Running Head: PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING & LEARNING THEORY

Principles of Learning and Learning Theory

Finley Trent

University of North Carolina - Greensboro

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING & LEARNING THEORY 1

Abstract

This essay will discuss major learning theories and the role of cognition

and memory in the learning process. I will define teaching and the

instructional process followed by a discussion of the ADDIE model and how it

is used to create effective instruction. Next, I will discuss learning and

instructional environments that I will likely experience in my future career in

an academic library. Finally, I will use the previously discussed ADDIE model

to develop instruction for a skill, which will be further explained in a separate

PowerPoint presentation.

Keywords: teaching, learning, instructional design, ADDIE, Robert Gagn

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING & LEARNING THEORY 2

Learning

Learning is the way we come to understand and remember

information. There are many different ways to learn, as seen in Gagns

Hierarchy of Learning. Gagn outlined eight types of learning, including

Signal Learning, Stimulus-response Learning, Chaining, Verbal Association,

Discrimination learning, Concept Learning, Rule Learning, and Problem

Solving. Gagn thought of these as a hierarchy, meaning that he considered

the last type of learning, Problem Solving, to be the hardest (Centre for the

Enhancement of Learning & Teaching, n.d.). Even though the highest level of

learning is the goal, one has to build on every single type of learning to reach

it. It would be nearly impossible for a learner to begin with the hardest level

of learning and therefore, learning must be considered a process of gradually

gaining skill. Thus, learning is harnessing the way the brain and individual

has begun to think and taking it step by step until more information and

skills of a higher caliber are acquired.

To further understand learning, one can look at the major theories of

learning. Each offers a different approach, showing that there is not just one

right way to learn. Behaviorism may be familiar to many because of

psychologists Pavlov and Skinner. Early psychologists strove to make

psychology a more objective science and focused on changes in behavior in

a controlled environment. Scientists focused on two types of behavior:

involuntary (reflexes and physical reactions such as heart rate) and voluntary

(purposeful activity with a desired outcome). When it comes to learning, the

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING & LEARNING THEORY 3

behaviorist approach takes into account things like ones physical and

emotional well-being and how that may affect a students learning.

Additionally, it spends time considering reinforcements and punishments

during the learning process (Nietfeld, n.d.).

A second theory of learning is cognitivism. Cognitivism focuses on

human cognition and problem solving. Cognitivism takes into account

changes in learning through childhood and how cultural differences may

affect our learning. Most importantly, cognitivism asserts that students must

understand that what they are learning and the work they are performing is

worthwhile and valuable. An understanding of the value of knowledge will

dictate how much effort they put into their work and consequently how much

they learn and retain (Teaching and Learning Resources, 2011).

The Information Processing Model provides a theory on the stages of

understanding information. There are three stages: First, sensory memory

interacts with stimuli. It is either forgotten or stored in ones short-term

memory. Second, the working memory comes into play when the brain

responds to the stimuli and reinforces it through repetition and elaborative

thought. Finally, the information is stored in the long-term memory and can

be used for application (DataWORKS Curriculum, n.d.).

The final learning theory is constructivism. Constructivism encourages

students to use active techniques such as experiments to create more

knowledge and change understanding. This theory also encourages constant

assessments of how the activities are helping them learn (Concept to

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING & LEARNING THEORY 4

Classroom, 2004). Constructivism thus shifts the focus away from the

instructor and focuses more on the experience of the students.

Teaching

A prerequisite for teaching is understanding what learning is and how it

works. An instructor takes these factors into consideration and designs

instruction to guide students through the material gradually. A teaching

approach to take into consideration when undertaking instruction is Robert

Gagns nine steps of instruction.

Robert Gagn argues that there are nine events to an effective learning

process. These nine events do not necessarily serve as a strict rule of

instruction, but more as a guideline. The first of the nine events is to gain

the attention of the student. One could give a demonstration of the skill to

be learned or show how learning the skill will benefit them (Clark, 2014).

