Vtra

Sec. 5.1 Geomembrane properties and Test Methods 3g3

clay to have a hydrauric conducriviry cqual to or ress

rhan 2 x r0-? ft./min. (l x t0-r
cm/s) and for the geomembrane to bc praccd directry
upon ttrc ctay. Thus a friction
cvaluation of thc intcrface bcc<rnrcs ncccsri:r.'y. Tatrlt:
!.6 prcscnts data tor fivc diffcrcnl
cohesive soils of the type just describcd, whcic friction
.alucs were obtained for a number
of^geomembrane types [9]. The tcsts wcre of rhe undrain"o
iyp. *itn strain rates of
0.0024 in./min. (0.06 mm/min.). As convenrionaily
done in g"ot..hni.at engineering,
efliciency values arc reported where

E6 = (ran 6)/(tan 0) (5.t)

E,: c,,/c (5.2)
where

E6 = the efficiency of the frictional componenr,

E = the efficiency of the cohesive componenr,
6 = the friction angle of the geomembrane-ro_soil,
0 = the friction angle of the soil-to_soil,
co : the adhesion of the geomembrane-to_soil, and
c = the cohesion of the soil-to-soil.

The test results are very sensitive to molding warcr content,

time bctween samplc prcpa-
ration and conducting the test, preconsoridaiion pressure,
strain rate, and possibry othcr
factors as well. As such, the data should be used with
exrreme caution. Individual, site-
specific tests are recommended.

5.1.3.9 Geomembrane Anchorage

In certain problem situations a geomembrane might bc
sandwiched between two
materials and then tensioned by an external force. The
end of a geomembrane liner within
an anchor trench is such a situation. To simulate
this behavior in-a laboratory environment
one can use an 9.0-in. (200-mm)-wide geomembrane
sandwiched betwecn back-to-back
channels. Here the channers are placcJ under prcssure
from a hydrautic jack, and the
exposed end is held fixed with grips in a tension
testing machine. The channels arc fitrcd
or faccd with the actual or simulatecl adjacent materials.
Tension is mobilizcd from thc
fixed end of the geornembrane to the opposite end within
the anchorec zone. The com-
plete test procedure and details are available as
GRI Standard cM-2. For design purposcs
one is searching for thc anchorage depth necessary
to mobirize some portion of the geom-
embrade's strength (recall section 5. 1.3.2). The target
varuc courd bc thc tensilc ,iigit
at yield, at scrim break, or at an allowable strain. Figure
5.9 shows the embedment depth
required ro mobilize anchorage for HDpE, cspE, pvc g"or",nioncs. Dcpending
"n:
upon the appli-d normal stress it is seen that the anchorage
dlstance varics from'ap;;;:
imately 2 to l0 in. (50 to 250 mm). other curves for diffe-rent
geomembranes and various
confinement conditions could be similarly generarecl.

b--
 384 Designing with Geomembra.nes Chap. 5

TABLE 6.6 FRICTION VALUES AND EFFICIENCIES (IN PANENTHESES}

FOR VARIOUS
CLAY SOILS TO VARIOUS GEOMMBRANES I9I

Soil no. I Soil no. 2

ML{L CL-ML
Dcscription E,.(%) Eo (%l E, (%', Ec (%)
Soil-to-soil 9.0 ic0 l8 t00 12.0 r00 100

E, (%) E. {%J . (%) 4 (%)

Gconrcmbrenc-to-soil
PVC 8.5 91 39 100 3.7 3t 23 69
CPE 8.0 89 40 100 3.2 27 24 7t
EPDM 5.O 55 33 87 5.0 42 ?l 67
HDPE 5.0 88 26 68 2.0 l7 23 6'l
Emborscd HDPE 9.0 t00 35 92 r t.0 92 29 58

Soil no. l Soil no. 4

CL SP-CH
Dcscription E. (%) tr (%) ', (c ) Et (%l
Soil-to-rcil 20 r00 30 100 25 r00

c. E. (%t 6r {%) E, (%l

c4
4{%t
Geomcmbranc-to-soil
PVC t4.0 ?o 16 5l 7.O 28 24 t00
cP8 t3.0 65 t7 s7 8.0 32 23 96
EPDM 8.0 40 ?l 7-1 7.5 30 20 83
HDPE t4.0 70 15 50 3.0 t2 2t 88
Embosscd HDpE t8.0 90 27 90 r5.0 60 26 loo

. ).
Soil no. 5
1l I
CL.SP
Dcscriptioo
E. (%\ E: (%)
Soil.to-roil ,
28 t00 22
l, ,,,.. . 100

lir l, ... c. E, (%)

Eo (%)
Ctprncmbrrnc.to-roil
. PVC. i
t2.0 43 t7 77
,, CPE t0.0 36
EPDM l9 86
9.0 32
HDPE l8 82
14.0 50
Embosscd HDpE r5 68
16.0 51 25 r00
Notc: c end c. rrc in uniu of kN/m:.
$ and 6 are in degrees.

..-
 vsvrr,erilurdne rropenles and rest Methods
100 385
90
80
70
c
60
!
50
o 40
tn
30
20
l0

0 at015
Mobillration dinrncc X (in.)

{al HOPE - 30 rnd 60 mil (0.7i ond l.S0 mml

t00
90
80
_70
E60
3sn
!+o
6go
20
10

o 6 8 lo 12 14
Mobiliration disrance X (in.l
(b) Scrim.reinlorced hypaton (CSpE) 36 mit (0.9O mml
-

t00
90
80
70
sa 80
50
r 40
aJt
30
20
10

0 6 I 1o 12 14
Mobiliration dirtance X (in.l
{c} PVC - 30 mit (0.75 mm}
t., Embcdment deprh curvcs vcrsus applied
nomrll srrcss for varlour geomem-
l:T..:
 380 [)usigrrirrgwitlrUor.xrtr-rrrrbrunos Clrulr.5

5.1.3.10 Stress-Cracking (Bent Strip)

Callcd "environmcntal strcss-cracking" in ASTM D1693, this tes( is only applica-
blc to polycthylcnc nratcrials. Furthcrmore, rhc highcr rhe dcnsity (hcnce, crystallinity),
thc morc{clcvant thc tcst. Stttall tcst spccintcns of 1.5 by 0.5 in. (38 by 13 nrrn) arc
prcpared with a controlled imperfcction on one surface, that is a notch about one-qutu rer of
the thickncss running centralli'a{ong the long dimension. The specimens are bent into a U
shapc urd placcd within thc flanges of a channel holder. This assembly is then imrpersed
in a surfacc wctting agent at an elevated (empcrature. usually 122"F (50"C). Since stress-
. cracking is dcfined as "an cxtcrnal or intenral rupturc in a plastic caused by tcnsilc stress
lcss than lts short-tinrc nrcchanical strcngtlr," lhc (cst rccords thc prop<-lrtion of tlrc (otal
-* numhrof spccimcns that crack in a given timc. Currently. geomembrane specifications
-- -'call for a zcro numbr of stress-cracked specimens within 1000 hr.
Thc propcrty is highly dependcnt on thc nature and level of stresses applied during
processing and on the thermal history of the geomembrane during its fabrication. The
[{DPE gcomcrnbrane shcets in current usc seem to bc adequatcly blended and manufac-
. tured on thc basis of this particular test's rcsul(s.

