for drugs slowly and therefore are at risk of drug accumulation and
years because there is a high rate of relapse (acute psychotic adverse effects. For example, risperidone has a half-life of
episodes) when drug therapy is discontinued, most often by 3 hours and its active metabolite has a half-life of 21 hours
clients who become unwilling or unable to continue their in extensive metabolizers. In slow metabolizers, risperidone
medication regimen. Drug therapy usually is indicated for at has a half-life of 20 hours and the metabolite has a half-life
least 1 year after an initial psychotic episode and for at least 30 hours. About 6% to 8% of white people are thought to
5 years, perhaps for life, after multiple episodes. Several stud- be slow metabolizers. Although little research has been done,
ies indicate that low-dose, continuous maintenance therapy is especially with the atypical drugs, and other factors may be in-
effective in long-term prevention of recurrent psychosis. volved, several studies document differences in antipsychotic
With wider use of maintenance therapy and the newer, better- drug effects in nonwhite populations, including the following:
tolerated antipsychotic drugs, clients may experience fewer 1. African Americans tend to respond more rapidly, expe-
psychotic episodes and hospitalizations. rience a higher incidence of adverse effects, including
tardive dyskinesia, and metabolize antipsychotic drugs
more slowly than whites.
Management of Drug Withdrawal In addition, compared with whites with psychotic
disorders, African Americans may be given higher
Antipsychotic drugs can cause symptoms of withdrawal when doses and more frequent injections of long-acting anti-
suddenly or rapidly discontinued. Specific symptoms are re- psychotic drugs, both of which may increase the inci-
lated to a drugs potency, extent of dopaminergic blockade, dence and severity of adverse effects.
and its anticholinergic effects. Low-potency drugs (eg, chlor- 2. Asians generally metabolize antipsychotic drugs slowly
promazine), for example, have strong anticholinergic effects and therefore have higher plasma drug levels for a given
and sudden withdrawal can cause cholinergic effects such dose than whites. Most studies have been done with
as diarrhea, drooling, and insomnia. To prevent withdrawal haloperidol and in a limited number of Asian subgroups.
symptoms, drugs should be tapered in dosage and gradually Thus, it cannot be assumed that all antipsychotic drugs
discontinued over several weeks. and all people of Asian heritage respond in the same
way. To avoid drug toxicity, initial doses should be ap-
proximately half the usual doses given to whites and
Management of Extrapyramidal later doses should be titrated according to clinical re-
Symptoms sponse and serum drug levels.
3. Hispanics responses to antipsychotic drugs are largely
Extrapyramidal effects (eg, abnormal movements) are more unknown. Some are extremely fast metabolizers who
likely to occur with older antipsychotic drugs than with the may have low plasma drug levels in relation to a given
newer atypical agents. If they do occur, an anticholinergic dose.
antiparkinson drug (see Chap. 12) can be given. Such neuro-
muscular symptoms appear in fewer than half the clients
taking traditional antipsychotic drugs and are better handled Use in Perioperative Periods
by reducing dosage, if this does not cause recurrence of
psychotic symptoms. If antiparkinson drugs are given, they A major concern about giving traditional antipsychotic drugs
should be gradually discontinued in about 3 months. Extra- perioperatively is their potential for adverse interactions with
pyramidal symptoms do not usually recur despite continued other drugs. For example, the drugs potentiate the effects of
administration of the same antipsychotic drug at the same general anesthetics and other CNS depressants that are often
dosage. used before, during, and after surgery. As a result, risks of
hypotension and excessive sedation are increased unless
doses of other agents are reduced. If hypotension occurs and
Genetic or Ethnic Considerations requires vasopressor drugs, phenylephrine or norepinephrine
should be used rather than epinephrine because antipsychotic
Antipsychotic drug therapy for nonwhite populations in drugs inhibit the vasoconstrictive (blood pressureraising)
the United States is based primarily on dosage recommenda- effects of epinephrine. Guidelines for perioperative use of the
tions, pharmacokinetic data, adverse effects, and other charac- newer, atypical agents have not been developed. Cautious use
teristics of antipsychotic drugs derived from white recipients. is indicated because they may also cause hypotension, seda-
However, some groups respond differently. Most of the differ- tion, and other adverse effects.
