EXPT NO: 1 DATE:

DESIGN AND DRAFTING OF RIVETED JOINTS

AIM:
To design the riveted joints by over lapping and butt joint method using
AUTOCAD 2015 software.

THEORY OF RIVETED JOINTS:

TYPE OF JOINTS:
Riveted joints may be classified according to

Purpose for which it is used for Ex., structure (or) leak proof joints.

The method of placing and joining members as lap

(or) butt joints.

The type of rivet employed such as solid tabular (or) explosive rivets.

The number of rows of rivet such as single, double, triple (or) quadratic
riveted joints.

LAP JOINT:
The places to be connected over lap each other and rivets pass through
drilled holes. when the plates are tension (or) compression Fig(1),a couple acts
about the rivets, being not in same plate tending to bend joints. To avoid the plates
are sometimes bend before riveting to approximately infinite force shown, to
reduce the bending action.

BUTT JOINT:
The plates are kept in alignment and a butt strap (or) cover plate {either
single or double} is plate over the joint and rivets are inserted through the hole in
plates aligned over another. The connection of two main plates is through but
straps. The butt joint with single butt strap has some fracture that of lap joints.
Thus therefore should never be used for high loading and pressure feed areas
which are fuselage, wings attachment are scalped that they be efficiently caused.
Those joints are called single riveted, a double riveted etc, depending upon the no
of rows of rivet on each main plate.
SINGLE COVERED BUTT JOINT:

DOUBLE COVERED BUTT JOINT:

TERMINOLOGY:
1. Gauge line:
The line through the centers of rivet and parallel to edge of plate is
termed as a row (or) gauge line.
2. Pitch:
The distance between centers of adjacent rivet measured on gauge
line called the pitch p.
3. Back pitch (or) Transverse pitch (Pb):
The distance between the rivet centers in the adjacent gauge line in
the some plate is called the back pitch (or) transverse pitch.
4. Diagonal pitch:
The distance between the adjacent rivet centers to adjacent gauge
line for zigzag riveting.
DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF RIVETED JOINTS:
 1. Failure modes of riveted joints:
A joint is said to have failed if plate gets separated from other. This
separation can take place. All the rivets gets sheaved for lap joint and butt
joint with single strap the rivets are in single shear while in butt joints with
double strap, the rivets are in double shear shown figure. A plate get torn
along any section in this case all the rivets except these between the edge
of torn plate and tearing section gets sheared. It is only by this combination
that the plate small tear along a section.
2. All the rivets are crushed:
The number of rivets failed shall change with the change in no of rows
and no of rivets in a row. The basic relations derived below consider
only one row of rivets and one pitch length of joint and these
equations of rivet subjected to failure.

TERMINOLOGY RIVETED JOINTS:

Let
c=allowable crushing stress at the place or rivet
t=allowable tensile stress in place
s=allowable shear stress in place
3. Plate tearing in front of the rivet:
This mode of failure is rarely encountered when the distance of the edge
from the nearest row is very small generally the margin M is taken as 1.5d.
4. Tearing of the plate:
The plate is the weaker between the rivet holes.
Tearing area of the plate per pitch length=t[p-d]
Tearing resistance of plate per pitch length= t[t(p-d)]
5. Shearing of rivets:
Shearing area of rivet in single {lap joint} = d 2Shearing area of rivet in double
shear is not exactly double of that in single but little less. As per in Indian
boiler regulations, it is taken as 1.875times the area in single shear. According
shear as of a rivet in double shear =d21.875
 Shearing area shall be different for lap and joints. Shearing resistance of rivet in
double shear =sd2 Shearing resistance of rivet in double shear =1.875d2
6. Crushing of rivets:
Crushing area of a single rivet =dt and if n be the no of rivets under
crushing the crushing resistance is equal to cr.

The no of rivets in shear equal the no of rivet in crushing.

ALL RIVETS SHEARED:

P
P

7. Number of rivets in shear and crushing:

If the joints has more than one row of rivets then following method a
shall help in flinching out the no of rivet in shear in one pitch in of the joints.
Draw the joints to be designed. Consider the pitch length of joints draw two
parallel lines AB and CD at a distance p apart and passing through centers of
adjacent rivets of a row. The rivets in shear are equal to the no of rivets
contained between these lines for eg., in fig. First row and second row has one
rivet each in shear. Thus the rivets in shear are two. Description of joint like lap
joint, butt joint with single strap (or) double strap determines the shearing area
per rivets (ie) d2 (or) 1.875d2 Total shearing area of rivets equal the produce the
value determined at above.