5.1.3.11 Stress-Cracking (Constant Load)

: A diffcrent type of stress-cracking tcst for polyerhylene geomembranes is ASTM
' D2552. Called "cnvironntclttal strcss rul)turc," it placcs iurrrbbill-shapcd
rcst spccirncls
' under a constant load (as a
Pcrccntagc of their yicli stress) in a surface wetting agent ar an
clcvatcd temprature. Igcpal is the usual rvcrring agent and
122.F (50"c) is the usual
. tempcrature. Thc test has been conclucrcd lor l6g hi., at which
time

'the specimens havc not appreciably detormed, that is, are still in the elastic
rangc
' thc specinrcns ltave dclonncd plasrically enrering into a yield condition
. the spccimcns abruptly crack irr rlrcir narrow :cgions

As with the previous test, most commercially available

geornembranes perform welt in this
tcst, [10] although there is a scarciry of daia availablc.
^ An important modification to the tcst can bc made whereby gcomcmbranc seams
includcdinthcccntralrlsj9n-gfthetcstspccinrcn. are
I-lcrcitr,urr".inttybcenfoundtharrhc
pcrtbrmance of many field'fabricatco Hbpg
scanrs is or
sometirnes secn to occur wlten stress leveis excced 40vo "on..-. crackcd
of yieldstress.
failures are
The cracks always
emanats from a surfacc scratch, grind mark or
naturat disconrinuity. once initiated and
mobilized by the stress level, the cracks propagate throuth
the seam or through tle sheet
im-mediatcly adjacent to the seanr. wherhcr rhcse
are h'igh residual s(ress areas or ar
effects of thc field-scarninll proccss is not know,n
ar this tinrc. 'l'hc area is un<lcr activc
rcscarch by a numbcr or organizations
{sec Halsc, et al. tl0l).

?-
Sec. 5.1 Geomembrane properties and Test Methods 3g7
(t.+ Cn"-ical propertles i

Any phcnomenon that causcs polymeric chain scission within the proposed
design lifetime
of a geomembrane must be consid.red to be detrimental to itr p..foiance.
Within this
cateSory arc a number of chemical propcrtics arising from inte*acing
with liquids and./or
the atmospherc.

5.1.4.1 Swelling Resistance

One indication of geornembrane's durability is the amount of swclling

that occurs
because of liquid absorption during its service Iife. It should
be emphasized ihat swclling
per sc does not mcan chain scission or a failcd sysrem. It is,
howcvir, a bit disconccrtingl
particularty when the swelling occurs between individual sheets
in aiaminated geomcm-
brane. At this point of delamination, one has individual sheets acting scparately
in somc
complcx, and largely unknown, manner.
The test for water absorption, which can be modified for any liquid, given
is in
ASTM D570. Thc test is directed at a quantitative determination of the smount
of water
absorbed. but it also is used as a quality control test on the uniformity
of thc finishcd
product. Thc test procedure cautions that the water absorption may
bc grcatly differcnt
through the edge or through the surface, particularty with iaminated proaucs.
Cfhis fact
alone suggests that in seaming of laminated geomembranes, the uppcr
ovcrlap must be
Protected against contact with the contained liquids and the lower overlap n1urt bc p.o-
tected against subgrade moist:rre.) Tesr specimens of 3 by I in. (75
by 2i mm) arc used
and immerseci in a number of possible ways:

' For 2 hr-, 24 hr., or 2 weeks of consranr immersion in 73"F (23oc) watcr.
. Under cyclic (repeated) immersion.
' For 0.5 hr. or 2 hr. of consranr immersion in 122'F (50.c) water.
. For 0.5 hr. or 2 hr. of consrant immersion in boiling water.

The resrrlting test data are reported as the percentage increasc in wcight
during thc par.
ticular procedure selectcd. Note that for some materials it might be possiblc
that soluble
matter may be lost and a weight decrease is nreasured.

5.1.4.2 Chemical Resistance

The chemicat rcsistancc of a geomcmbranc vis-a-vis the substanccG)

it is meant to
contain is always important, and often it is the most critical aspcct
of the design process.
For example, in hazardous or radioactive waste containment, ihc pollutant
will interfacc
dircctly with the geomembrane. Thus the geomembrane's rcsistance
must be assurcd for
the li6 of the facility. This siruation has iong been recognized (scc
AsrM D543), and
manufacturers and fabricators have evaruated many situations. This has
rcsuteag vJ-
, . .:'|'I
r! i.

k.
388 q Dosigning with Geomsmbranes Chap. 5

ous chemical resistance chuts, such as Table 5.7, which lists generic chernicals against
many conrmon geomembratres on a relative or ranked basis. These charts and their tests
arc sometimcs incorrectly called chemical compatibility charts or tests. io a chcmist,
compatibility is when two substanccs pro;r-rly mix with onc another, which is exactly thc
oppositc trcnd wc are considcring in this sec(ion. Although such tablco arc gencrally
reliable, therc are many overriding ci,rcumstances where specific tcsting ls required; these
arc as follows:

. when thc ctremical is not a single-component material and possible synergiStic

effects are unknown
. whcn thc composition of the rcsulting chemical is simply not known, as in wastc
lcachate
' when the geomembrane is not a single-component material but is made from a
blend of naterials
' whcn the geomenrbrane is modificd at the seams or is seamed with material that is
diffcrcnt from that of thc gcornembrane
' when thc containment must func(ion over a very long period beyond the limits of
prior tests
' whcn untssted circumstances, such as extreme heat or cotd conditions, exist at the
.particular site in guestion

Thus there exists a need for a specific type of test procedure. Chemical rcsistance tests on
geomembranes for the specific conditions mentioned above require a number of important
dccisions to bc made bcfore tesring commences. These are as follows:

. selection of the particular liquid to be uscd

. the prccise manner of sample incubation
. the manner of specimen testing
. thc assessment of the results of this testing
Thc first itcm is surely site-spccific. What liquid is selected is a matrer of agreemenr of thc
various Partics involved. Often it is a difticult decision, and when the situation is critical it
is decidcd on E worst-case basis. Thus the most aggrassivc tiquid chcmicals cnvisioncd in
high concentrations are ofren used for the incubating liquid.
' The sccond itcm of the manner of incubation can somctimes be done in open con-
taincrs or tubs (see Rcferencc l2), but more and more it is bcing done in closed containers
of the typc shown in Figure 5.10. Here the system is sealed, at a given tempcrature, with
the liquid circulating and being constantly monitored as to its consistency. There is no
availablc headspace in the container so organic solvents cannot escape from the completely
filled chamber. Individual samples are exhurned 3r 30, 60, 90, and 120 days, u".ording to
EPA Test Method 9090, and rhen cut into rest specimens for evaluation.
This brings uP the third decision, which centers on the type of rest to bc used to judge
the geomembranc's performance after chemical incubation. Many different choices can
be made, but the following are ntost conunon.

