Chapter 12 Electrostatics

Question 12.1 The potential is constant throughout a given region of space. Is the electrical field zero or non-zero
in this region? Explain
Answer 12.1 Electric field is defined as the negative of the potential gradient
i.e. E= - V / r.
If electric potential is constant over a given region of space then potential difference between any two points is zero.
V = 0 As V / r=0 .
So E=0 Hence the electric field is zero in that region of sphere.

Question 12.2 Suppose that you follow an electric field line due to positive point charge. Do electric field and the
potential increase or decrease?
Answer 12.2 The electric due to positive charge is always directed outward from the charge, so if we are following a field
due to such a charge our distance r from the charge is increasing.
Since V=kq/r and E=kq/r2 .
This implies E1/r2 and V1/r.
Hence Both E and V will decrease in such a case.

Question 12.3 How can you identify that which plate of a capacitor is positively charged?
Answer 12.3 The presence of charge is detected by a device called Gold leaf Electroscope on bringing charged plate or
disc close to the plate of gold leaf electroscope.

1. If divergence of plates increases then the plate is positively charged.

2. If divergence of plates decreases then the plate is negatively charged.

Question 12.4 Describe the force or forces on a positive point charge when placed between parallel plates.
a. With similar and equal changes.
b. With opposite and equal charge.
Answer 12.4 (a) When a positive charge is placed between two parallel plates having similar and equal charges, the
net force acting on the charge will be zero.
(b) When the charge is placed between the plates having equal but opposite charge, the positivecharge will move
from positive plate to negative pate.

Question 12.5 Electric lines of force never cross. Why?

Answer 12.5 Actually, the direction of electric field lines at a certain point represents the direction of motion of a unit
positive charge when placed at that point. Now if two lines cross each other then, at that point of intersection, a
positive charge will have two directions of motion when placed there. It is not possible at all. So, electric lines of
force never cross each other.

Question 12.6 If a point charge q of mass m is released in a non-uniform electric field with field lines
pointing in the same direction, will it make a rectilinear motion?
Answer 12.6 Non uniform field means that lines of force are neither parallel nor equally spaced.

1. Case 1: When electric field is due to a single isolated charge, the charge q of mass m will make rectilinear
motion.
2. Case 2: When the field is due to two oppositely charged particles then q will not make rectilinear motion.

Question 12.7 Is E necessarily zero inside a charged rubber balloon if balloon is spherical? Assume that charge is
distributed uniformly over the surface.
Answer 12.7 Yes, E is necessarily zero inside a rubber balloon if balloon is spherical and chargeis distributed uniformly
over the surface. According to Gausss Law. Flux density = e = 1 / (Charge enclosed)
e = 1 / (0)-------------I
e = 0
As e = E A------------II
From (i) and (ii)
here A is not zero E=0
Hence, electric intensity E is zero inside a spherical balloon.
Question 12.8 Is it true that Gausss law states that the total number of lines of force crossing any closed surface
in the outward direction is proportional to the net positivecharge enclosed within surface?
Answer 12.8 Yes, it is true that total number of lines of force crossing any closed surface in the outward direction is
proportional to the net positive charge enclosed within the surface
i.e. Flux density = e = 1 / (Charge enclosed) or Flux = Constant
(Total ChargeEnclosed)
that is Flux Total charge enclosed.

Question 12.9 Do electrons tend to go to region of high potential or of low potential?

Answer 12.9 As e- carries negative charge, it will move from a point at lower electric potential to a point at higher potential
in an electric field.

Chapter 13 Current Electricity

Question 13.1 A potential difference is applied across the ends of a copper wire. What is the effect on the drift
velocity of free electrons by

1. Increasing the potential difference.

2. Decreasing the length and the temperature of the wire.
Answer 13.1 Drift velocity is actually the resultant velocity of electrons in the presence of an external electric field.
1. By increasing the potential difference, value of drift velocity of free electrons increases.
2. When length and temperature of the wire is decreased resistance also decreases, with the decrease in
resistance drift velocity of free electrons increases.

Question 13.2 Do bends in a wire affect its electrical resistance? Explain.

Answer 13.2 No, as we know that R = L/A it shows that there is no relationship b/w resistance and the bends of a wire
i.e. R is independent of the bends in a wire. Hence Bends in a wire dont affect its resistance.

Question 13.3 What are the resistances of the resistors given in the fig A and B? What is the tolerance of each?
Explain what is meant by the tolerance?
Answer 13.3 Fig A: Brown 1 Green 5 Red 00 Gold 5% tolerance 1500 with 5% tolerance.
Fig B: yellow 4 White 9 Orange 000 Silver 10% tolerances 49000 with 10% tolerance.

Question 13.4 Why does the resistance of a conductor rise with temperature?
Answer 13.4 Actually resistance of a conductor is due to collision b/w electrons and lattice atoms with increase in
temperature, vibration motion of atoms increases and due to greater amplitude of vibration, their collision probability with
electrons increases hence resistance of conductor increases according to the relation:
Rt = R0(1+at)
Rt Resistance at t temp, R0 Resistance at 0 temp, a Co-efficient of resistance, t change in temp.

Question 13.5 What are the difficulties in testing whether the filament of a lighted bulb obeys Ohms Law?
Answer 13.5 Ohm Law states Current is directly proportional to the potential differenceapplied across the
conductor provided that the physical state of the conductor remains constant (V=IR). The resistance of a lighted
electric bulb does not remains constant but gradually increases with increase in temp. Hence the filament of a bulb does not
follow Ohms Law.

Question 13.6 Is the filament resistance lower or higher in a 500W, 220V light bulb than in a 100W, 220V bulb?
Answer 13.6 As we know that: Power P=V2/R or R= V2/P
Case i: when V=220V & P=500W so R1= (220)2/500 =96.8
Case ii: when V=220V & P=100W so R2= (220)2/100 =484
Conclusion From R2 R1. It is clear that filament resistance in 500W and 220V bulb is lower than in100W, 220V bulb.

Question 13.7 Describe a circuit which will give a continuously varying potential.
Answer 13.7 Potentiometer is a circuit that can give a continuously varying potential as shown in figure: A and B are fixed
terminals and C is sliding terminal Resistance b/w A and B is R and that b/w A and C is r.
Now I=V/R and potential drop across r is V=I\r
V=Vr/R.
As C moves from A to B r varies from 0 to R. Hence a circuit is described which gives a continuously varying potential 0 to
V.

Question 13.8 Explain why the terminal potential difference of a battery decreases when the current drawn from it
is increased?
Answer 13.8 As we know that vt = E-Ir ----------I
Here vt = terminal velocity, potential difference E=emf, r=internal resistance of battery.
According to eq when current (I) drawn from the circuit it is increased by factor Ir.
That is why, the value of vt decrease, when current is increased.

Question 13.9 What is Wheatstone bridge? How can it be used to deter mine an unknown resistance?
Answer 13.9 That device is used to find the unknown resistance is known as Wheatstone bridge.
An unknown resistance can be found by the relation: R1 / R2 = R3 / R4.

Chapter 14 Electromagnetism
Question 14.1 A plane conducting loop is located in a uniform magnetic field that is directed along the x-axis. For what
orientation of the loop is the flux a maximum? For what orientation is the flux a minimum?
Answer 14.1 Magnetic flux will be maximum when the surface of the loop is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field, the flux
will be:
=BA
= BAcos
= BAcos0
= BA (maximum)
Flux will be minimum when the surface of the loop is parallel to the direction of magnetic field and it is given by:
=BA
= BAcos
= BAcos90
= 0 (minimum)
which is the minimum value of flux.

