Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 2016 American Psychological Association

2016, Vol. 30, No. 3, 345355 0893-164X/16/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/adb0000179

Emerging Adult Identity Development, Alcohol Use, and Alcohol-Related

Problems During the Transition Out of College

Jonathan R. Gates and William R. Corbin Kim Fromme

Arizona State University The University of Texas at Austin

Alcohol use generally peaks during the early 20s and declines with age. These declines, referred to as
maturing out, are presumed to result from the acquisition of adult roles (e.g., marriage, employment)
incompatible with alcohol use. Recent empirical evidence suggests that variables other than role
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transitions (e.g., personality) may also be important in understanding this process. Changes in identity
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that occur during emerging adulthood may also be linked to the process of maturing out of heavy
drinking, though no studies have yet addressed this possibility. Utilizing data from a large sample of
graduating college students (N 907) during senior year (Wave 1) and the 2 following years (Waves
23), the current study examined relations between aspects of emerging adult identity and drinking
outcomes (alcohol use and problems). Using time-varying covariate growth models, results indicated that
several facets of emerging adult identity conferred risk for the failure to mature out of heavy drinking and
alcohol-related problems. Experimentation/possibilities emerged as a significant risk factor for both
heavy drinking and alcohol problems, but these effects diminished considerably when accounting for
personality risk. In contrast, although small in magnitude, effects of self-focus on heavy drinking and
negativity/instability on alcohol-related problems were relatively independent of effects of other estab-
lished predictors. The effect for negativity/instability was evident only at the final wave. The findings
have important implications for theories of maturing out and may ultimately inform tailoring or
refinement of prevention/intervention approaches for emerging adults.

Keywords: emerging adulthood, alcohol, college, identity development, longitudinal

Despite widespread prevention efforts, alcohol remains a large
part of collegiate life and a major public health concern (Sher,
Bartholow, & Nanda, 2001; Slutske, 2005; Wechsler et al., 2002).
Evidence suggests that aspects of the college environment contrib-
ute to high rates of alcohol use. For example, the rate of binge
drinking (five or more drinks during a single occasion) among
college students in 2013 was 35% (Johnston, OMalley, Bachman,
Schulenberg, & Miech, 2014). Moreover, Wechsler and Nelson
(2008) demonstrated that students who binge drink are at higher
risk for alcohol-related problems including unplanned and unpro-
tected sexual activity, injuries, and problems with campus or local
police. Slutske (2005) also found that college students were more
likely to be diagnosed with an alcohol use disorder (abuse and
dependence) relative to nonstudents.
This article was published Online First April 14, 2016.
Jonathan R. Gates and William R. Corbin, Department of Psychology,
Arizona State University; Kim Fromme, Department of Psychology, The
University of Texas at Austin.
This project was supported by award number R01AA013967 from the
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). The
NIAAA played no role in manuscript writing, preparation, or interpretation
of the results. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and
does not necessarily represent the views of the NIAAA or the National
Institutes of Health.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to William
R. Corbin, Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, 950 S
McAllister Avenue, Tempe, AZ 85281. E-mail: wcorbin@asu.edu
Although a high level of alcohol use occurs during college, use
generally peaks during the early twenties and declines with age
(Jochman & Fromme, 2010). Several factors appear to facilitate
this maturing out process (e.g., marriage, parenthood), but rel-
atively little is known about these normative reductions in use
relative to the substantial literature on factors contributing to
increases in drinking during the transition from adolescence into
emerging adulthood. Furthermore, despite normative reductions in
alcohol use with age, a significant minority of young adults fail to
mature out of this pattern of heavy drinking and go on to experi-
ence clinically significant problems (Jackson, Sher, Gotham, &
Wood, 2001). Thus, it is important to identify factors that might
facilitate the maturing out process. As such, the aim of this study
was to examine dimensions of emerging adult identity during the
transition out of college in relation to alcohol outcomes (use and
related problems).
Evidence suggests that maturing out of heavy drinking is, at
least in part, a result of the acquisition of adult roles and respon-
sibilities such as marriage and/or parenthood, end of formal edu-
cation and start of employment, change in living arrangements,
and financial independence (Bachman et al., 2002; Eitle, Taylor, &
Eitle, 2010; Fleming, White, & Catalano, 2010; Kretsch & Harden,
2014; Staff, Greene, Maggs, & Schoon, 2014). These relations
may be a result of both role selection and role socialization. In
support of the importance of role selection, Yamaguchi and Kandel
(1985) found that marijuana users were more likely to postpone
marriage due to incompatible roles of marriage and substance use.
Conversely, and consistent with role socialization, Gotham, Sher,