*-
 Itr
XX XXXX
t;
s;c ls XX XXXX
t lr.
l XX XX XXXX
E\
-c
0
)\
E.
t;
ls XX XX XXXX
I
Pa
E9 XX XX xxxx
EE
lla
-d()
PI
o
l:
l8 XX XX xxxx
A
t; xxxx
*ire! E;
.E gtr Ev
t;
XX

x XX XXXX
&
o |. 'qc
l!
(n t x
J
J
z
.E
E
t
T#
=c
t;
I t'.
XX XXXX

o .9 l8l XX
:= t r!A
l;l
xx xxxx
o
(J t.s
Nq
XX
tr
o
a/,
trJ
.H
d=
trE
E.
;l XX XX xxxx
z
:llrl
o 'ot
I O 0^
:l
:)
(.:,
EEFHd9?
ul
(J
=?v.a5\,
U
q
z XX XXXX
F -o
I

FI
tt !E
I

6l
.h
I
XX XX XXXX
UJ
q E3.e
i.9
I

J
()
6E I

I xx xx xxxx
r=
o
lLt :l XX XXXX O.
J
e..8
)A c-
Eae
cc^
qaa
<ut
w,
;l xx xxxx
'pE
Oq-
tr
E!
60E
F. te
rri= ?o
.E
5j
8r
rrr I t
g<
FgF s ;
J.
[lO
<ur
FO
d
s s;5* ;; cer $Fi, x:ri
. t'1

389
 390 Designing with Geomembranes Chap. 5

Thermometsr
Gcrr.motor

Septum lor
rampling
llquld

Trflon
glrkrt

Llnk
lock

ll,
ti
iii
Specimen
Iii
holder
;ij
I
LI

ill . Flgurc 5.10 Schcmatic of incubation containcr for cvaluating chcmical rcsistancc
;i a'
il[ bchrvior of gcomcmbrancs ("frcr Haxo [6]).
t,
rl'
ill
. Physicat property ,eJrr.. These are for rhickness, volumc, or weight
changes,
ri: which are thc easiest and most straightforward to pcrform.
il:'
rrti',
' Mechanical properry restr.' The tensile test propcrties of strcngth at yield
and/or
rl;l
break, elongation at yield and/or break, and modulus atong with tear, puncture,
;lil and impact are the usual values masuredt which arJ donc as previously
ri:,
described.
riil.
t,:.,
,l,j ' Transport poperty tests" Perhaps the most sensitive tests to perform (and
undoubt-
;11
. edly the most difficult) are tests for water vapor transmission and diffusion
ji, of
watcr or water vapor through the incubated gcomembranes (sce
,ii, Lord and Kocrner
.1.
ll
,t.j
tll for details).
' j;i

I
If onc is following a specific proccdure, such as rhat of the EpA, thc NsF, or an
owners,
thc tcst mcthods ro be used will usually bc specificd.
Thc response curvcs for the above-men(ioned tests shourd be prottcd
as
changc in the measured prope(y fronr rhe
"risi;;i:;".rr;;'#il;li,::ilff;. T,T::j
Figure
Sec. 5.1 Geomembrane Properties and Tesi Methods 391

, +60
CSPE in rceton:

+40

8,
c
+20
{tt _i>qil,.,llll,_.
3o
c
o
Timc (davrl
t -20

-40 F rilurc
'lrlln

Flgurc 5.ll Bchavior of CSPE gcornembranc (o acetonc after various incubation timcs
(aftcr Kocrner [3]).

5.ll shows such a rcsponse curve of CSPE in acetone at 68F (20'C). Although thcse
curyes strow a marked change in behavior and therefore a geomembrane that is unsuitable
for this particulaf chemical, the lack ol a change might not necessarily mean the corrcct
geomembrane is found. It could mean that thc gcomcmbrane was incubatcd for too short a
p".ioa. Since incubation pcriods of longer than 6 months arc gencrally unrcalistic, acccl-
erated aging tests are attractive. Such aging is usually accomplishcd by incubation at
elevated temperature,-such as up to 122"F (50"C) in the EPA 9090 test-but no univcr-
sal rules are established. The concept seems to be sound, howevcr, since the clevated
temperature will generally show degraded properties much sooner than incubation at arnbi-
ent temperature. However, much research rcmains to be done in this arca.
The last item to discuss under chemical resistance of geomembrancs is an asscss-
ment of the results of the changes noted on the incubated samples. Whilc therc are no
established rules on allowable variation from the original test ProPerties (sce Table 5.8 for
suggested values) it is clear that polyethylene will be morc resistant to most organic
,oiu.ntt and aggrcssive chemicals than will othcr common geomembranc polymcrs. Fur'
thermore, the highcr the density, the better the chemical resistanci bchavior. Thus high
density polyethyienc (HDPE) geomembranes are widely used for man! landfill lincn.
ftrit pr"t.nS other difficulties, however. for HDPE is difficult to work with, has
low frictional characteristics, has a high coefficient of thermal cxPansion' and is somcwhat
scnsitivc to strcss cracking. For these rcasons resin suppliers are activcly invertiSating
polymcric variations of Hbpe such as highly branched lincar lowdcnsity polyethylene
if-iOpq or vcry low-density polyethylenc (VLDPE). Futurc variations might be very
chemically resistant, very durable, and very easy to work with.
 bgZ Designing with Geomembranes Chap. g

TAELE 6.8 SUCGSTED LIMITS 3F DIFFERENT TEST VALUES

FOR INCUBATEO GEOMEMBRANS

(a) For thermoset end thermoplastic polymers,

afier Little [141
hoperty Rcsistani Not rcsistant
Pcrmcrtion Rrtc <0.9 g/m:hr. >0.9 g/mrhr.
Chrngc in wcighr (%) <t0 >t0
Chengc in volumc (%) <10 >10
-ehangc in-tcuil' srrcnSrh .( %) <20 >2C
Changc in clongrrion er brcat (%) <30 >30
Changc in 100% or 20O% modulus (%) <30 >30
Change in hrrdncu l0 poinrs l0 points

(b) For semlcrystallin polymers

O'Tmlc {l5l Liulc I l4l Kocrncr

Propcrty Rcsistanr Not rcsistant R esistant Not rcsistant Rcsistant Not rcsistanr
Pcrmertion ntc
(gmLhr.) <0.9 >0.9 <0.9 >0.9
Chrn3c in wcight
(%) <0.5 > t.o <l <2
Cbangc in volumc =l >2
(%) <0.2 >0.5 <l >l .<l >l
Changc in yicld
rtrcngrh (%) <t0 >20 <20 >20 <20 >20
Changc in yicld
clon3uion (%) <20
Changc in modulus =20 <30 >30
(%)
Churge in tcrr <30 >30
strcngrh (%)
Changc ia punctuc <20 >20
strengrh (%)
<30 >30

5.1.4.3 Ozone Resistance

Thc ozone resisgance of gcomembranes can
bc evaluatccr by ASTM D5lg. This test
is primarily a tcst fot rubbcr deierioration and
is based ;;
surface cracking of thc material after cxposure.
Each test " ;".i;;;ive assssmenr of
oi"ontinuousty expos-
ing lest specimcns (straight, bent, loopei, or tapcred "onriri,
ones can u" ur"ai*lile hotding them
under strcss, at nonnal weather conditions
or otherwise, in an atmosphere containing
controlled arnounrs of ozone in accordance with
for diffcrent arnounts of time and observ.ed for
Method rir r+9.' are exposed J[J*"n,
the appeararce and growth of cracks
surfaccs. on the
 Sec. 5.1 Geomembrane propedes
a-,j Test Methods
393
5.1.4.4 Ultraviolet Light
Resiseace

svnrhetic mareriars
:"-,.jJ":.":;::#':llT#l:::.:fri';;:l-exposed
vidence o r vo rat
is weu known
pvc_ii
c
iri
arion bcrwecn mareriats," "i
za ti" ;".' ;i...#]j"j;lJlffi
1."1" UV cxposurc.
r,""."J.,1.."t_"11r?11?I|1|:-to Th. vari-
",f"r:* ""i-
stePs can bc ukcn to Furthermorc, numerous
int,it,ir.nJo, manufacturing
",* ;t^"i
,.**'::;l'oY"lx*llltlt$""'f i*"ft ffi "fi :3;,,";;;;:;
*::::T;,?'ffi':ilr:j1[i*i:$'+!i$:#,L::::l*,*t"*'#
e":!:h,1"H:T';:,,:,trl
jT j",rffi tl"i:Fry*".T'+::ffi r* jT*
.Jiili.i'{:ilii:*:,;;T:,ffi ,:d;;;;;
:." jli:fi;i1il:ijt.:?.ffi
esscntiarrv a"oiaeliv covering
of many sunace impou.rdmenl, r..-.-oli;fi':ffi:l!"i1"1ff":'.:;;,r"Tliiil'l;T
,n.
,r.l" ,, possible.
"",'..rr.y,