Question 14.2 A current in a conductor produces a magnetic field, which can be calculated using Amperes law. Since current is
defined as the rate of flow of charge, what can you conclude about the magnetic field due to stationary charges? What about
moving charges?
Answer 14.2 As we know that:
(N i=1) (B.L)i = o I
According to Ampere's law we can write.
(N i=1) (B.L)i = o I
For stationary charges I=0
(N i=1) (B.L)i = 0
If closed path is circular
(N i=1) B.L =0
B (N i=1) L = 0
as (N i=1) L = 2r 0
so B=0
Hence magnetic field will not surround stationary charges.
For moving charges I 0.
B(2r) 0

Question 14.3 Describe the change in the magnetic field inside a solenoid carrying a steady current I, if (a) the length of the
solenoid id doubled but the number of turnsremains same and (b) the number of turns is doubled, but the length remains same.
Answer 14.3 Magnetic induction inside the solenoid is given by:
B = o nI
 Where n=N/l
B = (o NI) / l
(a) as length is doubled
B' = (o NI) / 2l
B' = (o NI ) / l
B' = B
by making the length double field reduced to one half
(b) as number of turns are doubled.
B' = (o 2NI) / l
B' = 2 (o NI ) / l
B' = 2 B
on doubling the number of turns magnetic field will be doubled.

Question 14.4 At a given instant, a proton moves in the positive x direction in a region where there is magnetic field in the
negative z direction. What is the direction of the magnetic force? Will the proton continue to move in the positive x direction?
Explain.
Answer 14.4 The force on the proton is given by:
FB = +e (v x B)
Where v = vi
and B = B(-k)
FB = +e (vi x B(-k))
FB = -Bev (i x k)
FB = -Bev (-j)
FB = Bevj
Therefore force on the proton is along positive Y axis. The proton will be deflected in the circularpath.

Question 14.5 Two charged particles are projected into a region where there is a magnetic field perpendicular to their velocities.
If the chargers are deflected in opposite directions,what can you say about them?
Answer 14.5 If two charged particles are projected into a region, where magnetic field is perpendicular to their velocities the charges are
deflected in opposite directions. It means that particles are oppositely charged i.e. one is positively charged and other is negatively
charged. If one is proton then other is electron.

Question 14.6 Suppose that a charge q is moving in a uniform magnetic field with a velocity v. Why is there no work done by the
magnetic force that acts on the charge q?
Answer 14.6 The force on charge particle is always at perpendicular to its direction of motion. Thus force will deflect
the charge particle in circular path. The work done by the force.
W = F.d
The angle between centripetal force and the displacement is 90 therefore the work done is given by:
W = F.d Cos90
W=0

Question 14.7 If a charged particle moves in a straight line through some region of space, can yousay that the magnetic field in the
region is zero?
Answer 14.7 No we cannot say that the magnetic field in that region is zero because chargeparticle can move in a straight line when the
force on it zero. This may be possible under twosituations.
(1) The direction of B and v are same i.e. = 0
We know that
F = qvB Sin
F = qvB Sin0
or F=0
(2) When v and B are in opposite direction i.e. = 180
F = qvB Sin
 F = qvB Sin180
or F=0

Question 14.8 Why does the picture on a TV screen become distorted when a magnet is brought near the screen?
Answer 14.8 The picture on T.V screen is formed by the electron beam. When a magnet is placednear the screen then the presence of
the magnetic field of bar magnet the motion of charged particles is effected and their target on the screen of T.V is disturbed. Therefore,
the image produced will be deformed.

Question 14.9 Is it possible to orient a current loop in a uniform magnetic field such that the loop will not tend to rotate?
Explain.
Answer 14.9 The current carrying loop experience a torque when it is placed in the magnetic field. Which is given by: =
IBAcos
On orienting the loop, such that its plane is perpendicular to the magnetic field i.e. = 90, then
= IBAcos90
=0
Hence loop will not rotate when its plane is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

Question 14.10 How can a current loop be used to determine the presence of a magnetic field in a given region of space?
Answer 14.10 When a freely suspended loop of current experiences torque in the given region, then in that region magnetic field is
present, otherwise not.

Question 14.11 How can you use a magnetic field to separate isotopes of chemical element? What should be the orientation of a
current carrying coil in a magnetic field so that torque acting upon the coil is (a) maximum (b) minimum?
Answer 14.11 When Isotopes of the chemical element after ionization projected perpendicular to uniform magnetic field. they are
deflected in circular path. The radius of circular path is given by:
r = (mv) / (Bq)
rm
Therefore the heavier isotopes are deflected into circular path of larger radius as compared to lighter isotopes. Thus isotopes
are differentiated on the basis of their radii in the magnetic field with the help of Mass spectrometer.

Question 14.12 A loop of wire is suspended between the poles of a magnet with its plane parallel to the pole faces. What
happened if a direct current is put through the coil? Whathappens if an alternating current is used instead?
Answer 14.12 We know that the torque experience by the current coil in magnetic field is given by:
= IBAcos
For maximum torque the plane of the coil is held parallel to the magnetic field i.e. = 0
= IBAcos0 = BIA
For minimum torque the plane of the coil is held perpendicular to the magnetic field i.e. = 90
= IBAcos90 = 0

Question 14.13 Why the resistance of an ammeter should be very low?

Answer 14.13 As ammeter is always connected in series to measure the current, therefore it should have very small resistance. If an
ammeter has high resistance then it will alter the current of the circuit.

Question 14.14 Why the voltmeter should have a very high resistance?
Answer 14.14 The resistance of voltmeter should be very large so that it should not draw anappreciable amount of current on connecting
it across a resistance to measure potential difference accurately.
Chapter 15 Electromagnetic Induction
Question 15.1 Does the induced emf in a circuit depend on the resistance of the circuit? Does the induced current
depend on the resistance of the circuit?
Answer 15.1 We know by Faraday's law the induced emf is given by:
= -N /t
From above equation it can be seen that induced emf does not depend upon the resistance. The induced current is written
as:
I=/R
From above equation it can be seen that induced current depends upon the resistance of the circuit..

Question 15.2 A square loop of wire is moving through a uniform magnetic field. The normal to the loop is oriented parallel
to magnetic field. Is a emf induced in the loop? Give reasons for your answer?
Answer 15.2 No, the induced emf will not be produced in the loop because the loop is moving in the uniform magnetic field
therefore there is not change in magnetic flux. By Faraday's Law the induced emf is written as:
= -N /t
as /t = 0
=0

Question 15.3 A light metallic ring is released from above in to a vertical bar magnet (in the fig). Viewed for above,
does the current flow clockwise or anticlockwise in the ring?
Answer 15.3 The emf will be induced in the ring due to change in magnetic flux. The current will flow in such a direction
that it will oppose the motion of the ring (Lenz's law). This is possible, only if the magnetic field is produced due to the
induced current. In the ring will have its lower side north pole and upper side is south pole. Hence by the right hand rule
current should be clockwise.

Question 15.4 What is the direction of the current through resistor R in the fig? When switch S is; (a) closed (b)
opened.
Answer 15.4 When the switch is closed the current rises from its zero value to maximum value in the primary coil. Magnetic
flux through the secondary coil increases. According to Lenz's Law direction of induced current in the secondary coil should
be such that it will oppose the cause, which produce it. Therefore the direction of the induced current is opposite to the
direction of current in primary coil. Thus, current through the resistance R is from left to right. When switch is re-opened the
magnetic flux through the secondary coil reduces to zero. Therefore by Faraday Law emf induced current in secondary will
cause the current in it in same direction as that of the decreasing current in primary coil. Hence the current is from right to
left.