CHAPTER 9 ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS 155
Use in Children doses for their size and weight. In relation to excretion,
renal function is usually similar to that of adults and
Antipsychotic drugs are used mainly for childhood schizo- most of the drugs are largely inactivated by liver me-
phrenia, which is often characterized by more severe symp- tabolism. Thus, with normal renal function, excretion
toms and a more chronic course than adult schizophrenia. probably has little effect on blood levels of active drug
Drug therapy is largely empiric because few studies have or the childs response to the drug.
been done in children and adolescents. Some considerations 3. It is not clear which antipsychotics are safest and most
include the following: effective in children and adolescents. Although the newer
1. Guidelines for the use of antipsychotic drugs were pub- drugs are being used, childrens dosages have not been
lished by The American Academy of Child and Ado- established and long-term effects are unknown. Tradi-
lescent Psychiatry (AACAP) in its Practice Parameter tional drugs are not usually recommended for children
for the Assessment and Treatment of Children and younger than 12 years of age. However, prochlorperazine
Adolescents with Schizophrenia. Major recommenda- (Compazine), trifluoperazine (Stelazine), and haloperi-
tions are: dol (Haldol) may be used in children aged 2 to 12 years.
a. A thorough psychiatric and physical examination 4. Dosage regulation is difficult because children may re-
before starting drug therapy. quire lower plasma levels for therapeutic effects, but
b. Choosing a medication based on potency, adverse they also metabolize antipsychotic drugs more rapidly
effects, and the clients medication response history, than adults. A conservative approach is to begin with a
if available. A newer, atypical drug is probably the low dose and increase it gradually (no more than once
drug of first choice. or twice a week), if necessary. Divided doses may be
c. Giving the chosen drug at least 4 to 6 weeks before useful initially, with later conversion to once daily at
evaluating its effectiveness. If an inadequate re- bedtime. Older adolescents may require doses compa-
sponse is then evident, a new antipsychotic should rable with those of adults.
be tried. 5. Adverse effects may be different in children. For exam-
d. Once an adequate response is obtained, drug ther- ple, extrapyramidal symptoms with conventional drugs
apy should be continued at least for several months. are more likely to occur in children than adults. If they do
For newly diagnosed children who are symptom occur, dosage reduction is more effective in alleviating
free for 6 to 12 months, it may be feasible to stop the them than the anticholinergic antiparkinson drugs com-
drug for a trial period to reassess condition and drug monly used in adults. In addition, hypotension is more
dosage. In general, the lowest effective dose is rec- likely to develop in children. Blood pressure should be
ommended. closely monitored during initial dosage titration.
e. Using psychosocial and psychotherapeutic inter-
ventions along with antipsychotic drugs.
f. Having the physician or another health care provider Use in Older Adults
maintain contact with the child and his or her par-
ents or guardian and monitor responses to the med- Antipsychotic drugs should be used cautiously in older adults.
ication. For example, weight charts and calculations Before they are started, a thorough assessment is needed be-
of the body mass index should be maintained with cause psychiatric symptoms are often caused by organic disease
the atypical drugs because most are associated with or other drugs. If this is the case, treating the disease or stopping
weight gain and some are associated with the de- the offending drug may cancel the need for an antipsychotic
velopment of diabetes. drug. In addition, older adults are more likely to have problems
g. More controlled studies of drug effects in children in which the drugs are contraindicated (eg, severe cardiovascu-
and adolescents. lar disease, liver damage, Parkinsons disease) or must be used
2. Drug pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics are very cautiously (diabetes mellitus, glaucoma, prostatic hyper-
likely to be different in children, compared with adults. trophy, peptic ulcer disease, chronic respiratory disorders).
Pharmacodynamic differences may stem from changes If antipsychotic drugs are used to control acute agitation
in neurotransmission systems in the brain as the child in older adults, they should be used in the lowest effective
grows. Pharmacokinetic differences may stem from dose for the shortest effective duration. If the drugs are used
changes in distribution or metabolism of drugs; ab- to treat dementias, they may relieve some symptoms (eg, ag-
sorption seems similar to that of adults. In relation to itation, hallucinations, hostility, suspiciousness, and uncoop-
distribution, children usually have a lesser percentage of erativeness), but they do not improve memory loss and may
body fat than adults. Thus, antipsychotic drugs, which further impair cognitive functioning.