345
 346 GATES, CORBIN, AND FROMME
and Wood (2003) found that being married reduced the likelihood
of a later Alcohol Use Disorder. Labouvie (1996) examined both
role selection and role socialization and found evidence supporting
both mechanisms. Those who were married or became married and
those who were parents or became parents had more friends who
were married or parents at a later time point. At the same time,
those who married or had children had lower levels of alcohol use
at later time points. Further, Lee, Chassin, and MacKinnon (2015)
found that those with heavier drinking patterns premarriage had
the greatest decreases after marriage reflecting role-related matur-
ing out processes.
Employment has also been identified as a role that may be
associated with maturing out, but research on this topic has pro-
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vided less consistent evidence relative to research on marriage and
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parenthood (Gotham et al., 2003). For example, Bachman, Wads-
worth, OMalley, Johnston, and Schulenberg (1997) actually found
small increases in alcohol use in the last 30 days among full-time
employees, though this group did report small (though not signif-
icant) decreases in levels of binge drinking over time. Vergs et al.
(2012) found dynamic effects of employment status on risk for
alcohol dependence over time. They found that becoming em-
ployed reduced the likelihood of a continued diagnosis of alcohol
dependence among older but not younger adult males, whereas
becoming employed was predictive of the emergence of alcohol
dependence for those without a previous diagnosis of alcohol
dependence. In summarizing the overall pattern of findings regard-
ing role transitions in their study, Vergs et al. (2012) concluded
that role transitions are associated with the course of alcohol
disorders throughout the life course but that the effects differ as a
function of age, sex, and type of transition (p. 10).
Although selection and socialization into adult roles is a key
component to maturing out of heavy drinking, there is evidence
that the natural process of personality maturation may also play a
unique role (Ashenhurst, Harden, Corbin, & Fromme, 2015; Little-
field, Sher, & Wood, 2009, 2010a, 2010b; Steinberg et al., 2008;
Quinn & Harden, 2013). For example, impulsivity and sensation
seeking increase during childhood and early to middle adoles-
cence, respectively (Steinberg et al., 2008), and contribute to
experimentation with alcohol and other drugs. While impulsivity
steadily decreases starting around age 10, sensation seeking peaks
in mid-adolescence and then declines into adulthood (Steinberg et
al., 2008). Recent studies suggest that changes in personality are
linked with changes in drinking behavior. For example, Quinn and
Harden (2013) found that slower decreases in impulsivity were
related to larger increases in alcohol and substance use, while
slower decreases in sensation seeking were uniquely related to
increases in alcohol use. In another longitudinal study, Littlefield
et al. (2009) examined relations between personality traits of
impulsivity, neuroticism, and extraversion and problematic alcohol
involvement between the ages of 18 and 35. They found that
decreases in impulsivity and neuroticism were associated with
decreases in problematic alcohol use, even after accounting for
effects of marriage and parenthood. In a recent study that exam-
ined effects of both role socialization and personality, there was
evidence that effects depended upon the developmental period,
with stronger effects of role transitions in early young adulthood
and stronger effects of personality in later young adulthood (Lee,
Ellingson, & Sher, 2015).
Literature on identity development may also inform our under-
standing of the process of maturing out of heavy drinking. Erik-
sons seminal work (Erikson, 1968) suggests that identity explo-
ration (identity vs. identity confusion) is a key aspect of adolescent
development, and alcohol and other drug use is a common way in
which adolescents seek to explore their identities and appear more
adult. The tendency for exploration may also be related to
personality maturation (e.g., increases in sensation seeking) that
occurs during this period (Schwartz, Donnellan, Ravert, Luyckx,
& Zamboanga, 2013). Ultimately, young people must decide
which behaviors to incorporate and which to move beyond (e.g.,
substance use) in establishing their identity. Moving beyond ado-
lescence, Erikson suggests that identity development shifts to a