Question 15.5 Does the induced emf always act to decrease the magnetic flux through a circuit?
Answer 15.5 If the magnetic flux in the close circuit is decreasing then by Lenz's law the direction of induced EMF is such
that it will try to increase the magnetic flux and vice versa. So it does not always act to decrease the magnetic flux. It will
oppose the cause, which produces it.

Question 15.6 When the switch in the circuit is closed a current established in the coil and the metal ring jumps
upward (see the fig) Why? Describe what would happen to the ring if battery polarity were reversed?
Answer 15.6 When the switch is closed, the current rises from zero to maximum value instantaneously and change of
magnetic flux induces a current in a ring. The induced current, produced in the metallic ring creates its own magnetic field.
This magnetic field opposes the magnetic field due to battery current. Thus metal ring is repelled i.e. it will jump upward.
When the polarity of the battery is reversed, even then the ring will jump upward.

Question 15.7 The Fig. Shows a coil of wire in the xy plane with a magnetic field directed along the y- axis. Around
which of the three coordinate axes should the coil be rotated in order to generate an emf and a current in the coil?
Answer 15.7 If the coil is rotated about x-axis then the magnetic flux through the coil is changed, hence EMF will be
induced. Whereas, its rotation about y and z axis the magnetic flux remain zero and there is no change in magnetic flux,
hence EMF is not induced.

Question 15.8 How would you position a flat loop of wire in a changing magnetic field so that there is no emf
induced in the loop?
Answer 15.8 When the plane of the flat loop of wire is held parallel to the direction of magnetic field, the flux will not change
and will remain zero.
= BA = BAcos90
=0
= 0
By using Faraday's Law there will be no induce emf.

Question 15.9 In a certain region the earths magnetic field point vertically down. When a plane flies due north,
which wingtip is positively charged?
Answer 15.9 Wing of the plane is a metallic and act as a conductor moving through the earth magnetic field. The electrons
in the wing are moving with the same velocity as that of plane. Therefore, they will experience force given by:
F = - e (v x B)
The direction of the force by right hand rule is along the direction from A to B. Therefore by looking behind from the plane
the left wing tip will be positively charged and right wing will have negative polarity.

Question 15.10 Shoe that and / t have the same units.

Answer 15.10 Units of EMF is volt if unit of / t are measured as follow:
/ t = (BA) / t
= NA(-1)m(-1)*m(2) / s
= Nm / As
= Nm / C
/ t = J / C ....................................(i)

= work / charge
=J/C ....................................(ii)
Compare (i) and (ii)
and / t have the same units J / C i.e. volt.

Question 15.11 When an electric motor, such as an electric drill, is being used, does it also act as a generator? If
so what is the consequences of this?
Answer 15.11 Due to back EMF effect in motor the EMF is induced across the ends of the coilwhen motor is being used.
Therefore it will act as a generator.
Consequence:
The current drawn by the motor is given by:
I = (V- ) / R
Where is the EMF induced across the ends of the coil and V is the voltage of the source. Therefore the motor will draw
smaller current when it is running at its normal speed.

Question 15.12 Can a D.C. motor be turned into a D.C. generator? What changes required to be done?
Answer 15.12 As the construction of D.C motor and D.C generator is same. The changes which are to be done are
following.
The current source of the D.C motor is replaced by the load.
The coil of the motor is to be coupled with a source of mechanical energy i.e shaft of turbine or engine.
The magnetic field must be supplied by permanent magnet and not by electromagnet.

Question 15.13 Is it possible to change both the area of the loop and the magnetic field passing through the loop
and still not have an induced emf in the loop?
Answer 15.13 It is possible to change both area and the magnetic field such that the flux remain constant and EMF
induced will be zero,
As = B.A
On increasing B the area A of the loop should be decreased and vice versa. Such that the product BA i.e. flux remains
constant.
or = B.A = constant
By Faraday's Law the induced emf is given by
= -N /t
as = 0
=0

Question 15.14 Can an electric motor be used to drive an electric generator with the output from the generator
being used to operate the motor?
Answer 15.14 This system will not work for a long. Since the available mechanical energy initially supplied by the motor
decreases in overcoming the frictional losses. A time will reach when no mechanical energy will be available which can be
converted into electrical energy, which can drive the motor.

Question 15.15 A suspended magnet is oscillating freely in horizontal plane. Oscillations are strongly damped
when a metal plate is placed under the magnet. Explain why this occurs?
Answer 15.15 By placing a metal plate under the vibrating magnet, the magnetic flux through the plate will change. This will
induce a current on the surface of plate, known as Eddy current. According to Lenz's Law the direction of the current will
oppose the cause, which produces it. So, the oscillations of the magnet will be strongly damped.

Question 15.16 Four unmarked wires emerge from a transformer. What steps would you take to determine the turns
ratio?
Answer 15.16 Steps to determine turn ratio in a transformer are as follow:
1. Identifying the ends of primary and secondary coil by using the continuity test be using AVO meter.
2. Measuring the electric resistance of primary coil and secondary coils. If it is step down transfer the coil
having greater resistance would be secondary and the other one is primary.
3. By applying known voltage to the primary coil voltage at the secondary coil is measured.
4. Using NS /NP = VS /VP we can find turn ratio that is NS / NP.

Question 15.17 a) Can a step-up transformer increase the power level?

b) In a transformer, there is no transfer of charge from the primary to the secondary. How is, then the power
transferred?
Answer 15.17 (a) Transformer do not increase power level because at most in case of ideal transformer:
P input = P output
Vp Ip = Vs Is
The transformer increases or decrease alternating voltage. The product VI i.e., power remain constant.

(b) In a transformer power primary and secondary coils are magnetically coupled i.e. the change of magnetic flux is linked
with the other coil and hence emf is produced.

Question 15.18 When the primary of a transformer is connected to a.c. mains the current in it
a) is very small if the secondary circuit is open, but
b) increases when the secondary circuit is closed. Explain these facts.
Answer 15.18 When secondary of the transformer is open, no power is delivered to the load. therefore the power drawn by
the primary coil from is negligible. Power being defined as:
P = VI
I=P/V
Therefore the current I flowing through primary coil is negligible small. When the secondary circuit is closed the load will
consume the power. Therefore a large current will flow through the primary coil.
 Chapter 16 Alternating Current
Question 16.1 A sinusoidal current has rms value of 10A. What is the maximum or peak value?
Answer 16.1 Irms = 10 A
Io = ?
We know that
Irms = Io / 2
Io = Irms 2
Io = 1.414 * 10
Io = 14.14 A

Question 16.2 Name the device that will

1. permit flow of direct current but oppose the flow of alternating current
2. permit flow of alternating current but not the direct current.
Answer 16.2 (1) An inductor is a device which permits the flow of D.C and opposes the flow of A.C.
(2) A capacitor is a device which permits the flow of A.C but oppose the flow of D.C.

Question 16.3 How many times per second will an incandescent lamp reach maximum brilliance when connected
to a 50 Hz source?
Answer 16.3 In one A.C cycle the current becomes maximum two times. Hence a lamp connected to 50Hz source will
reach to its maximum brilliance (2 * 50) = 100 times in one second.

Question 16.4 A circuit contains an iron-cored inductor, a switch and a D.C. source arranged in series. The switch
is closed and after an interval reopened. Explain why a spark jumps across the switch contacts?
Answer 16.4 Let us consider a series circuit an iron core inductor a switch and a D.C source. When the circuit is made on,
then current grows from zero to maximum value, this changing current produces change of magnetic flux and induced emf
is produced. When the switch is reopened, then again current value change from its maximum value to zero. Again induced
emf is developed across the chock coil in the form of back emf. This back emf produced spark at the ends of switch
contacts

Question 16.5 How does doubling the frequency affect the reactance of (a) an inductor (b) a capacitor?
Answer 16.5 (a) The reactance of inductor is XL = 2 fL
as XL f
on doubling the frequency f the inductive reactance is doubled.