are highly lipid soluble, cannot be as readily stored in fat For older adults in long-term care facilities, there is concern
as they are in adults. This often leads to shorter half-lives that antipsychotic drugs may be overused to control agitated or
and the need for more frequent administration. In rela- disruptive behavior that is caused by nonpsychotic disorders
tion to metabolism, children usually have a faster rate and for which other treatments are preferable. For example,
than adults and may therefore require relatively high clients with dementias may become agitated from environ-
156 SECTION 2 DRUGS AFFECTING THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
mental or medical problems. Alleviating such causes, when juries unless clients are carefully monitored and safe-
possible, is safer and more effective than administering anti- guarded. With atypical drugs, many of these adverse ef-
psychotic drugs. Inappropriate use of the drugs exposes clients fects are less likely to occur, especially at the reduced
to adverse drug effects and does not resolve underlying prob- doses recommended for older adults.
lems. Because of the many implications for client safety and
welfare, federal regulations were established for the use of
antipsychotics in facilities receiving Medicare and Medicaid Use in Renal Impairment
funds. These regulations include appropriate (eg, psychotic
disorders, delusions, schizophrenia, and dementia and delirium Because most antipsychotic drugs are extensively metabo-
that meet certain criteria) and inappropriate (eg, agitation not lized in the liver and the metabolites are excreted through the
thought to indicate potential harm to the resident or others, anx- kidneys, the drugs should be used cautiously in clients with
iety, depression, uncooperativeness, wandering) indications. impaired renal function. Renal function should be monitored
When the drugs are required in older adults, considerations periodically during long-term therapy. If renal function test
include the following: results (eg, blood urea nitrogen) become abnormal, the drug
1. Drug selection. With traditional antipsychotic drugs, may need to be lowered in dosage or discontinued. Because
haloperidol and fluphenazine may be better tolerated risperidone is metabolized to an active metabolite, recom-
but they cause a high incidence of extrapyramidal mended dosage reductions and titrations for clients with renal
symptoms. With atypical drugs, clozapine is a second- impairment are the same as those for older adults.
line agent because it produces many adverse effects. With highly sedating antipsychotic drugs, it may be diffi-
Olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone or ziprasidone may cult to assess the client for excessive sedation because drowsi-
be useful, but little information is available about their ness, lethargy, and mental status changes may also occur with
use in older adults. Ziprasidone should not be used renal impairment.
in older adults with cardiac dysrhythmias or severe
cardiovascular disease.
2. Dosage. When the drugs are required, the recom- Use in Hepatic Impairment
mended starting dosage is 25 to 33% of the dosage rec-
ommended for younger adults. Dosage should also be Antipsychotic drugs undergo extensive hepatic metabolism
increased more gradually, if necessary, and according and then elimination in urine. In the presence of liver dis-
to clinical response. The basic principle of start low, ease (eg, cirrhosis, hepatitis), metabolism may be slowed
go slow is especially applicable. Once symptoms are and drug elimination half-lives prolonged, with resultant
controlled, dosage should be reduced to the lowest ef- accumulation and increased risk of adverse effects. Thus,
fective level. Some specific drugs and dosage ranges the drugs should be used cautiously in clients with hepatic
include haloperidol 0.25 to 1.5 mg qd to qid; clozapine impairment.
6.25 mg qd, initially; risperidone 0.5 mg qd, initially; Jaundice has been associated with phenothiazines, usually
quetiapine, a lower initial dose, slower dose titration, after 2 to 4 weeks of therapy. It is considered a hypersensitiv-
and a lower target dose in older adults. ity reaction and clients should not be re-exposed to a pheno-
As in other populations, antipsychotic drugs should thiazine. If antipsychotic drug therapy is required in these
be tapered in dosage and discontinued gradually rather clients, a drug from a different chemical group should be
than discontinued abruptly. given. Overall, there is no conclusive evidence that preexist-
3. Adverse effects. Older adults are at high risk of adverse ing liver impairment increases a clients risk for development
effects because metabolism and excretion are usually of jaundice, and clients with alcoholic cirrhosis have been
slower or more likely to be impaired than in younger treated without complications. With risperidone, recom-
adults. With traditional antipsychotic drugs, anticholin- mended dosage reductions and titrations for clients with he-
ergic effects (eg, confusion, memory impairment, hal- patic impairment are the same as those for older adults. With
lucinations, urinary retention, constipation, heat stroke) quetiapine, higher plasma levels occur in clients with hepatic
may be especially problematic. In addition, cardio- impairment and a slower rate of dose titration and a lower
vascular (hypotension, dysrhythmias) effects may be target dose are recommended.