8. Estimation of strength of riveted joints:

For a given the rivets are so designed for failure to occur the strength of
rivets in all the possible modes of failure should be equation form different
type of failure discussed earlier following equation are obtained. Equating
shearing resistance to crushing resistance n* d2 (or)s=n*dtpcr and
assuming cr=s ,it simplifies to
d=2.54t ,for rivets in single shear

d=1.075t,for rivets in double shear.

Thus for d<2.54t crushing failure will not occurs in lap joints and butt joints
with single strap and for d<1.075t rivets will never failure in crushing in any
type of joints. Knowing t and d the pitch of rivet in found by equating the
shearing resistance of rivet found be tearing resistance of one pitch length of
joints.

9. Efficiency of riveted joints:

Efficiency of riveted joints is the ratio of strength of a joint (in a particular
mode of failure) to the tearing strength of imperforated plate. The various
expressions are Tearing efficiency : t = tearing resistance of one pitch length of
joint/tearing resistance of one pitch length of imperforated plate is =t(p-d)/ptt

ALL RIVETS SHEARED:

Tear along this line
Plates

Rivets

=p-(d/p)

Shearing efficiency:s=shearing resistance of rivets per pitch

length/tearing resistance of undrilled plate. Crushing
efficiency:cr=crushing resistance of rivets or holes per pitch length of
joint/tearing resistance of undrilled plate.

ForLap joints,

single 45% to 65%

 double 03% to 77%

triple 77% to 85%

Butt joints,

single 60% to 80%

double 75% to 85%

triple 80% to 90%.

Command used:
Line

Circle

Offset

Hatch

Arc

PLATE TEARING IN FRONT OF THE RIVET:

P P

TEARING OF RIVETS:
PP
SINGLE SHEAR FOR LAP JOINT:

DOUBLE SHEAR FOR BUTT JOINT:

P
DRAFTING:

Ex No: 1 BUTT JOINT

Date:
ALL DIMENSION ARE IN MILLIMETERS
Ex No: 1 LAP JOINT

Date:

RESULT:
 Thus for riveted joints with over lapping and butt joints method has been
designed with the consideration of failure which are being occurred in riveted
joints and also has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2015 software.
Ex No: 2 DESIGN AND DRAFTING OF WELDED JOINTS.
Date:

AIM:
To design the welded joints which are used for assembling aircraft structures by
using AUTOCAD 2015 software.

WELDED JOINTS:
Welded joints are threaded, cottered, or knuckle joints are permanent in
nature and the component together cannot be separated or dissembled without
breaking the weld metal to the connected part. A machine part or structure whose
component parts are joint by welding is called weldment. Welded joints are light
in weight, when compared to riveted joints due to elimination of corer plates or
straps, gassed plates, chip angle

TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS:

There are five basic forms of welded joints:
1. Butt weld
2. Lap weld
3. Edge weld
4. Corner weld
5. T-weld.

BUTT WELD:
A butt weld is obtained by putting together the edges of two pieces having
practically the same cross section and heating until fused together.

LAP WELD:
The plates to be joined are made to overlap each other for a certain distance
and the right angle recess so forward along the width of the plates are filled with
weld metal.
EDGE WELD:

This type of joint is not recommended for plates thicker than 6mm.
TEE WELD:
The plates to be joined to form a tee may be beveled at on one side, on both
sides or is may not be beveled at all. Although, these joints should preferably be
welded on both sides, this is not always possible as the two sides may not be
accessible.

TEE WELD:

CORNER WELD:
 If a fillet weld is placed on the inside of a corner joint, it is usually a light
weld. The total throat t of the weld is of the order of 1.35 times the thickness of
the plate.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF WELDED JOINT:

Strength of welds in plane loading:

Welded joints subjected to tension may be divided into three classes with
respect to the internal Stress set up at the external load.
IN CLASS 1, the weld is subjected only to
longitudinal shear. IN CLASS 2, the weld is in
transverse shear in tension.
IN CLASS 3, the weld is in pure tension.