(b) In case of capacitor XC = 1 / 2fC

or XC 1 / f
Therefore on doubling the frequency the capacitive reactance will become one half.

Question 16.6 In a R-L circuit, will the current lag or lead the voltage? Illustrate your answer by a vector diagram.
Answer 16.6 From vector diagram, it can be seen, that applied V leads the current by an angle
Where tan = L / R
or = tan(-1)(L / R)
Question 16.7 A choke coil placed in series with an electric lamp in an A.C. circuit causes the lamp to become dim.
Why is it so? A variable capacitor added in series in this circuit may be adjusted until the lamp glows with normal
brilliance. Explain, how this is possible?
Answer 16.7 When a circuit contains only choke connected to series with the bulb then due to inductance the inductive
reactance will be very high, This will allow very small current through the circuit. Therefore the bulb will shine dimmer. On
connecting a variable capacitor in series, it will become R-L-C series resonance circuit. By adjusting the value of C
resonance frequency can be made equal to the frequency of A.C source. At this stage resonance takes place and the
impedence of circuit become minimum. This will allow a very large current through the circuit and the bulb will shine to its
normal brilliance.

Question 16.8 Explain the conditions under which electromagnetic waves are produced from a source?
Answer 16.8 When antenna is connected to A.C source it accelerates electrons up and down along the wire. This will
change the polarity of the ends of the antenna. If an electric charge at a moment is +q then half cycle it will become -q. This
will produce a changing electric field which in turn produce a changing magnetic field. This will result in propagation of
electromagnetic waves.

Question 16.9 How the reception of a particular radio station is selected on your radio set?
Answer 16.9 A particular radio station can be tuned by adjusting the value of C such that the frequency of LC circuit is
same as that of transmitted signal. The circuit will resonate under driving action of antenna. Consequently, the L.C. circuit
will build up large response to the incoming signal, which is to be tuned.

Question 16.10 What is meant by A.M. and F.M. ?

Answer 16.10 A.M means amplitude modulation. In this mode of transmission the amplitude of carrier wave is made to
change by variation of amplitude of modulating signal. Its frequency range is 540KHz to 1600KHz.
F.M means frequency modulation. In this mode of transmission frequency of carrier wave is made to change with variation
of amplitude of modulating signal. Its frequency range of transmission is 88MHz to 108MHz.
Chapter 17 Physics of Solids

Question 17.1 Distinguish between crystalline, amorphous and polymeric solids.

Answer 17.1 Crystalline Solids: Crystalline solids are those in which their atoms/molecules are arranged in particular
fashion.They have definite space.Compound like sodium chloride andceramics are crystalline solids. Atoms/molecules in
crystalline structure vibrate continually about their means position with certain amplitude. The amplitude of vibration
increases with rise of temperature of solid. The cohesive forces between atoms,molecules or ions in crystalline solids
maintain the strict long-range order in-spite of atomic vibrations. For every solid, there is particular temperature at which the
vibration of the atoms/molecules of solid become so large that the structure if the solid suddenly breaks and the solid melts.
This temperature is called melting point. Every crystalline solid has a definite melting point.
Amorphous Solids: The solid which has no particular arrangement of their atoms/molecules is called amorphous or glassy
solid. As there is no regular arrangement of atoms, thereforeamorphous solids are more like liquid with the disorder
structure frozen in e.g., Glass which is solid at ordinary temperature has no regular arrangement of molecules. On heating,
it softens into paste like state before it becomes very viscous liquid at almost at 800 C. Thus amorphous solids are called
glassy solids. These types of solids have no definite melting point.

Polymeric Solids: Polymeric solids are more or less solids materials with a structure between order and disorder. They can
be classified as partially or poorly crystalline solids. e.g. Natural rubber which is in pure state composed of hydrocarbon.
Plastic and synthetic rubber are termed as polymers. because they are formed by p[polymerization reaction in which
relatively simple molecules are chemically combined into massive long chain molecules have three dimensional structure.
These materials have low specific gravity compared with even the lightest of metals. Polymers consist completely or in part
of chemical combination of carbon with oxygen, hydrogen, and other metallic or non-metallic elements. polythene,
polystyrene and nylon are examples of synthetic polymers.

Question 17.2 Define stress and strain. What are their SI units? Differentiate between tensile, compressive and
shear modes of stress and strain.
Answer 17.2 Stress: It is defined as the force applied on unit area to produce any change in shape, volume, and length of
a body. Mathematically, if F is the force applied on area A, then stress can be expressed as:
Stress = Force/ Area = F / A
Unit of stress is Newton-meter or pascal.

Strain: It is defined as the fractional change in length, volume or shape on the application of stress, it has no unit.

Tensile Stress: When a stress changes length it is called tensile stress.

Tensile Strain: It is defined as the fractional change in length on applying stress.

Compressive stress: It is an overall force per unit area (pressure) applied.

Compressive strain: The strain produced as a result of compressive stress.

Shear stress: It is a stress tending to produce an angular deformation or it changes the shape then it is called shear stress.
Shear strain: It occurs when an angular deformation occurs, and is equal to the angular displacement produced.

Question 17.3 Define modulus of elasticity. Show that the units of modulus of elasticity and stress are the same.
Also discuss its three kinds.
Answer 17.3 Modulus of elasticity: The ratio of the stress on a body to the strain produced is called modulus of elasticity.
It has three types.

Youngs modulus: It is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. Mathematically it is:
Young's Modulus = Tensile Stress / Tensile Strain

Bulk modulus: The ratio of volume stress to volume strain is called Bulk Modulus. Mathematically it
is: Bulk Modulus = Comprehensive Stress / Volume Strain

Shear modulus: The ratio of the shear stress on a body to the shear strain produced in the body. Mathematically it is:
Shear Modulus = Shear Stress / Shear Strain

Units of E = units of stress / units of strain = units of stress / dimensionless = units of stress.
So units of modulus of elasticity and units of stress are same, as units of strain have no units.

Question 17.4 Draw a stress-strain curve for a ductile material, and then define the terms: Elastic limit, Yield point
and Ultimate tensile stress.
Answer 17.4
Elastic Limit: It is defined as the greatest stress that a material can endure without any permanent change in shape or
dimension.

Yield Point: The point at which the material begins to flow, i.e. the strain increases with time up to breaking point without
further increase in the stress.

Ultimate Tensile Stress: It is denied as the maximum stress that material can withstand and can be regarded as nominal
strength of the material.

Question 17.5 What is meant by strain energy? How can it be determined from force-extension graph?
Answer 17.5 According to Hook's Law, the force-extension graph with in elastic limit is straight line. The energy stored in
the solid when it is extended. When the deforming force changed form 0 to F then extension is produced. The average
force is given by:
(0 + F) / 2 = F / 2
The work done is extending the solid through x is given by
W = (F /2) * x
The work done in extending is stored as strain energy in solid.