especially dangerous in older adults, who often have Periodic liver function tests (eg, gamma-glutamyl transpep-
underlying cardiovascular diseases. Tardive dyskinesia, tidase, alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin) are probably indicated,
which may occur with long-term use of the typical anti- especially with long-term therapy or the use of clozapine,
psychotic drugs, may develop more rapidly and at lower haloperidol, thiothixene, or a phenothiazine.
drug doses in older adults than in younger clients. There
is also a risk of neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a
rare but serious disorder characterized by confusion, Use in Critical Illness
dizziness, fever, and rigidity. Other adverse effects in-
clude oversedation, dizziness, confusion, and impaired Antipsychotic drugs are infrequently used in clients who are
mobility, which may contribute to falls and other in- critically ill. Some clients become acutely agitated or deliri-
CHAPTER 9 ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS 157
ous and need sedation to prevent their injuring themselves culties. Continuing the drug may worsen signs and symptoms
by thrashing about, removing tubes and intravenous (IV) of the critical illness (eg, hypotension); stopping it may cause
catheters, and so forth. Some physicians prefer a benzodi- symptoms of withdrawal.
azepine-type of sedative while others may use haloperidol. Little information is available about the newer drugs. If
Before giving either drug, causes of delirium (eg, drug in- quetiapine is used, very low doses are recommended in older
toxication or withdrawal) should be identified and elimi- adults, clients with hepatic impairment, debilitated clients,
nated if possible. and those predisposed to hypotension. A critically ill client
If haloperidol is used, it is usually given IV, by bolus in- could have all of these conditions.
jection. The initial dose is 0.5 to 10 mg, depending on the
severity of the agitation. It should be injected at a rate no
faster than 5 mg/minute; the dose can be repeated every Home Care
3060 minutes up to a total amount of 30 mg, if necessary.
Haloperidol has relatively weak sedative effects and does not Chronically mentally ill clients, such as those with schizo-
cause respiratory depression. However, it can cause hypo- phrenia, are among the most challenging in a home care
tension in clients who are volume depleted or receiving anti- nurses caseload. Major recurring problems include failure to
hypertensive drugs. It can also cause cardiac dysrhythmias, take antipsychotic medications as prescribed and the concur-
including life-threatening torsades de pointes, in clients who rent use of alcohol and other drugs of abuse. Either problem
are receiving large doses (>50 mg/day) or who have abnor- is likely to lead to acute psychotic episodes and hospitaliza-
mal serum electrolyte levels (eg, calcium, potassium, or mag- tions. The home care nurse must assist and support care-
nesium). Clients should be on a cardiac monitor and the ECG givers efforts to maintain medications and manage adverse
should be checked for a prolonged QT interval. drug effects, other aspects of daily care, and follow-up psy-
For clients with chronic schizophrenia who are stabilized chiatric care. In addition, the home care nurse may need to
on an antipsychotic drug when they experience a critical ill- coordinate the efforts of several health and social service
ness, either continuing or stopping the drug may cause diffi- agencies or providers.
NURSING
ACTIONS Antipsychotic Drugs
1. Administer accurately
a. Check doses carefully, especially when starting or stopping Doses are often changed. When a drug is started, initial doses are
an antipsychotic drug, or substituting one for another. usually titrated upward over days or weeks, then reduced for main-
tenance; when the drug is stopped, doses are gradually reduced;
when substituting, dosage of one may be increased while dosage
of the other is decreased.
b. With older, typical drugs:
(1) Give once daily, 12 hours before bedtime, when Peak sedation occurs in about 2 hours and aids sleep. Also, adverse
feasible. effects such as dry mouth and hypotension are less bothersome.
(2) When preparing solutions, try to avoid skin contact. If These solutions are irritating to the skin and many cause contact
contact is made, wash the area immediately. dermatitis.
(3) Mix liquid concentrates with at least 60 mL of fruit To mask the taste. If the client does not like juice or water, check
juice or water just before administration. the package insert for other diluents. Some of the drugs may be
mixed with coffee, tea, milk, or carbonated beverages.