CLASS 1: LONGITUDINAL FILLET WELD:

In this type, it should be noted that the shear area of weld resisting the
external load. p 2tl, where l is the effective length of each weld and t is the
throat thickness because failures are most often across the throat.
s =
p/2tl
Since t=bcos450, b is the size of the weld equal to plate thickness the
shear stress is s =p/1.44bl or o.707p/bl
If the welds are long enough the load is not distributed uniformly,
permissible loads should be thereafter reduced to about 80 to 90% of those for
short welds.
If case of the longitudinal of parallel fillet weld is subjected to variable
loads, the effective of stress concentration at the ends of the weld must be
considered. If the loadp in the case considered is a variable load the weld size
would be worked out as follows
Area resisting shear =2tl=1.414 bl
If s is the permissible shear stress intensity, then allowable load per unit length
of weld=1.414 s.
Taking the effect of stress concentration in account allowable load per unit length
of weld
=1.414
s /kt.
Then required weld size b= p.kf/1.414zigma s. and if weld size is known and stress
intensity in weld metal is required and it is given by.
s = p.kf/1.414, s =0.707p.kf/bl

CLASS 2: TRANSVERSE FILLET WELD:

In the case of class-2 weld the shear of the weld metal results in failure. It can be
proved mathematically that the plane of max shear stress in the conventional 45
fillet weld, weld with both legs equal is the 45, throat when subjected to transverse
load. This results in greater strength for transverse fillet weld are taken to be of
equal strength index static load considered.
Area in shear for both welds=2tl
Resisting strength=1.414 s.bl, s =
p/1.414 bl. For variable load = s =0.7071
p.kf/b
CLASS 3: BUTT WELD:

The weld metal is subjected to tensile stresses for a flush weld, area
resisting failure=bl.
Resisting strength of weld metal=bl.
t = p. In variable load t = p.kf/bl.

Command used:
Line

Circle

Offset

Hatch

Arc
DRAFTING:

Ex No: 2 WELDED JOINTS

Date:

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS

RESULT:
Thus for the welded joints are designed according to its different loading
conditions and has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2015 software.
 Ex No: 3 DESIGN AND DRAFTING CONTROL COMPONENT CAM

Date:

AIM:
To design and draft control component cam by using AUTOCAD 2015 software.

DESCRIPTION:
CAM MECHANISMS:

The transformation of one of the simple motions, such as rotation,

into any other motions is often conveniently accomplished by means of a cam
mechanism. A cam mechanism usually consists of two moving elements, the cam
and the follower, mounted on fixed frame.cam devices are versatile, and almost
any arbitrarily-specified motion can be obtained. In some instances, they offer the
simplest and most compact way to transform motions.

A cam may be defined as a machine element having a cured outline or a

groove, which by its oscillation or rotation motion, gives a predetermined
specified motion to another element called the follower. The cam has a very
important function in the operation of many classes of machines, especially those
of the automatic type, such as printing presses, textile machinery, gear-cutting
machines, and screw machines. In any class of machinery in which automatic
control and accurate timing are paramount, the cam is an indispensable part of
variety. Some of the most common forms will be considered in this chapter.

CLASSIFICATION OF CAM MECHANISMS:

We can classify cam mechanisms by the modes of input/output motion, the

configuration and arrangement of the follower, and the shape of the cam. We can
also classify cams by the different types of motion events of the follower and by
means of a great variety of the motion characteristics of the cam profile.
CAM- NOMENCLATURE: TRACE POINT:

A theoretical point on the follower, corresponding to the point of a fictitious knife-

edge follower. It is used to generate the pitch curve. In this case of a roller follower,
the trace point is at the center of the roller.
PITCH CURVE:
The path generated by the trace point at the follower is rotated about a
stationary
cam.
WORKING CURVE:
 The working surface of a cam in contact with the follower. For the
knife-edge follower of the plate cam, the pitch curve and the working curves
coincide. In a close or grooved cam there is an inner profile and an outer working
curve.