Question 17.6 Describe the formation of energy bands in solids. Explain difference amongst electrical behavior of
conductors, insulators and semiconductors in terms of energy band theory.
Answer 17.6 Electrons of an isolated atom are bound to the nucleus and can have energy levels which are distinct.
However when a large number of atoms say N are brought close to one another to form a solid each energy level of the
isolated atom splits into N- sub-levels, called states, under the action of the forces exerted by other atoms in the solid.
These permissible energy states are discrete but so closely spaced that they appear to form a continuous energy band. In
between two permissible energy bands, there is range of energy states which cannot be occupied by electrons. These are
called forbidden energy states and its range is said to be forbidden energy gap.
1. Valence Energy Band
2. Conduction Energy Band
3. Filled Energy Band
Conductors: Conductors are those substances which have plenty of free electrons for electrical conduction it means that
conductors are those materials in which valence and conduction bands largely overlap each other. There is no physical
distinction between the two bands which ensures the availability of a large number of free electrons due to overlapping of
conduction and valence energy bands.

Insulators: Insulators are those substances in which valence electrons are bound very tightly to their atoms and are not
free to moves, it means that an insulator has an empty conduction band a full valence band and a large energy gap
between them.

Semi Conductors: Semi conductors at room temperature have the following properties: partially filled conduction band,
partially filled valence band and very narrow forbidden gap between valence and conduction band.

Question 17.7 Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors. How would you obtain n-type and p-type
material from pure silicon? Illustrate it by schematic diagram.
Answer 17.7 Intrinsic semiconductor: A pure semiconductor material. In it the concentrations of
negative charge carriers (electrons) and positive charge carriers (holes) are the same.

Extrinsic semiconductor: Such material in which certain impurities are added. Its conductivity increases considerably
depending strongly on the type and concentration of the impurity.
From pure silicon N-type substance is obtained by adding impurity like a pentavalent element phosphorous 15P . Four
valence electrons of P form covalent bonds with valence electrons of Si atoms, but one electron is left unbounded. It is
called free electron.
From pure silicon, P-type substance is obtained by adding an impurity of trivalent element like Boron. Three valence
electrons of surrounding 14Si , but one bond is not completed because no electron is available. This vacancy of electron is
called a hole.

Question 17.8 Discuss the mechanism of electrical conduction by holes and electrons in a pure semi- conductor
element.
Answer 17.8 The pure semi-conductors have equal number of holes and free electrons. As voltage is applied across the
semiconductor, an electric field is produced. Due to electric field electrons get drift velocity opposite and to field and holes in
the direction of filed. In this way the current is conducted in the pure-semiconductor.

Question 17.9 Write a note on superconductors.

Answer 17.9 Superconductors: Materials whose resistivity becomes zero at a certain temperature are known as
superconductor. Once the resistance of a material drops to zero, no energy is dissipated and the current once established,
continues to exist indefinitely without the source of emf. The temperature at which resistivity becomes zero is called critical
temperature.for exp mercury Hg T = 4.2K, Aluminum Al T =1.18K. The first superconductor was discovered in 1911 by
Kmaerlingh Ornes. He observed that electrical resistance of mercury disappears at 4.2 K. Some other metals such as Al, Sn
and Pb also become superconductor at very low temperatures. In 1986 a new class of ceramic materials was discovered
that become superconductors at 125 K. Recently Yttrium barium copper oxide (Yba2 Cu3 O7 ) have been reported to
become superconductor at 163 K. Superconductors have many applications., e.g.magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), magnetic levitation trains and faster computer chips.
Question 17.10 What is meant by para, dia and ferromagnetic substances? Give examples for each.
Answer 17.10 Paramagnetic substances: If the spin and orbital axis of electrons in an atom are so oriented that their
fields support each other and the atom behaves like a tiny magnet then substance with such atoms are called paramagnetic
substances. e.g., Manganese, Aluminum, Platinum etc.

Diamagnetic substances: Those substances in which the magnetic field produced by orbital and spin motion of the
electrons may cancel each others effect are called Diamagnetic substances. e.g., the atoms of water, Copper Cu, Bismuth
Bi, Antimony Sb.

Ferromagnetic substances: There are certain substances e.g. iron Fe, Cobalt Co, Nickel Ni, Chromium dioxide and Alnico
in which atoms, co-operate with each other in such a way as to show strong magnetic effects are known as Ferromagnetic
substances.

Question 17.11 What is meant by hysteresis loss? How is it used in the construction of a transformer?
Answer 17.11 The area of hysteresis loop is measure of energy required to magnetize and demagnetized the substance.
This energy is dissipated in form of heat which is called hysteresis loss. So material for which this loss is small is used to
form core of transformer.
Chapter 18 Electronics
Question 18.1 How does the motion of an electron in a n-type substance differ from the motion of holes in a p-type
substance?
Answer 18.1 The majority carriers in n-type substance are the free electrons and majority carriersin p-type substances are
holes. The electrons move from lower to higher potential where as hole moves from higher to lower potential. The motion of
electrons in n-type substance is much rapid than the motion of holes in p-type substance.

Question 18.2 What is the net charge on a n-type or p-type substance?

Answer 18.2 p-type and n-type substances are electrically neutral. Since they are made as a result of combination of atoms
of intrinsic semi conductors and atoms of impurity which are neutral.

Question 18.3 The anode of a diode is 0.2 V positive with respect to its cathode. Is it forward biased?
Answer 18.3 The anode of diode (p-type) is at higher potential (.2 volt) with respect to cathode (n-type). Therefore the p-
side of diode is positive respect to n side. Therefore p-n junction is forward biased.

Question 18.4 Why charge carriers are not present in the depletion region?
Answer 18.4 When p-n junction is formed, some of the electron of n-type diffuse into p-type substance to neutralize the
holes. As a result the flow of electron stops due to the formation of potential barrier. The region on both sides of junction is
called depletion region because all the mobile carriers are depleted off from this region.

Question 18.5 What is the effect of forward and reverse biasing of a diode on the width of depletion region?
Answer 18.5 When p-n junction is forward biased, the width of the depletion region decreases. However on reverse biasing
the junction, width of depletion region is increased.
Question 18.6 Why ordinary silicon diodes do not emit light?
Answer 18.6 In case of silicon energy gap between is 1ev between valence and conduction band. Therefore when electron
jump from conduction band to valence band it will give off photon of energy 1ev. This photon of energy approximately 1ev
will not lie in visible range of electromagnetic radiation. Hence light is not emitted by using diode made up of silicon.

Question 18.7 Why a photo diode is operated in reverse biased state?

Answer 18.7 Photodiode is basically the device for detecting light. That is why the photodiode is operated in reverse biased
state. In reverse biasing, the current due to voltage is almost zero, so when light is allowed to fall on depletion region
electron hole pairs are created which give rise to size-able current and this current is the detection of light. The reverse
current is directly proportional to the intensity of light.

Question 18.8 Why is the current in a transistor very small?

Answer 18.8 As base of the transistor is thin and is lightly dopes, therefore very few of the chargecarriers coming from
emitter get neutralized in base. This will give rise to very small base current. Due to reverse biasing of collector-base
junction, almost all the electrons enter into collector. A fewcharge carriers pass through the base circuit and a negligible
current flow into through it.

Question 18.9 What is the biasing requirement of the junctions of a transistor for its normal operation? Explain
how these requirements are met in a common emitter amplifier?
Answer 18.9 For normal operation of transistor, the emitter to base junction is forward biased and collector to base junction
is reversed biased. In common emitter amplifier, both the requirementscan be met by connecting the two batteries batteries
VBB and VCC to be connected forward biased for emitter-base junction and collector-base junction is reverse biased.