5.1.5 Biological Hazards

Therc are a trcmendous

number of Iirine o:
Dragun tl6l). Th;'-re, orliorogi..,'i..ii'T"l]ms in.the soit (see.Figurc 5.t2 aftcr

n:,':,::if ":?ff *i1:::,1X'.'*;.;Ti"ff l#

"n::]a',,'i:il*#fff
5.1.S. I Resistance to Animals

g ilil: ii:::[.H:l i]fi :,'.TI:

3=: :i
s the rro wi ng fi bu
s rhrough o an i mar
onrvT :rhosc substanc.s h.,a.,ii,"
animal is persisrent enou3h.
ii,. ,;;;:.:.,tff ffiIill, f*,i.il; Ti,lll''t,,,lj
rr,r, g.o;";nl-1 nr" indccd

.,it,llL::.J: llliJ;::*;
rhicker the geomembon.,
:;;:li;;;1prn ;; ;,. no cs,abr ishel
ni;t, "ri*.lur"un rb. u n
to bunowlng

;t
n" ;;i.;' ;;':;:'#: :ff xiT:J:i:*nscr, hardcr, and
rf
Exceptions appeff
and thosc which usc starches
to.g;;r;;.s
be rhose rhat use rarge rmounts
of prasticizer
;- animats mav dcveroo an
plorc;*'ir'*i, li'ii"porriur" that thc
"na
n addicrion is of a chemicrr
addiction ; pl;;;;", "o,npounai.
ri'i."'nii ii'o*n whcthcr rhe
o, t..tii, n;J;;;;.; "r,i"rJi
*,-" r.rtJ.-"rsJ;;;#;* and proreins,
6 anrmars wourd anack the geomembrane as
d and proteins are not commonly
. rour* of food. Fortunatery, though,
starches
ur.a iniJri:, g"or".b.ne compounds.

i5- -
 394 Designing with Geomembranes Chap. 5

Smrll rummrlr:
rqulneh. gopherr,
woodchuckr, mico,
thrcw, rrtl
Subsisting ln3eclt: tprin(.ili,
largely rntr, bcatlcr, !rubt.
on plant etc.
materials Milllpeder
Sowbugr (woodlice)
Mltcr
Slugr .nd ln.ll!
Errthwormr

Molrr
ln$ctt: many antt,
Lsrgoly bcctler, ctc.
prodatory Mitcr, in roma c.tt
Cantlpcdrr
Spidcrr

Predatory or Nomrtodcr
parasitic or
subrirting on Pro!otor
planl residues R otilcrr
T
:il r

,i.
,z
Green
Blue- green
Oiatoms
Mu:hroom fungi
Yarts
Molds

Figurc 5.12 Organisms commonly prcscnt in soils (aftcr Dragun [l6]).

5.1.5.2 Resistance to Fungi

Fungi include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. They depend on organic matter for
'c8rhnt
nitrogcn, and other elcments Their numbcrs can be very large, 8s much as l0 to
20 million pcr gram of dry soil, and their population is constantly changing. Placing
gcomembrancs in decomposing organic residue often causes concern. However, thc high-
moleculaf-weight polymers generally used for geomembranes seem very insensitive to
such dcgradation. ASTM G2l deals with resistance of plastics to fungi.
Of vcry real concern, however, is the possibility of fungal deposits clogging and

Y'''
 ec. 5. 1 Geomembrane properties
and rest Methods
395
blinding flow through or
wirhin the gcorc,\(ilc.\. gcon*s,
are often associated *;rtt
g.or.nrui*.r. 'trr"sc and clrainr
i(cms rvi, bc airnlt
StTotposites that
cussed subscquently.
5.1.5.3 Resistance to Bacteria
Bacteria are singre cet
organismr, 010:_r- rhc si,rnprest
and smarest known forms
+i:,,:l.jfflr*":::.0 s u"' i; l;;;,i
,.0 .* ,,,,i,,;';;;,il,,*. of
or spirar in shaoe.
orga n i c,,un, ro,',iilonT:ll:
here' The test method
il: :',lX' l,l.Tl i,:l r' ;
I ;' ; i: I
n.y. p* ic ipa tc
"i
fulsi coutd esseniiirrv ut
i n'ai i

G22. - f".
-v' .;;;r;"";;Y:^l
vrqrudrrurr :n of plastics
oI reslstance to
*p.r,.a
bactcria ir;iTlr;
regarding geomembranes
ry'r'3i.i$,illfl;ili,,tlffi
in ionjunctio"n *i,n irr. Iiner -3tng of the drainage systems ofren consrructed
""T:',#,:j^t::::l:
is nor
itself.

5.1.6 Thermal properties

S.1.6.1. Warm Temperature

Behavior

mav be subjecred ro changes

,"t.n,?i,T'It:ffiHl';*L?fr:"i;: in physicar,
g' r h' ;;;. ;;, ;T,''U":l:,;J;;'J,il
il:lfJi: :'r'f ilsii*illli :li
n r
" ";; J,^ff

;[*;;;;.,;.*if .'jliil,*;:JJ:':,"H:,t j:.:,ff il::l jlTtr""..T;[#

ASTM D794 co.
hea,onpr,,,i"'.:.iJ:.!:in[?JTi1.:1,'ff]Tiii:j:frjil::,ffff;il:;,H,::i
ncarry as scnsitive to hear
as are prasrics. Recommended
D1870), which consisrs^of is o ,uurr_'o""n method (AsrM
an
Fairurc due ro heat is defi1!
;".; ;,h ; ;ecimen ,r.t ,"-"rrlr,) for
air circurarion.
properties that alter the materia.l ""'; .;;;;ii upp.-rn.., weight, dimensions,
to u a"g..3ifu111 or other
t,
H:ff : ; :.*iffi fi il;ff :: :" : * ::j';:1, n n::li
r;
no ronger acceptabrc for
"ij
;
rhc service in
T" g ges, co m p ari s o n

5.1.6.2 Cold Temperature Behavior

Testing to evaruate the effect of

cord on geomembranes forows
general lines as the effects arong the same
of heat, bur ,n"1Jr,*ro. or ,i.
.*tJu't-ir, or cou*e, com-
1Ti:'l,tT:,.'"1,;.1:jx].'], r.n.'"iryloi'i""*0" ,r," g.o..iJon.'in npprccrabtc
"ny
cessf u'vinstarr.ai"iilffi
[H.T$::',J*:quilrf;:ffi
ouncturing and tearing problems *ere ,H'"]il#,il;tii
aiscuss.i earlicr.) 1he only meanlngful
effect that

?,-
 396 . Designing with Gomembranes Chap. 5

cold has on the constructability of the system is that flexibility is decrcascd and seams are
difficult to makc. The latter point is p,crlraps the mos( significant aspcct of cold condi-
tions. Thc proposed scanring method should bc attempted at site-instatlation tcmpcrarurcs
on tcst spccimcns on simulatcd subgradcs an<J evaluatcd to sce that a satisfactory scarn
strngth will indeed result.