PITCH CIRCLE;
A circle from the cam center through the pitch point. The pitch
circle radius is used to calculate a cam of minimum size for a given pressure
angle.
PRIME CIRCLE (REFERENCE CIRCLE):
The smallest circle from the cam center through the pitch curve.
BASE CIRCLE:
The smallest circle from the cam center through the cam profile curve.
STROKE :
The greatest distance or angle through which the follower moves or
rotates.
FOLLOWER DISPLACEMENT:
The position of the follower from a specific zero or rest position
(usually its the position when the follower contact with the base circle of the cam)
in relation to time or the rotary angle of the cam.
PRESSURE ANGLE:
The angle at any point between the normal to the pitch curve and the
instantaneous direction of the follower motion. This angle is important in cam
design because it represents the steepness of the profile.

Command used:
Circle
Offset
Hatch
Arc
 DRAFTING:

Ex No: 3 CONTROL COMPONENT CAM

Date:

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS

RESULT:

Thus the control components of cam has been drafted by using AUTOCAD
2015 software.
Ex No: 4 DESIGN AND DRAFTING CONTROL COMPONENTS
BELLCRANK
Date:

AIM:
To design and draft the control components of ell crank by using AUTOCAD
2015 software.
MECHANISMS OF BELL CRANK:
A bell crank is a type of crank that changes motion through an angle. The
angle can be any angle from 0 to 3600, although 900 and 1800 are common.

A bell crank is shown fig 1. Bell crank are the most component in
mechanical linkage. Bell cranks are simple devices that are used to change the
direction of movement. In fig 1, the input and output direction of movement differ
by 900. Bell crank can also create mechanical advantage when L1 L2.
Command used:
Line

Circle

Offset

Hatch

Arc
DRAFTING:

Ex No: 4 BELL CRANK

Date:

ALL DIMENSION ARE IN MILLIMETERS

RESULT:
 Thus the control components of bell crank has been drafted by using
AUTOCAD 2015 software.
Ex No: 5 DESIGN AND DRAFTING CONTROL COMPONENTS

GEAR

Date:

AIM:
To design and draft the control components of gear by using AUTOCAD
2015 software.

DESCRIPTOPN:
A gear or more correctly a "gear wheel" is a rotating machine part having cut
teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque.
Two or more gears working in tandem are called a transmission and can produce a
mechanical advantage through a gear ratio and thus may be considered a simple
machine. Geared devices can change the speed, magnitude, and direction of a
power source. The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear,
however a gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed part, called a rack, thereby
producing translation instead of rotation.
The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a pulley. An
advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slipping.
When two gears of unequal number of teeth are combined a mechanical
advantage is produced, with both the rotational speeds and the torques of the two
gears differing in a simple relationship.

TYPES OF GEAR:
External vs. internal gears
Spur
Helical
Double helical
Bevel
Hypoid
Crown
Worm
Non-circular
Rack and pinion
Epicyclic
Sun and planet
Harmonic drive
Cage gear
SPUR GEAR:
Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of
a cylinder or disk with the teeth projecting radially, and although they are not
straight-sided in form, the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the
axis of rotation. These gears can be meshed together correctly only if they are
fitted to parallel shafts.

HELICAL GEAR:
Helical gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the
teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is
curved, this angling causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. Helical gears
can be meshed in a parallel or crossed orientations. The former refers to when the
shafts are parallel to each other; this is the most common orientation. In the latter,
the shafts are non-parallel, and in this configuration are sometimes known as "skew
gears".