Q 18.10 What is the principle of virtual ground? Apply it to find the gain of an inverting amplifier.
Answer 18.10 For an op. amplifier AOL is open loop gain which is very high of the order 10(5). Thus for given Vo, (V+ - V-)
=0
V+ = V-
If V+ is grounded then V- becomes almost zero that is V- = 0. Hence inverting input will be virtually grounded.
From the fig
I1 = I2
(V- -- Vi) / R1 = (V- --Vo)/ R2
(0-Vi )/ R1 = (0- Vo)/R2
Vo/Vi = -R2 / R1
G = - R2 /R1

Question 18.11 The inputs of a gate are 1 and 0, Identify the gate if its output is (a) 0, (b) 1.
Answer 18.11
a, Inputs of given gate 1 and 0, output is 0 so in first case the gates may be And, NOR, XNOR Gate.
b, Inputs of given gate 1 and 0, output is 1 so the Gates may be OR, NAND, XOR Gates.
Chapter 19 Dawn of Modern Physics
Question 19.1 What are measurements on which two observers in relative motion always agree upon?
Answer 19.1 The measurements of
force
acceleration
velocity of light
by two observers in different inertial frames of reference will be identical.

Question 19.2 Does the dilation means that time really passes more slowly in moving system or that it only seems
to pass more slowly?
Answer 19.2 The time dilation is purely due to relative motion. It really happen when observers are in relative motion. The
result is applied to the timing process physical, chemical and biological. Even aging process of the human body is slowed
down by motion at very high speed. It should be noted that we can not detects such changes in daily life because we are
not moving at speedcomparable to the speed of the light.

Question 19.3 If you are moving in a spaceship at a very high speed relative to the Earth, would you notice a
difference (a) in your pulse rate (b) in the pulse rate of people on Earth?
Answer 19.3 The pulse rate of the person in spaceship is the proper pulse rate. There will be no difference in the pulse rate
as the inertial frame of reference is same. Pulse rate of the people on the earth will be low because they are moving with
respect to spaceship.

Question 19.4 If the speed of light were infinite, what would the equations of special theory of relativity reduce to?
Answer 19.4 When the speed of light approached to infinity.
m = m, l = l, t = t , c = .
m = mo / ( 1 v2 /) = mo / ( 1 0) = mo.
l = lo ( 1 v2 /) = lo ( 1 0) = lo.
 t = to / ( 1 v2 /) = to / ( 1 0) = to.
E = m ()Square E is infinity.

Question 19.5 Since mass is a form of energy, can we conclude that a compressed spring has more mass than the
same spring when it is not compressed?
Answer 19.5 From classical point of view the mass remain same. According to theory of relativity, change of mass is due
to relative motion and not due to position.

Question 19.6 As a solid is heated and begins to glow, why does it first appear red?
Answer 19.6 According to wien's displacement law at low temperature the solid will emit radiation having longer wavelength
which lies in the infra-red region of electromagnetic spectrum. That is why the appearance of the body will be red when it
begins to glow. On further increasing the temperature, the solid will change the color towards decreasing wavelength of
visible spectrum.

Question 19.7 What happens to total radiation from a black body if its absolute temperature doubled?
Answer 19.7 According to Stefen Boltzmann law, the amount of energy radiated per sec per unit area pf the black body is
directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature i.e.
E = T4
It is obvious that if temperature T is doubled, E becomes 16 times of the original radiant energy.

Question 19.8 A beam of red light and a beam of blue light have exactly the same energy. Which beam contains the
greater number of photons?
Answer 19.8 The energy of the photon of light by Planck quantum theory is given by:
E = hf
Where h is the Planck constant and f is the frequency of light. Let n1 be the number of photons of red light having
frequency f1 and n2 be the number of photons of blue light having frequency f2. The respective energies of red and blue
beams of light is given be:
E1 = n1 h f1
E2 = n2 h f2
E1 = E2
n1 h f1 = n2 h f2
f1 / f2 = n1 / n2
f1 < f2
n2 < n1
i.e. number of photons of red light are more than the number of photons of blue light.

Question 19.9 Which photon, red, green, or blue carries the most (a) energy and (b) momentum?
Answer 19.9 The expression for energy and momentum of photons are given by
E = hf
p = hf / c
as f = c /
therefore E = hc /
and p = h /
Blue light has smaller wavelength than red and green colors. So energy and momentum of photons of Blue light is
greater than green and red.

Question 19.10 Which has the lower energy quanta? Radio waves or X-rays.
Answer 19.10 By Plank quantum theory the energy of the quanta of radiation is given by,
 E = hf
Since the frequency of x-rays is greater than the frequency of radio wave therefore, the quanta of x-ray will carry
more energy than that of radio wave.

Question 19.11 Does the brightness of a beam of light primarily depends on the frequency of photons or on the
number of photons?
Answer 19.11 Brightness or intensity of light beam of specific color means the number of photons of light passing per sec
per unit area. So, brightness depends upon numbers of photons and not on frequency of photons.

Question 19.12 When ultraviolet light falls on certain dyes, visible light is emitted. Why does this not happen when
infrared light falls on these dyes?
Answer 19.12 The ultraviolet light contains photons of high energy. When they fall on the atoms of the dye, the atoms get
excited. On De-excitation they emit photons of frequency which lie in visible region of electro-magnetic spectrum. However
infra-red light photon has less energy, so the atoms may be excited, on De-excitation they emit photons whose frequency lie
in the invisible region.

Question 19.13 Will bright light eject more electrons from a metal surface than dimmerlight of the same color?
Answer 19.13 The number of photo-electrons emitted from the metal surface is proportional to the intensity of light. So,
bright light eject more electrons from metal surface than the dimmer light of same color.

Question 19.14 Will higher frequency light eject greater number of electrons than low frequency light?
Answer 19.14 The number of photo electrons emitted from the metal surface is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident light and not on its frequency. The light of higher frequency light will eject energetic electrons, while low frequency
light will eject less energetic electrons. So light of higher and lower frequency of same intensity will eject same number
of electrons.

Question 19.15 When light shines on a surface, is momentum transferred to the metal surface?
Answer 19.15 When light falls on metal surface, the photons are absorbed by the surface. Therefore both energy and
momentum of the photons are transferred to the atoms of the surface. The exchange of energy and momentum to the
surface is so small that it hardly produce any disturbance in photo emissive surface.

Question 19.16 Why can red light be used in a photographic dark room when developing films. blue or white light
cannot?
Answer 19.16 Photons of red light in visible spectrum has the longest wavelength and the least energy. Therefore
photographic films and materials concerned are least affected in the presence of red light than blue and white light.

Question 19.17 Photon A has twice the energy of photon B. What is the ratio of the momentum of A to that of B?
Answer 19.17 As we know that:
EA = hfA = hc / A
and EB = hc / B
since EA = 2EB
hc / A = 2(hc / B)
B = 2A
momentum of photon B is given by:
pB = h / B
putting B = 2A
pB = h / 2A
as h / A = pA (momentum of photon A)
pB = 0.5pA
or pA = 2pB
 pA / pB = 2 / 1
pA : pB = 2 : 1

Question 19.18 Why dont we observe a Compton effect with visible light?
Answer 19.18 Photons of visible light (violet) are most energetic and have energy:
E = hc / = {6.6 * 10(-34) x 3 * 10(8)} / 400 * 10(-9) J
E = {6.6 * 10(-34) x 3 * 10(8)} / 400 * 10(-9) x 1 / 1.6 * 10(-19) eV
E = .310 KeV
But for Compton effect energy more than .1 MeV is needed, so Compton effect cannot be studied with visible light.

Question 19.19 Can pair production take place in vacuum? Explain.

Answer 19.19 Pair production takes place near the nucleus which takes recoil to conserve momentum. Thus law of
conservation of momentum will be violated if pair production takes place in vacuum. Hence pair production cannot take
place in vacuum as it does not contain matter.