focus on intimacy versus isolation, a period during which individ-
uals seek to develop long-term relationships. Thus, Eriksons
theory also has clear implications for selection of roles that con-
tribute to the maturing out process.
Marcia (1966) extended the work of Erikson in his ego identity
status paradigm, which facilitated empirical evaluation of Erik-
sons theory. Based on a combination of levels of exploration and
commitment, Marcia created four identity statuses; Achievement
(high exploration, high commitment), Moratorium (high explora-
tion, low commitment), Foreclosure (low exploration, high com-
mitment), and Diffusion (low exploration, low commitment).
Thus, he proposed that one must both explore possible identities
and ultimately commit to beliefs, values, and long-term goals to
successfully achieve desired outcomes. Supporting the potential
link between identity development and substance use, recent stud-
ies by Bishop, Weisgram, Holleque, Lund, and Wheeler-Anderson
(2005) and Schwartz et al. (2011) found that individuals charac-
terized by Marcias achievement identity status engaged in less
substance use.
Recent influential theoretical work by Arnett (2000) builds upon
earlier identity theories and argues for a new and distinct devel-
opmental period that has emerged from societal level changes.
Arnett termed this period emerging adulthood, identifying young
people between the ages of 18 25, though for some, this period
may extend through the twenties (Arnett, 2005). Arnett argues that
delays in marriage, parenthood, and other adult roles in industri-
alized societies has extended the transition to adulthood, creating
a period characterized by change and exploration (Arnett, 2005,
p. 479). Consistent with this model, over the past 50 years, the
median age of marriage has increased by 5 years to age 27 for men
and 25 for women, while simultaneously extending the age of first
parenthood from the early twenties to the late twenties. Given that
the period of emerging adulthood corresponds with peak risk for
heavy drinking and related problems, Arnetts theory may be of
particular relevance to understanding the phenomenon of maturing
out. In describing the period of emerging adulthood, Arnett pro-
posed five dimensions of emerging adult identity (Arnett, 2005,
2006). A brief description of each dimension and its relation to
earlier theories of identity development is provided below.
Identity exploration constitutes the extent to which an individual
explores various feelings or experiences before reaching adult-
hood. Arnett (2006) explains that these experiences are the basis
for life decisions. This dimension of Arnetts theory is closely
aligned with the focus on identity exploration in both Eriksons
and Marcias models of identity development. Arnett (2005) also
considers emerging adulthood a time of experimentation/possibil-
 EMERGING ADULT IDENTITY AND ALCOHOL USE
ities, when individuals have the liberty to make extensive changes
in their lives. Although similar to identity exploration in some
ways, Arnett clearly identifies this dimension of identity as being
of particular relevance to the period of emerging adulthood.
Whereas adolescents and children have limited choice in the
manner in which they live, emerging adults can generally live the
way they see fit. Thus, they are able to explore a variety of
behaviors without impediment, including high-risk behaviors like
substance use.
The dimension of negativity/instability involves the extent to
which young people are able to maintain confidence amid the
many changes that occur during emerging adulthood. Geographic
instability is common during this period with rates of moving
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increasing rapidly beginning at age 18 and peaking in the mid-
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twenties. For many, emerging adulthood also marks the first time
they are able to completely govern themselves (e.g., live on their
own). Although Erikson identified negativity and instability that
can occur when young people fail to successfully navigate critical
stages of identity development, Arnett suggests that these experi-
ences are a normative part of identity development during this
critical period.
Arnett also characterizes emerging adulthood as a period of
freedom and self-focus. Ultimately, emerging adults must move
from self-focus to other focus as they take on more adult social
roles like marriage and full-time employment. This shift is char-
acteristic of Eriksons stage of intimacy versus isolation and aligns