(4) For intramuscular injections, give only those prepara- These drugs are physically incompatible with many other drugs,
tions labeled for IM use; do not mix any other drugs in a sy- and a precipitate may occur; parenteral solutions are irritating to
ringe; change the needle after filling the syringe; inject body tissues and changing needles helps protect the tissues of the
slowly and deeply into gluteal muscles; and have the client injection tract from unnecessary contact with the drug; injecting
lie down for 3060 minutes after the injection. into a large muscle mass decreases tissue irritation; lying down
helps to prevent orthostatic hypotension.
(5) With parenteral fluphenazine, give the hydrochloride To decrease tissue irritation
salt IM only; give the decanoate and enanthate salts IM or
SC.
(continued )
158 SECTION 2 DRUGS AFFECTING THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Dyskinesias (involuntary, rhythmic body movements) These are less common extrapyramidal reactions, but they may
and dystonias (uncoordinated, bizarre movements of occur suddenly, approximately 15 days after drug therapy is
the neck, face, eyes, tongue, trunk, or extremities) started, and be very frightening to the client and health care per-
sonnel. The movements are caused by muscle spasms and result in
exaggerated posture and facial distortions. These symptoms are
sometimes misinterpreted as seizures, hysteria, or other disorders.
Antiparkinson drugs are given parenterally during acute dystonic
reactions, but continued administration is not usually required.
These reactions occur most often in younger people.
Tardive dyskinesiahyperkinetic movements of the This syndrome occurs after months or years of high-dose anti-
face (sucking and smacking of lips, tongue protrusion, psychotic drug therapy. The drugs may mask the symptoms so that
and facial grimaces) and choreiform movements of the syndrome is more likely to be diagnosed when dosage is de-
the trunk and limbs creased or the drug is discontinued for a few days. It occurs grad-
ually and at any age but is more common in older people, women,
and people with organic brain disorders. The condition is usually
irreversible, and there is no effective treatment. Symptoms are not
controlled and may be worsened by antiparkinson drugs. Low
dosage and short-term use of antipsychotic drugs help prevent tar-
dive dyskinesia; drug-free periods may aid early detection.
(3) Antiadrenergic effectshypotension, tachycardia, dizzi- Hypotension is potentially one of the most serious adverse reac-
ness, faintness, and fatigue. tions to the antipsychotic drugs. It is most likely to occur when the
client assumes an upright position after sitting or lying down (or-
thostatic or postural hypotension) but it does occur in the recum-
bent position. It is caused by peripheral vasodilation. Orthostatic
hypotension can be assessed by comparing blood pressure read-
ings taken with the client in supine and standing positions.
Tachycardia occurs as a compensatory mechanism in response to
hypotension and as an anticholinergic effect in which the normal
vagus nerve action of slowing the heart rate is blocked.
(4) Anticholinergic effectsdry mouth, dental caries, These atropine-like effects are common with therapeutic doses and
blurred vision, constipation, paralytic ileus, urinary retention are increased with large doses of phenothiazines.
(5) Respiratory depressionslow, shallow breathing and This stems from general central nervous system (CNS) depression,
decreased ability to breathe deeply, cough, and remove se- which causes drowsiness and decreased movement. It may cause
cretions from the respiratory tract pneumonia or other respiratory problems, especially in people
with hypercarbia and chronic lung disease.
(6) Endocrine effectsmenstrual irregularities, possibly These apparently result from drug-induced changes in pituitary
impotence and decreased libido in the male client, weight and hypothalamic functions.
gain
(7) Hypothermia or hyperthermia Antipsychotic drugs may impair the temperature-regulating cen-
ter in the hypothalamus. Hypothermia is more likely to occur.
Hyperthemia occurs with high doses and warm environmental
temperatures.
(8) Hypersensitivity reactions:
Cholestatic hepatitismay begin with fever and Cholestatic hepatitis results from drug-induced edema of the bile
influenza-like symptoms followed in approximately ducts and obstruction of the bile flow. It occurs most often in
1 week by jaundice women and after 24 weeks of receiving the drug. It is usually re-
versible if the drug is discontinued.
Blood dyscrasiasleukopenia, agranulocytosis (fever, Some degree of leukopenia occurs rather often and does not seem to
sore throat, weakness) be serious. Agranulocytosis, on the other hand, occurs rarely but is
life threatening. Agranulocytosis is most likely to occur during the
first 410 weeks of drug therapy, in women, and in older people.