5.1.6.3 Coofficient of Thermal Expansion

Thcre src a number of proccdurcs that can be used to determinc thc cocfficicnt of
thcrmal contrsction or cxpansiorr oI a m',rcrial, for example, ASTM D2lO2 and D2259 for
contraction, and D1042. and D1204 forcxpansion and dimensional changcs. All of thcm
subjcct thc tcst specimen to a constant source of cold (or heat) and carefully mcasurc thc
scParstion distance bctween two given initial locations. Some typical data are prcscnted in
Tablc 5.9. An cxample using this data in adding slack during the installation of a geo-
membrane is given belorv.
Example:
Calculatc thc amount of slack to be addcd during thc installation of a HDPE liner for l surfacc
impoundmcnt anticipaling a l00oF tempcrature change. Base the calculations on a IOO fr.
sidc slopc distance.
.lj Solutlon: Minimum: 8 x t0-r (t00Xl00Xl2) = 9.6 in.
Maximum: 12 x l0-5 (l00Xt00Xt2) = 14.4 in.
Easily scen is that the calculated amounts arc very signi6cant and rhc imporrancc of adding
slack for temperature compcnsation cannot bc ovcrcmphasizcd.

5.1.7 ldentification Properties

There are instances in rvhich a specific geomembrane must be clearly and unequivocally
identificd and/or fingerprinted. To do so often requires tesring of greater sensitivity than
thosc methods already discussed. Some of the tests used to idcntify geomembiancs on a
molecular basis are includcd in this section.

5.1.7.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGAI

This is the first of a series of thermal methods in which a property of the polymer i:
traced as a function of a controlled temperature program (sce Thomas and Vcrschoor Il9j
for a revicw). TGA is one of those metho<Js that follows mass as a function of rempcra-
ture. Continuous weighing of th,e decreasing mass of a specimcn rhat is being subjected to
a constantly increasing temperatur producescurves such as shown in Figurc 5.13. Thc
pronounced decreases in weight signify specific component vaporization. For example,
the plasticizcr in the PVC is removed at about 300oC, while thc resin is removed at
between 450'C and 500'C. What remains above 500'C is probably carbon black and ash,
since the tests were performed in a nitrogen atmospherc. The proportion of each compo-
nent is readily obtained, since the device automatically normalizcs the vertical axis.

--
,i...
Sec. 5.1 Geomembrane properties and Test Methods
397
a
TABLE 5.9 COEFFICIENTS OF LINEAR THERMAL
EXPANSION
(VARIOUS REFERENCES)

Thcrnral linear cxpansivity x 1g-s

Polymcr type grcr l'F pcr loC
Polyethylcnc
high dcnsity 8- I2
medium density t5-22
6-8 I l-15
tow density s-7 9-t3
Polypmpylcnc 3-5 5-9
Polyvinyl chloridc
unplasticizcd , l- r0
35% plasricizcr 5-r8
4- l4 7-25
Polyarnidc
nylon 6 3-4
nylon 66 -4-5 5-1
7-9
Polystyrrnc 3-4 s-7
Polycstcr 3-4 s-7

120

80

8oo
c
.9

= &

200 30O 400 s6O

Temperature (oCl

F'gure 5.13 Thcrmogravimetric anarysis (TCA) curvcs

of some common tcosynthctic
polymcn (aftcr Thomas and Vcrschoor
[19]).
39E Designing with Geomembranes Chap. 5

The technique can also bc used to determine kinetic information concerning the
stability of the polymer and the enr8y of activation for thcrmal decomposition. This latter
piecc of information carr oe used in an Arrhenius plot to predict maximum use lifetinre at a
speciFc tcmpctatur.

5.1.7.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)

By mainuining a temperatur balance between a reference cell and a test specimen

cell, the hcat flow into and out of a specimen can.be monitored and ploucd as a function of
tcmpcra{urc. 'Figure 5.14 shows such a trace for quenched polycstcr [19]. Thc glass tran.
sition tcmperaturc is at 80 36"C, the exothermic crystallization of thc polymcr backbonc is
at 164.20oC, and the endothermic melting of rhe crystallitcs is at 251.43"C. Vcry impor-
tsnt to rccognizc is that the area undcr the curve of thc crystallization melt, that is, thc
valuc of 31.56 J/g, is proportional to thc pcrcent crystallinity of thc polymcr. Referencc
standards arc uscd as a calibralion for obtaining the actual pcrcent crystallinity valuc.
Lastly, the bcginning of melting of the crystalline portion of the polymer at 236.43t is
important, as it relates to proper seanring. This can bc seen in the DSC curves of Figure
5.15 for different types of polyethylene [20]. Here the crystalline mclting zonc is clcarly
defined, and the higher the densi,ty of the PE, the narrower the ternperaturc window in
which melting taks place. Clearly, HDPE is a challenging and difficult marerial to seam
properly. Equally as clear is that DSC (and also TGA) make powerful tools in the fun-
damental behavior of polymers uscd in the design and construclion of lincd systcms.

6
E -0.60

=E
-0.80
'
o
=n
e
-t.@

-t:0
-1.40
?5 1.430C
-1.60
-50 150 250
Temgerature (oCl

Flgurc 5.1:1 Differential scanning calorimctcr (DSC) curvcs for qucnched polycsrcr (af-
tcr Thomas and Vcrschoor I l9]).
 Sec. 5.1 Geomembrane properties and
Test Methods
399

ffi
Weight: all umplc:
Rrnge: I O mcal/s
l.l mo
lligh
density

Scan rate: l0.C/min.

T
E
o

]
o
=

l/to
Temperarure ('c)
scanning crlorimctcr (Dsc)
|'T-H;:'J:". ?;tj;'"t''' curvcs ror prycthyrenc (ertcr pcr-

li:f :f;3j"*,|i;i:i
ll, : :^t
jl l:::.-r n.
(orr) r h e ox i dat i vc i nduction ti
me
;:'i#l'ffi iff ;lil'l;*i::::*:ll#;;.',':"""i'1"il:i:?','#::,:tr":,il
potymeia.g*du,i;; ;, l""ir"r*il: test
'+i:'
requircs relatively high temperaturcs,
!;ii,3l3,i;":':Jln::'j"HTli:l*$."'r;:"th;::ru;'^#j:i,:"[ffi ::,T:;
::H;"jil;: jll#:::"::1"'::"ri:l{:t;;;;;;;;:[*"^-J.ilii:'l[i?Ht1T
ili1'.;J,':::'3li'::li:',:',H?';
#;,:TX'::'i:|:"9r::::,*'::;;;,ffi
temperatures can be usedlo predict
.i *;i.]
mers. "r"'J,i. "*ii,lJlil;#'lrT:'llillrtffff
5.1.7.3 Thirmomechanical Anatysis (TMA)

IT*ffiH:X
ture. A quartz probe
rrvw rerr) on H:":
lJ u' tr lT,
test Ispccrmen
j o-']l
t: n d,:.
i n tem pera-
co n t roned incrcase
rcsts rrc resr
the spcci and Iits dispracemcnt is preciscry
as thc temperaturc incrcases (or
decreas.ri.'it n'aiJuraa
modes of one*ri^n oF -e^^-^:^_
ffi
::*:1":i'l;ffi "};i,r'..:'lT'.-'ff" LTffjtrtr'::lx;mt:?:*l:
fonvand propcrty to obtain ii
_

;T[:IL:::]:H1,::':;::"*::::li;;,;";:;';5 j'Jill-o11,1tffi::ijil#ll: thc

f[T':lT:t:tTi9l. ":*e' .Figu re ;;s. J-*j;'' .,i? :JJL*"fffi il ]

lr-*'";;: r

;nT,i5. I:::":ii:*:1 :l l!ia1

: ;; TI$;:J}:| ;:T:'l:1 ?*
j5;, jlT:i;"'#',1;'ls;:lil'j"r:y:'".1T;;{[rT'ljil'l,:
iil:'fl jl'tlii,fj::
Ii:,,.jliilli:
ture, which is ffi::.Ei-een
rhe two staqes .,"i.ir'#i"'ll ,r;.!,*'fffli,,i11,,i,"i,,i?i.
80.55.C.

t-
400 Designing with Goomembranes Chap. S

q - 132 pmlm'C

E:t
T
I
!20
.E
E
g
6

a. 76,4 pmlm'C

20 40 60 80 100 120
Tempe{.turr (oC)

Ffturc 5.16 Thcrmomcchanical analysis (TMA) curvcs for PET undcr r tcmpcraturc
incrcesc of l0"Onrin. (aftcr Thomas and Vcrschoor fl9)).