Question 19.20 Is it possible to create a single electron from energy? Explain.

Answer 19.20 No, it is not possible, because law of conservation of charge will be violated when single electron will be
created.

Question 19.21 If electrons behaved only like particles, what pattern would you expect on the screen after
the electrons passes through the double slit?
Answer 19.21 When electrons have particles like property diffraction will not take place and electrons would pass straight
through the slits. Therefore the diffraction pattern on the screen will not be observed. We will only observe the images of
two slits on the screen.

Question 19.22 If an electron and a proton have the same de Broglie wavelength, which particle has greater speed?
Answer 19.22 As we know that momentum:
p = mv = h /
or v = h / m
as same & h , and being constant
v1/m
From above equation it follows that electron being lighter particle will have greater speed than proton to have same value of
de Broglie wavelength.

Question 19.23 We do not notice the de Broglie wavelength for a pitched cricket ball. Explain why?
Answer 19.23 According to de Broglie, the wavelength of the particle of mass m when moving woth velcity v is given by:
= h / mv
It follows that wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass of the particle. The cricket ball is very much massive, so it
has very short wavelength which is not measurable.

Question 19.24 If the following particles all have the same energy, which has the shortest wavelength? Electron,
alpha particle, neutron, proton.
Answer 19.24 From the relation:
= h / mv
for same energy (or K.E.) v & h are constant, so
1/m
It follows from the above relation that for greater mass there is shorter wavelength. As -particle has greatest mass, so the
-particle has the shortest wavelength and the electron of smallest mass has the largest wavelength associated with it.
Question 19.25 When does light behave as a wave? When does it behave as a particle?
Answer 19.25 In case of interference and diffraction phenomena light behaves as waves. In phenomena like photoelectric
and Compton effects, the light exhibits its particle nature.

Question 19.26 What advantages an electron microscope has over an optical microscope?
Answer 19.26 The electron microscope has the following advantages over optical microscope.
1. The wavelength associated with electron is much shorter than the visible light, so electron microscope has
high resolving power as compare to optical microscope.
2. The energy of electrons is sufficiently large that they can penetrate through the thicker parts of matter as
compared to visible light. Therefore the internal structure of an object can be obtained by Electron microscope.

Question 19.27 If measurements show a precise position for an electron, can those measurements show precise
momentum also? Explain.
Answer 19.27 No. According to Uncertainty principle, position and momentum of a particle cannot both be measured
simultaneously with perfect accuracy. For a precise position of an electron, the momentum becomes uncertain.
x p h
If the position of an electron is precisely measured then there is not uncertainty in position i.e.,
x = 0,
0 p h
or p h / 0
So, if measurement show a precise position for electron in an experiment then precise measurement of
momentum of an electron is impossible in that experiment.

Chapter 20 Atomic Spectra

Question 20.1 Bohrs theory of hydrogen atom is based upon several assumptions. Do any of these assumptions
contradict classical physics?
Answer 20.1 Bohr's assumptions about H-atom contradict with the classical physics. According to Bohr electron radiate no
energy while revolving around the nucleus. Where as classical physics state that accelerated electron radiates energy
continuously while revolving around the nucleus.

Question 20.2 What is meant by a line spectrum? Explain, how line spectrum can be used for the identification of
elements?
Answer 20.2 When the atoms of a gas excited by supplying the energy from external source, they emit photons of specific
wavelength on De-excitation. These photons of specific wavelength appear in the form of lines on a screen, which are well
separated from each other, and is called line spectrum. Different elements emit photons of different wavelength. This mean
the spectra of different elements are different. Hence we can identify the elements by their line spectrum.

Question 20.3 Can the electron in the ground state of hydrogen absorb a photon of energy 13.6 ev and greater than
13.6 eV?
Answer 20.3 The electron of H-atom in its ground state possesses energy equal to -13.6 eV. Hence H-atom will absorb
photon of energy 13.6 eV and will get ionized. The extra energy of the photon will be taken up by the electron in the form of
K.E.

Question 20.4 How can the spectrum of hydrogen contain so many lines when hydrogen contains one electron?
Answer 20.4 The hydrogen atom in the ground state has energy EO. But there are many other higher energy state above
ground state. So when hydrogen atom is excited by supplying energy from external source it may jump into some higher
energy state. When these electrons fall back then it may go to the ground state in different steps. Each transition will emit
photon of particular wavelength. Hence we will get many lines in the line spectrum of hydrogen atom.

Question 20.5 Is energy conserved when an atom emits a photon of light?

Answer 20.5 Yes, The law of conservation of energy holds in the case when an atom emits a photon. Actually atom
absorbs energy when they are excited to higher energy state. The same energy is re-emitted in the form of photon during
the process of De-excitation.

Question 20.6 Explain why a glowing gas gives only certain wavelengths of light and why that gas is capable of
absorbing the same wavelengths? Give a reason why it is transparent to other wavelengths?
Answer 20.6 Each and every element emits and absorbs radiation of some specific wavelength. Hence when certain
radiations are incident on this element then it will absorb only those radiations, which it can also emit. Therefore, it is
transparent to the radiations of other wavelength.

Question 20.7 What do you mean when we say that the atom is excited?
Answer 20.7 When an atom absorbs energy from external source, its electrons are lifted from ground state to higher
energy state and as a whole the atom is said to be in the excited state.

Question 20.8 Can X-rays be reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized just like any other waves? Explain.
Answer 20.8 Yes because X-rays are electromagnetic waves like an ordinary light but having frequency much higher than
the ordinary light. Hence X-rays like ordinary light can show reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization
properties.

Question 20.9 What are the advantages of lasers over ordinary light?
Answer 20.9 The laser light is intense, coherent and unidirectional so it does not spread out like ordinary light. Its energy
can be focused at a point to get enough energy for welding, cutting and as surgical tool while ordinary light cannot do so.

Question 20.10 Explain why laser action could not occur without inversion between atomic levels?
Answer 20.10 If there is no population inversion between atomic levels then laser light will not obtained. A large number of
excited atoms in population inversion state emit a large number ofcoherent photons along the same direction of motion.
Which is not possible without population inversion.

Chapter 21 Nuclear Physics

Question 21.1 What are isotopes? What do they have in common and what are their differences?
Answer 21.1 Nuclei of the same elements which have same charge number but different mass number are called isotopes
of an element.
Isotopes of an element have:
Same charge number or atomic number.
Same chemical properties.
Same number of protons.
Isotopes of an element have different:
Number of neutrons.
Different physical properties.
Mass number or weight.

Question 21.2 Why are heavy nuclei unstable?

Answer 21.2 Light and stable nuclei have equal or almost equal number of protons and neutrons. However heavy nuclei
such as 238U92 Uranium contains92 protons and 146 neutrons. Similarly 226ra88 Radium contains 88 protons ans 138
neutrons. The wide difference between number of protons and neutrons makes the heavy nuclei unstable.

Question 21.3 If a nucleus has a half-life of 1 year, does this mean that it will be completely decayed after 2 years?
Explain.
Answer 21.3 If a radioactive element has half-life as one year, then after one year, half of the total number of atoms are left
behind UN-decayed with the passage of another year, half of the UN-decayed atoms decay leaving behind 1/4 th of the
atoms UN-decayed. Thus after two year,the element under consideration will not completely vanish. But only 3/4 of the total
number of atoms will decay.

Question21.4 What fraction of radioactive sample decays after two half-lives have elapsed?
Answer 21.4 Let N be the total number of atoms of the radioactive element present at the beginning of time. After one half
life, N/2 atoms decay while N/4 atoms decay in the second half life. Total number of atoms decayed in two half lives is N/2 +
N/4 = 3/4 th of the radioactive sample decays in two half lives.