Skin reactionsphotosensitivity, dermatoses Skin pigmentation and discoloration may occur with exposure to
sunlight.
(continued )
160 SECTION 2 DRUGS AFFECTING THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
(9) Electrocardiogram (ECG) changes, cardiac dysrhyth- ECG changes may portend dysrhythmias, especially in people
mias with underlying heart disease. Ziprasidone may prolong the
QT/QTc interval, an ECG change associated with torsades de
pointes, a life-threatening dysrhythmia.
(10) Neuroleptic malignant syndromefever (may be con- A rare but potentially fatal reaction that may occur hours to months
fused with heat stroke), muscle rigidity, agitation, confusion, after initial drug use. Symptoms usually develop rapidly over
delirium, dyspnea, tachycardia, respiratory failure, acute 2472 hours. Treatment includes stopping the antipsychotic drug,
renal failure giving supportive care related to fever and other symptoms, and
drug therapy (dantrolene, a skeletal muscle relaxant, and amanta-
dine or bromocriptine, dopamine-stimulating drugs).
b. With clozapine, observe for:
(1) CNS effectsdrowsiness, dizziness, headache, seizures
(2) Gastrointestinal (GI) effectsnausea, vomiting, con-
stipation
(3) Cardiovascular effectshypotension, tachycardia
(4) Hematologic effectsagranulocytosis This is the most life-threatening adverse effect of clozapine.
Clients white blood cell counts must be checked before starting
clozapine, every week during therapy, and for 4 weeks after the
drug is discontinued.
c. With olanzapine, observe for:
(1) CNS effectsdrowsiness, dizziness, akathisia, tardive
dyskinesia, neuroleptic malignant syndrome
(2) GI effectsconstipation
(3) Cardiovascular effectshypotension, tachycardia
(4) Otherweight gain, hyperglycemia, diabetes
d. With quetiapine, observe for:
(1) CNS effectsdrowsiness, dizziness, headache, tardive
dyskinesia, neuroleptic malignant syndrome
(2) GI effectsanorexia, nausea, vomiting
(3) Cardiovascular effectsorthostatic hypotension, tachy-
cardia
(4) Otherweight gain, hyperglycemia, diabetes
e. With risperidone, observe for:
(1) CNS effectsagitation, anxiety, drowsiness, dizziness,
headache, insomnia, tardive dyskinesia, neuroleptic malig-
nant syndrome
(2) GI effectsnausea, vomiting, constipation
(3) Cardiovascular effectsorthostatic hypotension,
arrhythmias
(4) Otherphotosensitivity
f. With ziprasidone, observe for:
(1) CNS effectsdrowsiness, headache, extrapyramidal
reactions
(2) GI effectsnausea, constipation
(3) Cardiovascular effectsdysrhythmias, hypotension,
ECG changes
(4) Otherfever
(continued )
CHAPTER 9 ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS 161
Nursing Notes: Apply Your Knowledge 3. What are major adverse effects of older antipsychotic
drugs?
4. When instructing a client to rise slowly from a sitting or
Answer: Although these symptoms may accompany some psy- lying position, which adverse effect of an antipsychotic
chiatric disorders, it is important to consider that John may be drug is the nurse trying to prevent?
experiencing extrapyramidal side effects from the antipsychotic
medication (Prolixin) he is taking. Notify the physician of the 5. In a client receiving an antipsychotic drug, what appear-
new symptoms. The dose of Prolixin may be lowered or an anti- ances or behaviors would lead the nurse to suspect an
parkinson agent may be ordered to treat the extrapyramidal extrapyramidal reaction?
symptoms. 6. Are antipsychotic drugs likely to be overused and abused?
Why or why not?
7. In an older client taking an antipsychotic drug, what special
safety measures are needed? Why?
Review and Application Exercises 8. How do clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone,
and ziprasidone compare with older antipsychotic drugs
1. How do antipsychotic drugs act to relieve psychotic in terms of therapeutic and adverse effects?
symptoms? 9. What can the home care nurse do to prevent acute psy-
2. What are some uses of antipsychotic drugs other than the chotic episodes and hospitalization of chronically men-
treatment of schizophrenia? tally ill clients?
162 SECTION 2 DRUGS AFFECTING THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
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