5.1.7.4 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)

This fourth thcrmal technique measures the mechanical response of a polymcr as it is
deformed under a periodic stress in a controlleo ternperature environment. Thus the vis-
coelastic properties can be evaluated. The test measurs the dynamic storage modulus (a
measure of stiffness) and the dynamic lcss modulus (lo measure glass transition and
softening points).

5.1.7.5 Melt lndex (Ml) Testing

Thc MI test is used routinely by manufacturers as a method of controlling polymer
uniformity. It relates to the flowability of the polyrrer in its moltcn state. Thc test method
oftcn used for gcosynthetic polymers is ASTM D1238, Method A. Hcre a given amount of
thc polymcr is heated in a furnace until it melts. A constant load pushcs it through an
orificc out the bottom of the furnace. The melt indcx value is the weight of extnrded
material in grams for I0 min. duration.
The test is often performed using two different r',,eights forcing the extrudate out ot'
the orificc: for examplc, 2.2 kg and 5.0 kg. The resulting MI values ar then made into a
ratio as follows:
FRR = MI2.2lMI5.s (5.3)

.*--
 $ec. 5.1 Geomembrane properties and Test Methods
401
where

FRR = the flow rate ratio,

MIz.z = rhe melt index under 2.2 kg weight, and
Mts.o = the melt index under 5.0 kg *,.;ght.
Thc FP'R is felt to bc meaningful in incrcasing
the precision of rhe test for pE matcrials.
Notc should also bc madc that MI andFRR Jalues'are
used., uquuiitutive indicatorof
average molecular weight. However, the
quantification of molecu'iar wcight is best per-
formed by one of the following tesrs.

5.1.7.6 Molecular Weight Determination

At the outset it is important to recognize rhat there
are a number of mcthods
used to
determine thc molecurar weight olpolym-ers
[2 r] (see Tabte 5.10). Thcse methods deter-
mine either the weight average (fr*) or rhc nu,nlcr
(Ti;.'*., are defined as
follows: ^;;;g;

n,fr?
(5.4)

2 n'fu,
l-l
M" =- (s.5)
Lni
where

h!= the number of molecules of the ith fraction,

and
frt= thc molecular weight of the ith fraction.

TABLE 5.10 COMMON METHODS USED TO DETERMINE POLYMERIC

MOLECUT-AR WEtcHl AFTER MOORe arvo xlrrue tzrl

.Approximrte uscful
Mcthod Avcrage molecular welght range
End-group analysis
High-speed membrane osmomcrry
Mn 2xld gmol
Up to

Vapor pressurc osmomctry

n^ 2xld to2xldg/mol
M^ tJp to 4 x lOa g/mol
Light scattcrlng M* lOa to 102 g/mol
 402 | Oosigning witlr Goomonrbronos Cltop. 5

Still another molccular wciglrt valuc is tlrc viscosity avcragc nlolccular wcight 1M,;, wtrich
falls intermediate in its numeric valuc bctween the two above values. All three values are
related on a statistical distribution curve (often Gaulsian distributed) in that M, is approx-
imatcly thc lower point of inflcction, ,?* i. rppro*irnatcly thc lopcr point of inflection an.l
M" is rcar thc mean, or averagc, valuc.
To dctermine the entire distribution of molecuiar weight, gel pcrmeation chroma-
tography (GPC) is sornctimes performed. This is esscntially a process for thc fractionation
of polymcn according to their molecular sizc and, thcrcforc, according to their molecular
wcight, Thc molccular weight is de(ernrined indirectly by calibration of the systcm in
tcrms of thc clution time expected for a particular polymcr molccular weight fraction with
a particulaf piecc of equipment. Thc column packages arc made with microporous glass
bcads and powdered, srvelled, crosslinked polystyrene. It is a tedious test, requiring ca-re
and precision, but is one which had has a dramatic cffcct on the procedures for polyrner
characterization and molecular weight determination [22].

5.1.8 Summary

This relatively long section on geomenrbrane propertics and tcst methods has hopefully
served to illustrate the wealth of test nrcthods availablc for usc and characterization pur-
poscs. Most of the established tests and standardizcd tcst methods have comc by way of
thc plastics and rubber industries for non-gcotcchnical-rclated uscs. This is fortunatc for it
givcs a base or reference plane to work from. However, many havc some variation
requircd for use in bclow-ground construction. Still other demands require completely
new tests and test methods. With ASTM in the United States (as well as standard institutes
ovcr thc entire world) there is an awarcness and vibrant activity to develop such tcst
methods and standards. Until thcy arc availablc, howcvcr, wc must ac( on intuition and
dcvclop proccdures that nrodel the rcquired design information as closely as possible.
Many of the tcsts and information p.esented in this section were donc in that light. It
should also bc obvious that the complexity of thc tests progressed from the quite simple
thickness lest, to the very complex GPC test. Indeed, a very widc range of test nrethods
arc available.

5.2 SURVIVABILITY REOUIREMENTS

For any of thc design methods presented in this chapter to function properly, it is necessary
that thc geomembrane survive the packaging, transportation, handling, and installation 5.3 i

demands that arc placed on it. This aspect of dcsign cannot bc taken lightly or assumed
simply to takc care of itself. Yet there is a decided problem in formulating a generalized
survivability <iesign for every application, since each is unique. Some of the major vari-
ables af.fecting a given situation are fte following:

. packaging at the manufacturing facility

. distance from the factory to the site

P.-"
 Se9. 5.3 Liquid Containment (pond) Liners 403

. offloading at the site

. storage conditions at the site
. subgrade conditions at the site
. deploymcnt at the approximate location
. movement into final seaminS location
. trcatment at the site during seaming
. treltment at the site after scaming
' placement of the cover material or soil backfill on .ire completed s),stem