DOUBLE HELICAL:
Double helical gears, or herringbone gear, overcome the problem of axial
thrust presented by "single" helical gears by having two sets of teeth that are set in
a V shape. Each gear in a double helical gear can be thought of as two standard
mirror image helical gears stacked. This cancels out the thrust since each half of
the gear thrusts in the opposite direction. Double helical gears are more difficult to
manufacture due to their more complicated shape.
For each possible direction of rotation, there are two possible arrangements
of two oppositely-oriented helical gears or gear faces. In one possible orientation,
the helical gear faces are oriented so that the axial force generated by each is in the
axial direction away from the center of the gear; this arrangement is unstable. In
the second possible orientation, which is stable, the helical gear faces are oriented
so that each axial force is toward the mid-line of the gear. In both arrangements,
when the gears are aligned correctly, the total (or net) axial force on each gear is
zero. If the gears become misaligned in the axial direction, the unstable
arrangement generates a net force for disassembly of the gear train, while the stable
arrangement generates a net corrective force. If the direction of rotation is reversed,
the direction of the axial thrusts is reversed, a stable configuration becomes
unstable, and vice versa.
Stable double helical gears can be directly interchanged with spur gears
without any need for different bearings.
BEVEL GEAR:
A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off.
When two bevel gears mesh their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point.
Their shaft axes also intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary non-straight angle
between the shafts. The angle between the shafts can be anything except zero or
180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees
are called miter gears.
The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight-cut as with spur gears, or they may
be cut in a variety of other shapes. Spiral bevel gear teeth are curved along the
tooth's length and set at an angle, analogously to the way helical gear teeth are set
at an angle compared to spur gear teeth. Zero bevel gears have teeth which are
curved along their length, but not angled. Spiral bevel gears have the same
advantages and disadvantages relative to their straight-cut cousins as helical gears
do to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are generally used only at speeds below 5
m/s (1000 ft/min), or, for small gears, 1000 rpm.

HYPOID GEAR:
Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears except the shaft axes do not
intersect. The pitch surfaces appear conical but, to compensate for the offset shaft,
are in fact hyperboloids of revolution. Hypoid gears are almost always designed to
operate with shafts at 90 degrees. Depending on which side the shaft is offset to,
relative to the angling of the teeth, contact between hypoid gear teeth may be even
smoother and more gradual than with spiral bevel gear teeth. Also, the pinion can
be designed with fewer teeth than a spiral bevel pinion, with the result that gear
ratios of 60:1 and higher are feasible using a single set of hypoid gear.
This style of gear is most commonly found driving mechanical differentials;
which are normally straight cut bevel gears; in motor vehicle axles.

Command used:
Line

Circle

Offset

Hatch

Arc
DRAFTING:

Ex No: 5 GEAR ASSEMBLY

Date:
 ALL DIMENSION ARE IN MILLIMETERS

RESULT:

Thus the control component of gear has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2015
software.
 Ex No: 6 DESIGN AND DRAFTING CONTROL COMPONENTS PUSH
PULL ROD

Date:

AIM:
To design and draft the control component of push pull rod by using
AUTOCAD 2015 software.

DESCRIPTION:

The push pull rod is used between bell crank and from bell crank to
torque arms (horns) to transmit the force and motion from one to the other. A
push-pull rod connected to a bell crank is shown in fig. push pull rods are also
called control rods because they are often in control systems.

APPLICATION:

AIRCRAFT:

The push-pull rod is used to move the control surface of the Aircraft.

IC ENGINE:

The push pull rod is used to operate the inlet and outlet port of the IC
engines.

Command used:
Line

Circle

Offset

Hatch

Arc
DRAFTING:

Ex No: 6 PUSH PULL ROD

Date:

ALL DIMENSION ARE IN MILLIMETERS

RESULT:

Thus the control components of push pull rod has been drafted by using
AUTOCAD 2015 software.
Ex No: 7 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM OF TYPICAL AIRCRAFT

Date:

AIM:
To design and draft the three view diagram of typical aircraft by using AUTOCAD
2015 software.

CATEGORIES OF AIRCRAFT:

Supported by lighter-than-air gases (aerostats)

Unpowered Powered
Balloon Airship

Supported by LTA gases + aerodynamic lift

Unpowered Powered
Hybrid moored balloon Hybrid airship

Supported by aerodynamic lift (aerodynes)

Unpowered fixed-wing Powered fixed-wing

Glider Powered airplane
hang gliders (aeroplane)
Paraglider powered hang gliders
Kite Powered paraglider
Flettner airplane
Powered hybrid fixed/rotary
Tilt wing
Tilt rotor
Coleopter
Unpowered rotary-wing Powered rotary-wing
Rotor kite Autogyro
Gyrodyne ("Heliplane")
Helicopter
Powered aircraft driven by
Ornithopter

WHAT IS AN AIRCRAFT:

Aircraft are vehicles which are able to fly by being supported by the air, or
in general, the atmosphere of a planet. An aircraft counters the force of gravity by
 using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases
the downward thrust from jet engines.

