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They have simple molecular structures in which the molecules are held together
Explain the variations in melting point by very weak van der Waals' forces of attraction. The van der Waals' forces
increase with increasing numbers of contact points between neighboring
molecules, so sulphur which exists as S8 would have a higher melting point then
for Phosphorus, Sulfur and Chlorine. Phosphorus which exists as P4 and Cl2 would have the lowest melting of the
three.
Explain the variations in electrical Moving from sodium to magnesium which has
metallic bonding, the number of delocalized
conductivity for sodium, magnesium electrons increases thus there are more charge
and aluminium. carriers and the electrical conductivity increases.
State the trend in the atomic radii The atomic radii decreases across
across period 3. Period 3.
Why is Argon's electronegativity value Argon does not usually form covalent
zero? bonds.
Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water to form Magnesium hydroxide.
Describe Magnesium's reaction with Mg(s)+2H20(l)Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium reacts readily with steam to produce a white precipitate and
water. (Mention equation) hydrogen.
Mg(s)+2H20(g)MgO(s)+H2(g)
Describe Phosphorus and Sulfur's They do not react with water as they are
reaction with water. insoluble in it.
Describe Argon's reaction with water. Argon does not react with water.
State the variation in the oxidation The oxidation number of the oxides and chlorides of the period 3 elements are
positive.The maximum oxidation number of each element in period 3 in their
oxides rises across the period where the maximum oxidation numbers is equal
number for the chlorides and oxides of to the number of valence electrons. Also, the maximum oxidation state of the
chlorides of the elements in period 3 rises up to PCl5 then decreases to +2 in
the period 3 elements. SCl2.
Explain the variation in oxidation This is because the number of valence electrons
number for the oxides and generally increase and all of the valence electrons in the
the chlorides of the period 3 elements. period 3 elements are used in bonding.
State the trend in the acid/base Basic hydroxides are formed for sodium and
magnesium only. Aluminium oxide is amphoteric
behaviour of the oxides and hydroxides and the oxides of phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine and
of period 3. silicon are all acidic oxides.
Why is Al2O3 amphoteric? And why The basicity thing is explained in the reactions.
The presence of the O2- ion makes Al2O3 basic (i.e. able to react with
does the basicity decrease across the acid). However, the Al3+ ion has high positive charge density, hence is
strongly attracted to and reacts with the electron rich OH- ions present
period? in alkalis to form aluminate ions [Al(OH)4-].
Explain the variations in atomic radii Atomic/ionic radii increase on descending group II. This occurs as there are
more core shells as one descends the group. This increases the distance
between the nucleus and the valence shell. More core shells means a greater
and ionic radii for the group 2 shielding effect between the nucleus and the valence electrons. This results in a
weaker force of attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons and
elements. the distance would therefore be greater.
Lattice energy is inversely proportional to the sum of the radius of the cation and anion.The anion is
constant since all the sulfates contain the SO2-4 anion. The cation increase in size however this increase in
Explain the variation in the solubility of size is negligible compared to the large size of the anion. Thus, the increase in ionic radii is very small hence
the decrease in lattice energy is very small. As the size of the cation increases down the group, the charge
density decrease, this decreases the forces of attraction which develop with the polar water molecules.
the sulphates of Group II elements. Thus the hydration energy decreases which is the energy released when ions are hydrated. Since the
decrease in the reverse lattice energy is less when compared to the decrease in hydration energy, the
enthalpy of solution becomes more positive down the group, thus the solubility decreases down the group.
Explain the variation in the thermal As you go down the group, the size of the metal cation increases. The smaller
the cation, the better it is at distorting the electron cloud charge of the large
decomposition of the carbonates and carbonate or nitrate ion. So group 2 carbonates/nitrates with smaller cations
have a greater degree of covalence in the ionic bonding. The greater the degree
nitrates of group II elements. of covalence, the less energy required to break the bond.
State the general trend in electrical Carbon in the form of diamond is a non-conductor
conductivity and metallic character in , while Silicon and Germanium are semi-conductors
group 4. and finally Tin and Lead are conductors.
Explain the reactions of the Silicon, germanium, tin and lead all have empty d orbitals. The atoms
allow incoming water molecules to donate a lone pair to their d orbitals
tetrachlorides of silicon, germanium, tin to form a bond. As the X-O bonds form, the X-Cl bonds weaken and
break. The bonds make and break one by one until all 4 chlorine
and lead with water. atoms are displaced. Thus, hydrolysis of the tetrachloride occurs.