Note that cach of these topics is largely out of the hands of the designer. Only by rigid
specifications, competent full-time inspcction, and the cooperation of a knowledgeable
manufacturer and contractor can the geonrcntbrane survivc to the point of bcginning to
function as designed. While remembering that each sitrration is surely differcnt, some
empirical guidelines are ncccssary anC thc following propcrries and thcir minimum values
are offercd.
While bcing packaged, transported, handled, and installed, geomembranes are most
often vulnerable to tear, puncturc, and impact. Such events often come about accidental-
l-v, by vandalism, or by poor workmanship. Typical situations arc the dropping of to<,ls on
the liner, the driving of autos or pickup trucks on the unprotected liner, high winds gctting
beneath the liner during placement, the awkwardness of moving large shcets of thc lincr
into position, and so on. The geomembrane properry most involvcd with rcsistance or
susceptibility to tear, puncturer and impact damagc is thickness. At tcast a linear, and
sometimes.cxponential, increase in resistance to the above actions is seen as thickncss
increases.' For this reason many agencies require a minimum thickness under any circum-
stance. For example, thc U. S. Bureau of Reclamation requires a minimum thickncss of
20 mils (0.50 mm) for canal liners while the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
requires a minimum thickness for gcor,rcmbrancs for hazardous waste lincrs of 30 mils
(0.75 mm). For similar applications in West Germany, it is requircd to use an 8$mil
(2.0-mm) geomembrane [8]. However, for general use of geomembrancs, as discussed
in this chapter (not necessarily as hazardous waste liners), I feel that a 20-mil rcquircment
is appropriate for carefully placed geomembranes. Othcr minimum rcquiremcnts for gen-
cral usc in specific types ol applications arc given in Table 5. I l. Nctc that'thesc values 8re
not to bc used in place of dcsign, but as a check on design to see that installation can bc
properly assurcd.

s.3 LtoutD CoNTAINMENT (POND) LTNERS

Certainlf a major use of geomenrbranes is in the area of liquid containment via a surfacc
impoundment. In fact, the name "geomembrane" is actually one tlat supersedcs the
namc "pond lincr," rcflccting thc original use of the plastic and rubber materials to which
this chapter is devoted. Certainly, thc agriculture industry has a dcsperate need to rtor
water and hencc both the U.S. Department of Agriculture and thc U.S. Bureau of Rec-

"-.-gr{lft/fl

I:--
 t
404 Designing with Geomembranes Chap. 5

TABLE 5.11 RECOMMENDED MINIMUM PITOPERTIES FOR GENERAL GEOMEMBTTANE

INSTALLATION SURVIVABI LITY

Requircd dcgrec of survivability

Propcrty rnd
tcst ncethod Mcdiumr High' Vcry highd

Thiclcncsr (D1593)
milr (mm) 20 (0.s0) 25 (0.63) 30 (0.75) 40 (1.00)

TcniilC D882
(1.0 in. [25 mm] strip)
lb"dn. (tlVm) 30 (5.2) 40 (7.0) s0 (8.7) @ (r0.5)

Tcrr (Dl0O{ Dia C)

rb. (N) 5 (22) 7.5 (r3) l0 (45) r5 (67)

Puncturc (D3?87 mod.)

tb. (N) 20 (90) 25 (r l0) 30 030) 35 (160)

tmpra (D3998 mod.)

fr.-lb. (J) l0 (?) r2 (9) r5 (r r) 20 (r5)

(r) Law rcfcn lo carcful hand placcmcnt on vcry uniform wcll-gradcd subgradc with light loads of r static
neturc-typicd of vrpor bu:'icr bcncath building floor rlabs,
(bl Mcdhutt rlfcrs to hand or machinc placcmcnt on machinc-gradcd subgradc with mcdium loads-typical
of curl lincrs.
(c) Illtrt rcfcc to hrnd or machinc placcmcnt on machinc-gradcd subgradc of poor tcxturc with high loads-
typicd of landfill lincrs and covcn.
(d) Vcry high rcfcrt to hand or machinc placcmcnt on machinc-gradcd subgrade of vcry poor lcxturc with
high loadi-typical of rcscrvoir covers and lincrs for hcap lcach pads.

lamation were irrvolved in early research into synthetic pond liners. Staff [23] suggests
that thcrmoset (rubber) liners m"y have been used ptior to the 1930s, and cites the use of
polyvinyl chlotide sheeting for liners in the 1940s. Whcn covered with a minimum of l2
in. (30 cm) of soil, thesc PVC liners have performed admirably. Uncovered, however,
there was 8 tendncy for progressive brittleness and cracking. This condition was found to
be caused by thc loss of thc plasticizer (used to make it flcxible to begin with) frorn the
vinyl due to volatilization. Other liner materials, less susceptible to this problem, fol-
lowed in rapid succession (e.g., CPE and CSPE). Today, thc entire s.pccrrum of geo-
rnembrane materials listed in Table 5.1 is uscd for liquid containrncnt.

5.3.1 Geometric Considerations

Before selcting the liner type, however, one rrust consider the desired volume to be
containcd versus thc available land arca. Such siting calculations are geometric by nature
and result in a required depth on the basis of assumed slde slope angles. For a square or

?:-
 Sec. 5.3 Liquid Containment (Pond) Liners 405
a

rectangular section with uniform side slopes, the general equation for volume is
v: HLW - SH2L - SH2W + 2S2H) (5.6)

where

V = the volume of reservoir,

ff = the hcight (i.c., dcpth of rescrvoir at the centcr),
lV = the width at ground surfacc,
L : the length at the ground surface, and
S = the slope ratio (horizontal to vertical).

The equation can be solved in a variety of ways, and various design curves can be gen'
erated. Such design curves are given in Figure 5.1? for a side-slope angle of 18.4 deg.'
which is 3 to I (horizontal to vertical) and a square configuration. An example using this
concept follows.
Example:
A squarc arca 350 by 350 fr. is available for constructing a rescrYoir for storagc of
l3,0at0,OOO gallons of potablc water. At csrimatcd sidc slopcs of l(10 to 3(tf), what is the
required height (i.e.. depth of thc pit)?

r.000.000

H -30'
H -2a' Slopc 3( H) to 1( Vl
L/W ratio'1.0

10,000 100.000 1,000,000 r0,000,000 r00,000,000

1 000
volum (lt?l

Flgurc 5.t7 Volumc vcrsus arcr design chan for liquid containment Ponds.
 I
4oo Dosigning with Goomombrsnos Chap. 5

Solutlon:
t3,000,000
volumc
1.48
= 1,740,000 fr.l
Area=350x350
= 122,500 fr.2
Height (from Figurc 5.1?) = 20 fi;
Noting Figurc 5.17, it can bc sccn that to contain largc volumcs can casily rcquirc massivc
land arcas ald/or dccp containnrcnt pits. lf such a land area is not available, thc requircd
depthe oficn lcad to additional problems, such as

. intcrccption of thc watcr tablc,

. dif6culty in stabilizing rhc bouom and sidcs of lhc cxcavarion,
. intcrccption of unsuirablc soil conditions,
. intcrccption of bcdrock,
. high cxcavation costs, or
. cxcavated soil clisposal problcnrs.
Thcsc problms are compoundcd in arcas of soft cohcsivc soils or granular cohcsionlcss soils
in which sidc slopcs of 4 to I (which is a sidc-slopc anglc of 14.0 dcg.) arc sometimes
o rcguired.

t 5.3.2 Typical Cross-Sections

upon first consideration, digging a hole, purring a liner in it, and then filling it with the
liquid to bc contai'rcd is simplicity itself. Indeed, for the ideal site, proper liner material,
proPer construction tcchniques, and mainlcnance during its scrvice lifetime it is a straight-
forward task. Note the sl;ctch of Figure 5. t 8a, which shows such a lincr on a prepared soil

(d)

Flgurc 5.18 Various typcs of si*gle liner systcms for liquid containmcn(. (a) simplc
unprotcctcd liner systcm. (b) Lincr with soil covering. (c) Lincr with gcotcxtilc undcrlincr.
(d) Uncr with geotxtilc urrJcrlincr and overlincr with soil covcring.
Sec.
a
5.3 Liquid Containment (Pond) Liners 407

subgrade anchored in trcnches around the perimeter of thc site. Unfortunately, such ideal
conditions and situations are scldom encountered.
Thc first coniplication has to do rvith atmospheric exposure and damage of the
geomcmbranc. To shield the lincr from ozone, ultraviolet light, temperaturc extremes, ice
damagc, wind stresses, accidental clamage and vandalisnr, a soil covcr of at least l2'in.
(30-cm) thickncss is usually required. Vandalism is particularly troublesome in areas of
noncontrolled sirc scccss. Figure 5 . I 8b shows that the soil cover extends up out of thc pit
and over the liner anchorage areas. This soil covcr is particularly troublesome on the side
slopcs, where gravitational sloughing of the soil compouncled by liquid drawdown is oftcn
a problem. Friction between the ti;.er and covcr roil rnurt be'evaluated and appropriatE
is discusscd later in this section.
- procedurcs fOllowed. This aspect
design
The use of a geotextile beneath the Seomembrane (Figure 5.18c and d), placed
directly on the prcpared soil subgrade bcfore liner placement, is considercd proper design
for a number of rcasons [24]:

It provides a clean working area for making field seams.