MILITARY AIRCRAFT:

A military aircraft is any fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft that is operated by

a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be
either combat or non-combat:

Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its
own armament.
Non-Combat aircraft are aircraft not designed for combat as their primary
function, but may carry weapons for self-defense. Mainly operating in
support roles.

Combat aircraft divide broadly into fighters and bombers, with several in-
between types such as fighter-bombers and ground-attack aircraft (including
attack helicopters).

Other supporting roles are carried out by specialist patrol, search and rescue,
reconnaissance, observation, transport, training and Tanker aircraft among others.

CIVIL:

Civil aircraft divide into commercial and general types, however there are
some overlaps.

COMMERCIAL:

Commercial aircraft include types designed for scheduled and charter

airline flights, carrying both passengers and cargo. The larger passenger-carrying
types are often referred to as airliners, the largest of which are wide-body aircraft.
Some of the smaller types are also used in general aviation, and some of the
larger types are used as VIP aircraft.GENERAL AVIATION:

General aviation is a catch-all covering other kinds of private and

commercial use, and involving a wide range of aircraft types such as business jets
(bizjets), trainers, homebuilt, aerobatic types, racers, gliders, war birds, firefighters,
medical transports, and cargo transports, to name a few. The vast majority of
aircraft today are general aviation types.

Within general aviation, there is a further distinction between private

aviation (where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial aviation
(where the pilot is paid by a client or employer). The aircraft used in private
aviation are usually light passenger, business, or recreational types, and are usually
owned or rented by the pilot. The same types may also be used for a wide range
of commercial tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger and
freight transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical evacuations. However the
larger, more complex aircraft are more likely to be found in the commercial sector.

For example, piston-powered propeller aircraft (single-engine or twin-

engine) are common for both private and commercial general aviation, but for
aircraft such as turboprops like the Beech craft King Air and helicopters like the
Bell Jet Ranger, there are fewer private owners than commercial owners.
Conventional business jets are most often flown by paid pilots, whereas the new
generations of smaller jets are being produced for private pilots.

Command used:
Line

Circle

Offset

Hatch

Arc
 DRAFTING:

Ex No: 7 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

Date:

TOP VIEW

FRONT VIEW
SIDE VIEW
 RESULT:

Thus the three view diagram of a typical aircraft has been drafted by using
AUTOCAD 2015 software
Ex No:8 LAYOUT OF TYPICAL WING STRUCTURE

Date:

AIM:
To draft and study the wing structural layout of a specified aircraft by using
AUTOCAD
2015 software.

WING:

The primary lifting surface of an aircraft is the wing. Wing are attached to
airplanes in a location vertically and longitudinally

BASIC FEATURES OF WING CONSTRUCTION:

Conventional wing are three general types: mono spar, two spar, multi spar.
True stressed skin. Wing may have shear weds but no true spars.

WING SPAR:

It is sometimes called a wing beam, is a principal span wise member of a

wing structure

WING RIB:

It is sometimes called a plain rib, is a chord wise member of the wing

structure used to give the wing section is shape and also to transmit the air loads
from the covering the spar.

STIFFENERS (OR) STRINGERS:

To assist holding the shape of the wing span wise called stiffness (or)
stringers is attached to the skin.

For wooden wing construction, the wing spars must be made of a/c quality
solid wood and plywood. Wood spars may be solid or may be build up

STRESSED SKIN METAL CONSTRUCTION:

The skin of the wing is riveted to the ribs and stringers are serves not only as
a covering but also a part of the basic structure of the wing. Most a/c use aluminum
as wing covering. The aluminum skin has high strength and is employed as a
primary load carrying member. The skin is quite string in tension and shear and if
stiffened by other members may be made to carry some compressive load.
TYPICAL WING STRUCTURE OF TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT
LOCKHEAD:

The mainframe of a modern transport wing consists of spars, ribs, bulkheads

and skin panels with span ark stiffening members. The assembly of the structures
may include the use of non-metallic composite components and bonding of metal
structures as well as the use of conventional metal alloy and fasteners. The
structural strength of wing must be sufficient to carry its own weight along with
weight of fuel in its wings and force imposed by the flight controls and landing
gears. These stresses vary tremendously in magnitude during a/c transition from
moving on ground to force flight operation s to returning to the ground.