State the trends in bonding for the The monoxides of carbon and silicon are covalent,
group 4 monoxides. (+2 oxidation while the monoxides of germanium, tin and lead
state) are predominantly ionic.
The dioxides of carbon and silicon germanium
State the trends in bonding in group 4
are covalent, while the dioxides of lead and tin
dioxides. (+4 oxidation state) are covalent with ionic character.
When the two electrons on the p orbital are removed, the remaining two valence
Why is lead's +2 state more thermally electrons on the s orbital are relatively stable and not easily removed. This is
because the effective nuclear attraction towards them is greater since the d
orbitals do not screen the nucleus as efficiently as the s and p orbitals so the
stable than the +4 oxidation state? two remaining electrons behave inertly since the ionization energy required for
their removal is very large.
It is a good thermal insulator and has a very high melting point due to the many
Discuss the uses of ceramic based on strong covalent bonds, so it is used in furnace linings.
It is hard and has a high melting point so it is use as an abrasive.
silicon (IV) oxide. Since it is relatively unreactive and easily moulded and the high melting point is
useful for ovenware, it is used in the manufacture of glass and porcelain.
As group 7 is descended, the number of electrons in the halogen increases as a fully filled
Explain the variation in the volatility of energy shell is added. These added electrons causes a greater van der Waals forces of attraction
since these electrons can move freely setting up temporary dipoles. These stronger inter-
molecular forces of attraction means that more energy is needed to break the bonds between
the elements of group 7. the molecules. Therefore the melting point and boiling point increases down the group so
the halogens become less volatile down the group.
As group 4 is descended, the number of electrons in the halogen increases as a fully filled
Explain the variation in the density of energy shell is added. These added electrons causes a greater van der Waals forces of attraction
since these electrons can move freely setting up temporary dipoles. These attractive forces
which exist between the molecules increase as we descend the group. Thus, as the forces of
the elements of group 7. attraction between the molecules increase, the molecules pack closer together thus the mass
per unit volume increases, thus the density increases.
As group 7 is descended, the number of electrons in the halogen increases as a
Explain the variation in the state of the fully filled energy shell is added. These added electrons causes a greater van der
Waals forces of attraction since these electrons can move freely setting up
temporary dipoles. The increase in the van der Waals force of attraction results
elements of group 7. in a change in the physical states of the molecules from a gas to a liquid to a
solid.
with hydrogen. Bromine combines with hydrogen at high temperatures in the presence of a catalyst slowly.
H2(g)+Br2(g)2HBr(g)
The reaction between hydrogen and iodine is slow and reversible giving a low yield.(Reaction takes place in a
closed container.)
H2(g)+I2(g)2HI(g)
State the trend in the thermal stability The thermal stability decreases down
of the hydrogen halides. the group.
This is because the bond energy decreases because the larger the
Explain the relative stabilities of the halogen atom, the greater is the distance between the hydrogen and
halide nuclei. So, down the group, there is a smaller attractive force
hydrides. between the nuclei and the bonding electrons. So going down the
group it takes less energy to break the hydrogen-halide bond.
Describe the reactions of the halide Reagent (AgNO3)
F-:No observable reaction
State the characteristics of transition 2. They form coloured complexes by combining with one or more ligands.
4. Many transition elements and their compounds can be used as catalysts
because of their ability to change oxidation states.
elements. 5. Transition elements have magnetic properties.
COMC
Sc [Ar] 4s23d1
State the trend in the atomic radii, ionic There is a general decrease in the atomic
radii and first row transition elements radii, thus there is a small increase in the
for the first row transition elements. ionization energy.
Explain the relatively small changes in As the nuclear charge increases across the period, each additional electron
enters the penultimate 3d orbital which increases the shielding experienced by
the 4s electrons. This results in a relatively small increase in the effective
atomic radii and ionic radii and nuclear charge as the shielding effect nullifies(cancels), to a large extent, the
increase in nuclear charge, thus causing a small increase in the energy required
ionization energy. to remove one mole of electron.
In octahedral complexes, two of the five d orbitals experience repulsion and are
Explain the formation of coloured ions by pushed to a higher energy level.The energy gap corresponds to energies in the
visible region of the spectrum. Electrons in the lower d energy level can then
transition elements in octahedral absorb the visible light which corresponds to the energy gap and jump up to the
higher d energy level. The colour of the complex is the complement of the
complexes. colours absorbed from the visible light.