It provides added puncture resistance rvhen loads (eittrer during constmction or
from the contained material) are applied.
It can add frictional resistance to the tiner-to-soil intcrface, thereby prevcnting
cxccssive strcsses on thc lincr as i( cntcrs thc anchor trench, or allowing for steep-
cncd side slopcs.

" . I 'trr - -.
IlttSF*'r.r:.r, .'%
E:=-g

Figure 5.19 Subsurface gcncratcd gescs

pushing up gcomcn,irane crcrting vcry high
strcsscs on lincr and scams.

a
$Ji
il'ir
,:,
{
:,
.;j'
ii, 4QS Dosigning with Goomombranos Chap. 5

'If .propcrly sclected, thc geotextilc will allow for tateral and upward escape of
subsurfacc water and_ gases that rise up bencath the geomembrane during iti
ser-
vlcc tife (sec Figure 5. r9). upward-moving water islaused by high gro,ind*ui.,
levclr and flooding conditions in ncarby water courses. upward-mouing gur", ur"
causcd by biocicgradation of organic matcrial in the subsurfacc soils und fron.,
rising watcr tablc levels, which expel the air from the soil voids. In such cases
nccdlc-punched nonwoven gpotextiles, geonets, or drainage geocomposites with
sufficient transmissivity to handle the
"stimated flows are required; an example
illustrating thc procedure follows.
Exanrplc:
Considcr r 20-ft.'dcc-p gcomcmbrane-lined pond thar will creare a barrier to
rising gases from
thc biodcgradation of thc organic silt laycr, as shown in the sketch
bclow. A high esrimate of
thcntcofgesgcncrationis.3'0tt,Jtdayataprcssurcof t.0 lb./in.2. Thcproposcdundcrlincr
to bc urcd ir en l8'oz./yd'!, nonwoven necctlc-punchcd gcotcxtitc. What
is thc factor of
safcty of this gcotcxtirc's transmissivity for this sct of con-ditions?

T 25'
I

_I I

30'

i
Sand and gravel'

Solution: (a) Thc ffow rarc is given as

g = 3.0 ft.3/day

_3
(24) (60)
= 0.00209 ft.l/min.
(b) Thc critical slope is atong the bouom
of rhe reservoic
-
0.5% slopc 0.005
(c) Alrhough this probrem is probabry nor
onc of tarninar flow conditions, use Darcy,s
formula, sincc it is a conservatiu. .pprou.h and air flow
thclitcrsturc.
transmissivi.y oi," Lavailablc in

q=kiA
=ti(rxlv)
Sec. 5.3 Liquid Containment (Pond) Liners 409

o
rr=o*06=*
0.00208
O-qo =
(0.005) ( l .0)
= 0.416 fr.r/min.-fr.
(d) Thc actual transmissivity of geotextiles of the type proposcd is givcn in the fol-
(20) (62.a) =
lowing figurc [24]. Hcrc one obtains i ga'o* of 2.1 ft.l/rnin.-ft. at a strcss of
1250 ib./ft.2 and an air Pressurc ol 1.0 lb./in2.

oo!

!ro
c

.t
-9
c
2.O

.:

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2s00

Stresr (lb./ft3)

(e) Thc actual factor of safctY is

0
ilJ=- "llo*
0r.qa

2.1
0.4 l6
: 5.0 OK
gcocomposite
For significantly larger air flows, the solution will call for a geonct or drainagc
of the type describcd in Chapters 4 and 6.

Figure 5.18d illustrates the ultimatc in protection of the geon,embrane where it is

purPoses
sandwiched between two Seotextiles. The underlying geotextile servcs the salne
discusscd carlier. The overlying one is useful to maintain stability of the sidc-sloPe cover
soil ar;d to prcYent sharp stoncs in the cover soil from puncturing thc geomcmbrane. i'e',
as a cushion. The lattei point is a consideration only if properly Sraded covcr soil is not
availablc and poor-quality soil must be rrscd. This type of composite design is also becom-
410 Designing with Geomembranes Chap' 5

storage tanks for groundwater

ing customary in thc secondary containment of underground
protcction purPoscs'

5.3.3 Geomombranq Material Selection

nlanufacture of thc lincr
conccming thc sclection of the typc of matcrial tq b used in the
resistance ro rhl contained liquid is of utmost importance'
The entire
io"tf,
this
desig:n process becomes ludicrous in the abscnce of such
"n"i-,ical resistance. Furthermore,
installation.
rcsistancc must bc considered for the entire service llfe of the particular

t. For potable water storage, one is often considering service lifetimes

of approx-
use' Of
imatcty 20 ycars. This is similar to general water storage for agricultural
(PVC)
thc lincr rypcs noted in Table 5.1, nonreinforced polyvinyl chloridc
has
with that
bccn wideiy used, due in large part to its ease of installation compared
of other materials. As notccJ car-licr, it rnust be covcrcd with soil to prvent
its lower
cXCcssivc cntbri{tlernent anil cracking, and this tenJs to offset sornewhat
that are not soil cov-
installation cost when cornparing it to other lincr materials
ered. Indeed, arry of the oiher material types listed in Table 5'l are candidates
for potabte or storage water containment due to the relative inertness of this type
of liquid.
2. For storage of liquids containing knorvn acids, bases, heavy merals, salts, or
".o**only" stored chemicals, the chemical resistance chart of Table 5'7
should bc consulted. It should be noted that most n'lanufacturers have similar
charts and that these, too, should be reviewed. One consideration in this regard
that is often overlooked is the resistance of the sealTls to the liquid being con-
taincd. This is particularly important for adhesive-bonded seams and less so for
solvent. bodied solvent, arrd welded seams. Seams are described later in the
chaptcr.

3. For storage of liquids that are combinations of chemicals (as in indiviCual waste
liquid storage), thc most aggressive of tho individual liquids should be used for
thi sclcction process. This assumes that there are no synergistic effccts occur'
ring within the d,ifferent liquids that may be placed in the reservoir. For the
majority of rhese situations, chemical resistance charts arc available (as shown in
Tablc 5.7) for proper material selection.

4. For storage of liquids that are an unidentifiable or of an unknown variety (e.9.'

from industrial processes that arc in the dcsign stage or not yet on-stream),
extreme conservatism must be used. Because of its relative inertness with chem-
icals, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) will often bc the matcrial of choice.
Scaming is done by welding or fusion, with no forergn materid additivesberng
used. Ii is prucient, however, to incubate samples in the laboratory using the
synthesized liquid to see if reactions are occurring. This procedure was
describcd in Section 5.1.4.2.

a.-