This step ensures that the student will remain focused throughout the

instruction.

The second step is to provide a learning objective. Similar to how an

introduction of an essay tells you what you will learn to keep you focused,

this step cues the student to what they will learn so that they can organize

their thoughts and stay focused (Clark, 2014). Ultimately, you will tell the

student the goal of your instruction.

The third step is to stimulate recall of previous knowledge. Rather than

possibly overwhelming students by introducing a foreign concept, students

can think about smaller skills that build up to this task, or experiences with
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING & LEARNING THEORY 5

seeing others perform the task (Clark, 2014). One method of doing this is

called scaffolding. With scaffolding, the instructor begins by building on what

students already know. More information and details are added over time.

Learners then perform on their own. Finally, the fading process begins in

which the close guidance of the instructor is slowly removed so that students

have more responsibility in developing their knowledge and skills (Clark,

2014).

Fourth, instructors present the material in small chunks to avoid

cognitive overload. The chunks of information can then be blended to

stimulate information recall (Clark, 2014). Fifth, the instructor provides

guidance or coaching for learning. This step ensures that students do not

become frustrated by using the wrong concepts or performing the task

incorrectly (Clark, 2014).

Sixth, the instructor elicits performance. The students will

demonstrate what they have learned through a task or activity. This can be

introduced by a demonstration from the instructor, in which students will

benefit by observing and modeling their performance after the

demonstration (Clark, 2014). Seventh, the instructor will provide feedback

on students performance via quizzes, tests, or verbal comments. The

feedback should be specific, giving recommendations on how to improve if

needed (Clark, 2014).

Eighth, the instructor will assess the performance of the students. This

step will help determine if the lesson has been learned adequately (Clark,
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING & LEARNING THEORY 6

2014). The ninth and final step is to enhance retention and transfer. The

instructor should inform the students about similar situations related to the

learned skill, provide more practice opportunities, and wrap up the

instruction by reviewing the lesson (Clark, 2014).

ADDIE

One popular instructional design model to use is the ADDIE model.

This model covers the processes of planning, development, and application.

The first stage of the ADDIE model is analysis, which is acquiring all the

information about teaching before beginning to design the lesson plan. The

instructor takes into consideration who the students are, what and why they

are learning, and what approach to use to accomplish the learning objectives

(Forest, 2014).

Design is the second stage. Here an instructor creates the curriculum

and decides what activities will be used to teach the students. As previously

discussed, Gagnes nine events serve as a method to designing a course.

The next stage is Development. The instructor already knows what he or she

needs from the Design stage and will now find or create what is needed,

such as media, handouts, activities, and assessments (Forest, 2014).

In the Implementation stage, the teaching and learning occurs. It can

be through an online class, face to face, or blended. Here, evaluation of the

design occurs. Instructors will receive feedback about their design by

monitoring progress (Forest, 2014).

Finally, Evaluation occurs. There are two options for evaluation of

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING & LEARNING THEORY 7

students progress. First, is formative assessment. This is a low-pressure,

low-stakes form of assessment that does not involve a grade. Students

receive feedback for things like brief summaries of a lecture, concept maps,

and more (Carnegie Mellon, n.d.). The second option is summative

assessment, which is higher pressure because it results in a grade. The

grade holds the instructor and the students to a certain standard. If that

standard is not met, instruction can be reevaluated in the next Design stage

(Carnegie Mellon, n.d.).

Instructional and Learning Environments

I have been a paraprofessional in an academic library for

approximately three years. I previously worked in Reference and am now in

Special Collections & Archives at Wake Forest University. While I have never

assisted with an instructional session, I have witnessed a few and been the

student in one session. I am not sure which department I would like to be in

for my future career, so I will describe possible teaching environments for

each. Reference librarians are often tasked with instructing students on

finding adequate sources and citing them appropriately. Special Collections

librarians often teach students about the different between primary and

secondary sources, among many other things. I would consider Gagns nine

events to be appropriate for both of these teaching environments because

they will likely involve using technology. When it comes to teaching students

how to do something that requires technology, such as databases, Gagns

nine events would be helpful because students will need to draw on previous
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING & LEARNING THEORY 8

knowledge (i.e. searching databases), watch the instructor perform a

database search, and then have the responsibility of doing it themselves

later.