The basic structure of a modern transport wing is shown. Transport wing

consists of two or more main spars with intermediate spars assist the main spars in
carrying operational loads. The front and rear spars provide main supporting
structure for fittings attaching fuselage engine, pylons, main landing gear and flight
surface to wing.

Located between the ribs, depending upon their design may be used for
purposes such as fuel bulkheads and support of control surfaces as well as
providing the aerofoil shape of the wing.

Command used:
Line

Circle

Offset

Hatch

Arc
DRAFTING:

Ex No:8 LAYOUT OF TYPICAL WING STRUCTURE

Date:
RESULT:

Thus the layout of typical wing structure has been drafted by using
AUTOCAD 2015 software.
Ex No:9 LAYOUT OF TYPICAL FUSELAGE STRUCTURE

Date:

AIM:
To draft and study the fuselage structure layout of specialized aircraft
by using
AUTOCAD 2015 software.

FUSELAGE:

The fuselage is the body of aircraft to which the wings and the tail unit are
attached. It provides space for the crew, passenger, cargo ,control and other items,
depending upon it size and design of the aircraft. The aircraft structure is designed
to provide maximum strength and minimum weight.

In general, fuselage are classified into three types depending upon the
method, to which the stress are transmitted to the structure. The three types
according to this classified are truss, semimonocoque, monocoque.

CONSTRUCTION OF FUSELAGE:

The fuselage are designed with a variety of structural components. The great
majority of fuselage are all metal and semi monocoque in construction. This
statement applies to small medium and large aircraft.

The interior structure to which the skim or plating is attached consists of

longerons, frames, bulkheads, stringer, gussets, and possible internal coastal
members, riveted bound or jointed together form a rigid structure that shapes of
fuselage. The skim or plating is riveted or bonded to the structure to form the
complete unit. Fuselage for aircraft are designed with many similarities. The
forward section of the fuselage usually contain the cockpit and passenger cabin.
The shape of this section depends upon the passenger capacity and the performance
specification for the aircraft. The real section of the tail cone is usually circular or
rectangular in cross section and taper towards the tail.

TYPICAL FUSELAGE STRUCTURE OF TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT

LOCKHEAD L-1101:
 Fuselage for transport aircraft generally include a section forward of the
main cabin to provide a streamlined nose, a main cabin section, which is almost
uniformly cylindrical in shape and tail section. Which tapes to minimum size at the
extreme real and the material most commonly used throughout the structure are
high strength fiber glass, graphite, Kevlar on secondary areas of structure and of
many control surfaces.
FRAMES:

These are circumferential members gradually spaced at regular intervals

along the length of fuselage. Frames can stabilize the skin and stringers can
distribute the concentrated loads.

BULKHEADS:

Heavy frames reinforced by beams attached to webs are usually called

bulkheads.

STRINGERS;

These are longitudinal members spaced around the fuselage circumference

the extend the full length of fuselage. The stringers attached to the out board edge
of frame and the in board face of skin.

FLOOR BEAMS:

It provides the support for the cabin floor attack to the frame and skin
horizontally across the fuselage.

KEEL BEAMS:

It is a major longitudinal fuselage component in the wing center section and

wheel well area. It extends along the fuselage center line through the wheel well
and under the wing center section. The transport fuselage contains one or more mid
section assemblies. These mid section assemblies one basically circular in shape
with a constant cross size. The mid section of the structure contains landing gear
attached points.

The off section changes the cross sectional shape of the fuselage into the size
and shape necessary to join with fuselage at the body or tail cone. The center body
or tail cone is in the point of attachment for the flight control surface and
depending on the aircraft design. The fuselage sections are joined to complete the
basic assembly of the fuselage may also in corporate an engine installation area.