Perform experiments to show the variation in Add ammonium vanadate to sodium hydroxide then mix it with sulphuric acid forming an
orange solid containing V. Shake this solution with granulated zinc causing a colour
oxidation states of vanadium; change from blue (V) to green (V) to violet (V)
OBGV
Include the use of an acidified solution of ob stetrician gyna vag....
ammonium vanadate(V) and granulated zinc. All of the cell potentials are positive, so zinc can gradually reduce ammonium vanadate.
In transition elements, the delocalized electrons are from the 4s and 3d
Discuss qualitatively the melting point and orbitals, while calcium's delocalized electrons are only from the s
conductivity of transition elements when compared orbitals, thus the metallic bonding in the transition metals are stronger
than that of calcium, thus transition elements are better conductors of
to those of calcium as a typical s-block element.
electricity than calcium.
Discuss qualitatively the density of transition Transition elements have a higher atomic mass than
calcium, so for each mas per unit volume more molecules
elements when compared to those of calcium are found there than that of calcium with a smaller atomic
as a typical s-block element; mass.
Discuss qualitatively the atomic and ionic radii and Calcium has a larger atomic radii than transition elements because it has a
first ionisation energy of transition elements when smaller shielding effect than transition elements since it has less electrons,
while since transition elements have more electrons to shield it's valence
compared to those of calcium as a typical s-block electrons it has a smaller atomic radii than that of calcium, thus the first
ionisation energies for transition elements are greater than that of calcium.
element;
If the stability constant of the new complex is greater than the stability constant of the existing complex the
Explain the principle of ligand exchange. new complex would form readily, and the old ligand would be displaced. If the stability constants of both
complexes are similar, then one complex would predominate over the other, if the concentration of one
Stability constants and the CO/O2 haemoglobin ligand is greater than the other.
and Example 1 This occurs with the CO/O2 haemoglobin complex:- haemoglobin and CO complex has a greater
stability constant(new complex) than the O2 and haemoglobin complex(old complex), this is why CO can act
Example 2 This occurs with the NH3 (aq) and Cu2+ system.
On first addition, copper(II) hydroxide is produced:-
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ + 2OH- [Cu(OH)2(H2O)4] (s) + 2H2O
Co+ and conc HCl goes from pink to dark blue, but adding
Perform experiments to demonstrate On second addition:- [Cu(OH)2(H2O)4] + 4NH3 [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ + 2H2O
water to the solution causes it to be pink again.
ligand exchange. Include reactions Cu2+
The (aq)complex
tetraammine and has conc HCl
a greater goes
stability
the solid dissolves to form the deep blue solution
from
constant than pale blue
the copper(II) to green
hydroxide complex, to
therefore
Clean a platinum or nichrome (a nickel-chromium alloy) wire by dipping it into concentrated hydrochloric acid
identify cations: K+, Na+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Cu2+ by and then holding it in a hot Bunsen flame. Repeat this until the wire doesn't produce any colour in the
flame.When the wire is clean, moisten it again with some of the acid and then dip it into a small amount of
their flame tests the solid you are testing so that some sticks to the wire. Place the wire back in the flame again.
Na strong persistent orange
Refer to atomic emission spectra, see Unit 1 K lilac (pink)
Ca orange-red
identify cations Mg2+(aq), Al3+(aq), Ca2+(aq) Cr3+(aq),, Mn2+(aq), Fe2+(aq), Fe3+(aq), Cu2+(aq),
Zn2+(aq), Ba2+(aq), Pb2+(aq), NH4+(aq)
and
identify anions: CO32-, NO3-, SO42-,
Include the reactions with HCl(aq), conc H2SO4,
Pg. 253 of chem explained and pg. 168
of study guide.
SO32- (aq) , Cl-, Br-, I-, CrO42-;
Pb2+
(aq), Ag (aq),followed by NH3(aq), Ca(OH)2(aq),
Ba2+(aq), followed by dilute acid. For NO3- use copper
turnings and conc H2SO4 or add aluminium (powder)
or zinc (powder) in the alkaline solution and
confirmatory tests for gases where applicable
When you look at the flame through a diffraction grating or
spectroscope, coloured lines of the emission spectrum in
Key Points the visible region are seen. The colours seen in the flame
test are due to the most obvious lines in the emission
spectrum.
Ammonia (NH3) Turns damp red litmus
Testing for NH3:
paper blue.