Question 21.5 The radioactive element 88Ra226 has a half life of 1.6 x 103 years. Since the Earth is about 5 billion
years old, how can you explain why we still find this element in nature?
Answer 21.5 As half life of 226Ra88 is 1.6 * 10(3) years, so after 1.6 * 10(3) years, half of 226Ra88 decays leaving behind
half of 226Ra88. Similarly after every half life, half of the initial atoms are left behind and it takes infinite time for entire
element to decay completely. So even after billion years we still have some UN-decayed atoms of 226Ra88.

Question 21.6 Describe a brief account of interaction of various types of radiations with matter.
Answer 21.6 Interaction of alpha particle with matter: Alpha particles can ionize and excite atoms of the element
through which they pass. The ionization caused by alpha particles may be due to direct elastic collision with atoms or due to
electrostatic attraction between them and electrons of the atoms. The property of ionization is used to detect and measure
the energy of alpha particles. For an alpha particle creates about 10(4) ionization in 1mm of air.

Interaction of Beta particle with matter: Beta particles are negatively charged, fast moving electrons coming out of nuclei
of radioactive elements. Beta particles are 7000 times lighter than alpha particles and their charge is half of the charge of
alpha particle. Ionization caused by beta particle is due to electrostatic repulsion between them and electron of the atom.
ionizing ability of beta particles is about 100 times less than that of alpha particle since its mass and charge are smaller than
alpha particle. However the range of beta particle through gas is about 100 times more than alpha particle.Path of beta
particle is not straight due to deflection caused by collision with atoms of the medium.

Interaction of gamma particle with matter: Gamma rays are mass less charge less radiation coming out of the nuclei of
radioactive elements. The ionization caused by gamma ray photons is almost negligible, gamma rays interact with matter in
three different ways depending on their energy.
At low energy less than 0.5 Mev, gamma rays interact with matter and produce photoelectric effect.
At intermediate energy between 0.5 Mev - 1.0 Mev, gamma rays produce Comptons's effect.
At energy more than 1.02 Mev, gamma rays produce pair production.

Question 21.7 Explain how and -particles may ionize an atom without directly hitting the electrons? What is
difference in action of the two particles for producing ionization?
Answer 21.7 We know that alpha particle are doubly positively charged and beta particles are negatively charged. Being
charged particles they can ionize an atom without directly hitting the electrons. When an alpha particle passes close to an
atom, it attracts its electrons and the atom is ionized. On the other hand when a beta particle passes close to an atom it
repels the electron of the atom and knocks it out.

Question 21.8 A particle which produces more ionization is less penetrating. Why?
Answer 21.8 The particle having more ionizing power will lose whole of its energy in the short span. On the other hand, the
particle with low ionizing power can travel greater distance in that medium because it will produce smaller number of ions.
Question 21.9 What information is revealed by the length and shape of the tracks of an incident particle in Wilson
cloud chamber?
Answer 21.9 The thick straight and continuous tracks in Wilson cloud chamber are due to intense ionization produced by
alpha particles.
The thin and discontinuous tracks extending in erratic manner shows the presence of beta particles. They show frequent
deflections.
The radiations with negligible ionizing power gamma rays leave no definite track. The irregular tracks are those of photo-
electrons produced by gamma rays.

Question 21.10 Why must Geiger Muller tube for detecting -particles have a very thin end window? Why does a
Geiger Muller tube for detecting -rays not need a window at all?
Answer 21.10 Since particle posses less penetrating power than gamma rays, therefore, a thin window allows their entry
into Geiger tube easily. For detecting gamma rays, window become useless because of their high penetrating power.
Therefore, G.M tube does not need a window for detection of gamma rays.

Question 21.11 Describe the principle of operation of a solid state detector of ionizing radiation in terms of
generation and detection of charge carriers.
Answer 21.11 A solid-state detector is a specially designed p-n junction, operating under a reverse bias in which electron
hole pairs are produced by the incident radiation to cause a current pulse to flow through the external circuit. Then the
electrical pulse is amplified and recorded.

Question 21.12 What do you mean by the term critical mass?

Answer 21.12 The mass of uranium in which one neutron, out of all the neutrons produced in one fission reaction, produce
further fission is called critical mass. The minimum mass of a material that can sustain a nuclear chain reaction. It is the
quantity of such mass, which is enough to absorb most of neutrons produced in fission chain reaction and to produce large
amount of energy.

Question 21.13 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power compared to the use of fossil fuel
generated power.
Answer 21.13 Advantages:
The fuel has small cost.
It does not produce smoke.
Waste products can be reprocessed.
Cost of electricity is cheap.
Disadvantages:
It has radiation effect.
Its waste products are strongly radioactive and dangerous and cannot be easily dumped.

Question 21.14 What factors make a fusion reaction difficult to achieve?

Answer 21.14 When two light nuclei are brought together, a strong force of repulsion comes into play. This force of
repulsion prevents the nuclei to fuse together. To overcome this difficulty the nuclei should be very high velocity, which
needs temperature of the order 10(7)C. Such a high temperature cannot be produced on earth by any other means.

Question 21.15 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of fusion power from the point of safety, pollution and
resources.
Answer 21.15 Advantages:
Since the fusion reaction is free from radioactive products, so it will be safe and free from pollution and resources.
The fusion reaction produces more energy per nucleon.
The energy produced by fusion is cheaper than fission energy.
 Disadvantages:
It is more difficult to start fusion reaction.
It cannot be controlled like fission reaction.

Question 21.16 What do you understand by background radiation? State two sources of this radiation.
Answer 21.16 G.M tube record radiation even if no radioactive source is close to it. Thus record is due to radiation called
background radiation. Background radiation is partly due to cosmic radiation which comes to us from some outer space and
partly due to naturally occurring radioactive substances in earth's crust.

Question 21.17 If you swallowed an -source and a source, which would be the more dangerous to you?
Explain why?
Answer 21.17 - particle have more ionizing power while - particle are less ionizing. Thus - particle can cause more
damage to the tissue of the body.

Question 21.18 Which radiation dose would deposit more energy to your body (a) 10 mGy to your hand, or (b) 1
mGy dose to your entire body.
Answer 21.18 As we know that:
D = absorbed dose = Energy / Mass
E = D * Mass
Since the mass of the whole body is far greater than mass of hand, therefore according to above equation the case (b)
1mGy dose given to the entire body deposits more energy.

Question 21.19 What is a radioactive tracer? Describe one application each in medicine, agriculture and industry.
Answer 21.19 Radioactive tracer:
Radio-isotopes is used to trace the path or position of an element through a biological, chemical, or mechanical
system.
Medicine:
Diagnosis: by taking radioactive iodine with food, position of iodine can be followed by G.M. counter. So detector
tells the position of the food in the digestive system.
Agriculture:
Productivity of food grains: Labeled fertilizer of radio phosphorous ( P32 ) is placed at several depths and distances
from plant. The relationship between the root growth and taking of phosphorous from the soil determine percentage
productivity of food grains.
Industrial:
Labeling the elements: labeled radioactive carbon (C14) mixed in certain compound provide a simple test of leaks in
pipes and the flow of rates of liquid without effecting the actual flow.

Question 21.20 How can radioactivity help in the treatment of cancer?

Answer 21.20 Radiotherapy with gamma rays form cobalt-60 is used in the treatment of cancer. Radioactive Iodine-131 is
used for treatments of thyroid gland cancer. For skin cancer phosphorous- 32 or strontium-90 may be used.