Develop instruction using ADDIE model

To further demonstrate the ADDIE model, I have chosen cooking

macaroni and cheese for my skill to teach. The Analysis stage of my

instructional model will be relatively short. It can be easily determined that

the people who signed up for my voluntary cooking class have a common

learning objective of making good macaroni and cheese.

To demonstrate the Design, Development, and Implementation phases

of the ADDIE model, I have chosen to follow Gagnes nine events to design

instruction. For the first step of gaining attention, I will demonstrate making

macaroni and cheese. The learning objective will be to make a macaroni and

cheese dish by following a basic recipe. In addition to the aspiration to learn

a dish, hopefully a simple desire to eat mac and cheese will encourage focus

and engagement. In order to stimulate recall of prior knowledge, I will ask

students if they have any experience in the kitchen. For example, have they

followed instructions, measured and stirred ingredients, or used kitchen

appliances? Next, I will present the material by telling them what ingredients

to obtain, how to measure and mix them, and cook the ingredients on the

stove and in the oven. This will of course be followed by eating which can

serve as a break from new information and a reward for staying engaged in

the instruction. After this I will provide guidance for learning by putting the
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING & LEARNING THEORY 9

students into small groups. While I again make the dish, the students will

follow along step by step making it together. To elicit performance, students

will then make a dish individually. I will be there for guidance if needed, but

students will be independent to make their dish on their own.

The following steps continue along with Gagnes nine events and

satisfy the Evaluation stage of the ADDIE model. To provide feedback,

students will do a blind taste test of each others dishes and provide

feedback through a comment form asking specific questions about the

quality of the dish. To assess performance, I will then taste these dishes and

fill out the same form with specific feedback. Reading other students

comments about the dishes will allow me to see if the material is being

learned properly or if there are any areas of the instruction that were unclear.

Finally, to enhance retention and transfer, we will all go through the process

of making a dish together. To build on previous knowledge, we can make this

dish a bit more complicated by adding different ingredients. We can also go

through common mistakes and how to fix them. We will also draw on

criticisms or compliments that students received in their feedback from

myself and their classmates.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING & LEARNING THEORY 10

References

Carnegie Mellon (n.d.). Whys & Hows of Assessment. Retrieved from

http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/assessment/howto/basics/formative-
summative.html.

Centre for the Enhancement of Learning & Teaching (n.d.). Gagn's Hierarchy
of Learning. Retrieved from
http://www2.rgu.ac.uk/celt/pgcerttlt/how/how4a.htm.

Clark, D.R. (2015). Blooms Taxonomy of Learning Domains. Retrieved from

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html.

Clark, D.R. (2014). Robert Gagnes Nine Steps of Instructions. Retrieved from
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/id/nine_step_id.html.

Concept to Classroom (2004). What is Constructivism? Retrieved from

http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/.

DataWORKS Curriculum (n.d.). The Information Processing Model. Retrieved

from https://dataworks-ed.com/the-information-processing-model/.

Forest, Ed. (2014). ADDIE Model: Instructional Design. Retrieved from

http://educationaltechnology.net/the-addie-model-instructional-design/

Nietfield, J. (n.d.). Behaviorism and education [PDF Document]. Retrieved

from LIS 672 Lecture Notes,
http://www4.ncsu.edu/~jlnietfe/EDP304_Notes_files/Behaviorism
%20Notes.pdf

Teaching and Learning Resources (2011). Cognitivism. Retrieved from

http://teachinglearningresources.pbworks.com/w/page/31012664/Cogni
tivism.