Command used:
Line

Circle
 Offset

Hatch

Arc
 DRAFTING:

Ex No: 9 LAYOUT OF TYPICAL FUSELAGE STRUCTURE

Data:

LD-2 LD-2 LD-3 LD-3

Boeing 767 Airbus A300

LD-3 LD-3 LD-3 LD-3

Boeing 747 McDonell Douglas
DC-10
 LD-3 LD-3
LD-3 LD-3

Boeing 777 Boeing 747

CROSS SECTION OF FUSELAGE

FUSELAGE SHELL

LONGERONS
RESULT:

Thus the layout of the typical fuselage structure has been drafted by
using AUTOCAD 2015 software.
Ex No: 10 LAYOUT OF CONTROL SYSTEM

Date:

AIM:
To draft and study the control system layout of specialized aircraft by using
AUTOCAD
2015 software.

TYPICAL CONTROLSYSTEMFOR A LARGEAIRCRAFT-BOEING:

The primary flight controls are the aileron, elevators and rudders flight
controls are powered from the three airplane hydraulic systems. There is no manual
backup system when hydraulic power is lost.

Spoilers assist the ailerons in providing roll airfoil and operate as speed brakes.
The variable pitch horizontal stabilized assist the elevator is providing pitch control
high lift for takeoff and landing is provided by trailing edge flaps and leading edge
slats.

RUDDER CONTROL SYSTEM YAW CONTROL:

Directional control about the yaw axis is provided by the rudder control
system. The rudder is hydraulically powered and control through displacement of
either pilots rudder pedals. Two yaws dampers operate through the rudder control
systems to improve direction stability and help to eliminate unwanted yawing of the
aircraft.

Displacement of either nor of rudder pedals send a signal to the three rudder
hydraulic actuators. The position of the rudder is shown on the EICAs {Engine
Indicating and new alerting system } status display

Rudder trim is available by rotating the rudder trim control to the desired
direction. The control provides signals to the electric motor that reposition the
rudder neutral point. The rudder trim indicator show the unit of rudder trim that
are signaled.

The control systems from the rudder pedals and trim control to the rudder
actuator are modified by a rudder ratio changer. As airspeed increases the ratio
reduces the rudder deflection that results from the rudders input
 The ratio changer receives air data computers airspeed input and provides control
signals to an actuator powered by the left hydraulic system. The actuator modifies
the pilots control input
RUDDER CONROL SYSTEM YAW CONTROL:

YAW
DAMPER

M
R C

L
AILERON CONROL SYSTEM ROLL CONTROL:

TRIM SWITCHES
LEFT RIGHT

C
ELEVATER CONTROL SYSTEM PITCH CONTROL:

The pitch control surfaces consists of two hydraulically powered elevators

and a hydraulically powered elevators and a hydraulically powered stabilizer to
improve speed stability

Moving either control column sends a signal to the hydraulic actuators on the
elevators. There are three actuators for each elevator. If one control column should
i am applying sufficient forward (or) after force to other causes two columns to
disconnect pitch column is then available using the free control system.

Elevator positions are shown on the EICAs status display. Separate pointers
indicates the left and right elevator deflection two elevator, feet system provide
artificial feet forces to the pilots control columns

AILERON CONTROL SYSTEM ROLL CONTROL:

The roll control surfaces consists of hydraulically powered ailerons and

spoilers which are connected so that it one control wheel jams, applying additional
forces causes the control wheels to disconnect roll control wheel.

The aileron is located on each wing, rotating either control wheel sends a
signed to the aileron hydraulically actuators.

Two actuators are used for each aileron. It positioned are shown on the
switches operate an electric motors that provides systems to reposition the
ailerons hydraulic system is necessary to accurately set the aileron trim an aileron
trim indicator is located on both control columns and indicates in unit of trim.

Command used:
Line

Circle

Offset

Hatch

Arc
ELEVATOR CONTROL SYSTEM PITCH CONTROL:

COLOUMN
DISCONNECT

ELEVATOR FEED

LEFT RIGHT
HYDRAULI C ELEVATOR
HYDRAULIC
PROCESS FEED
PROCESS
 DRAFTING:

Ex No: 10 FLEXIBLE CONTROL SYSTEM LAYOUT

Date:

CONTR
OL
WHEEL
BALANCING CABLE

CHAIN & SPROCKET(AILERON)

CHAIN &
SPROCKET(ELEV
ATOR)

PUSH ROD
 ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN
MILLIMETERS

RESULT:

Thus the control system layout of specialized aircraft was drafted and
studied by using AUTOCAD 2015 software.