with Marcias ideas about the importance of commitment. Finally,
Arnett suggests that emerging adults report feeling as if they are
not quite an adult, but not quite an adolescent, a dimension of
identify development referred to as feeling in-between. Arnett
(2000) demonstrated that the qualities most critical to these feel-
ings involve challenges related to accepting responsibility for
ones self, making independent decisions, and becoming finan-
cially independent (pp. 472 473). The concept of being caught in
between adolescence and adulthood is perhaps the most unique to
Arnetts theory although it clearly captures the struggle to commit
to adult roles.
In summary, Arnetts theories build from prior models of iden-
tity development while extending them in important ways. Perhaps
the most novel aspects involve the ideas of extended adolescence
and the feeling of being caught between two important periods of
development. Further, while prior theories tended to focus on one
or two critical tasks for successful movement through stages of
identity development, Arnett characterized multiple dimensions
along which individuals might vary during the period of emerging
adulthood without placing special emphasis on particular accom-
plishments for successfully navigating this developmental transi-
tion. Given high levels of alcohol use and abuse during emerging
adulthood and conceptual links between emerging adult identity
and other key determinants of maturation out of heavy drinking
(e.g., personality maturation, adult role adoption), the goal of the
current study was to examine relations between dimensions of
emerging adult identity and alcohol-related outcomes.
Recent studies support the idea that Arnetts dimensions of
emerging adult identity may be important in understanding risk
for substance use. For example, Allem, Lisha, Soto, Baezconde-
Garbanati, and Unger (2013) found a marginally significant
relation between experimentation and past-month marijuana
use. In another study, Smith, Bahar, Cleeland, and Davis (2014)
347
found significant bivariate correlations between feeling in-
between and substance use frequency and between negativity/
instability and substance related problems. Finally, Lisha et al.
(2014) found significant relations between a measure compris-
ing items from experimentation and self-focus dimensions and
cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use. In the one longitudinal
study we were able to identify, Little et al. (2013) found that
lower levels of experimentation were associated with greater
likelihood of marijuana cessation 1 year later. However, when
controlling for baseline levels of marijuana use this effect
became marginally significant, suggesting that the effect was
due in part to the relation between lower experimentation and
less marijuana use at baseline. Although these studies provide
preliminary evidence for the importance of emerging adult identity
in relation to substance use, the average ages in these studies
ranged from 17 to 21 and none of the studies explored potential
age-related differences in effects as participants moved further into
emerging adulthood. Given evidence for important age-related
differences in effects of role transitions (Vergs et al., 2012) and
the relative influences of role transitions and personality matura-
tion (Lee et al., 2015), this is an important gap in the literature.
Thus, the current study sought to build upon prior work by
examining relations between dimensions of emerging adult iden-
tity and both heavy drinking and related problems using three
waves of longitudinal data collected in the fall of the fourth year of
college (22 years of age) and the two years following (2324
years of age). To isolate unique influences of emerging adult
identity, we controlled for effects of personality (sensation seeking
and impulsivity) and role transitions (e.g., entry into committed
relationships and employment). Although there is likely a trait
component to emerging adult identity (e.g., some individuals are
likely to be higher than others in experimentation or negativity
across stages of development), we were most interested in under-
standing the extent to which within-person variation (e.g., state
aspects of emerging adult identity across time) relate to drinking
behavior and problems. Thus, we examined emerging adult iden-
tity dimensions as predictors of deviations from expected age-
related declines in heavy drinking and problems. Based on results
of prior studies, we hypothesized that higher levels of experimen-
tation/possibilities, self-focus, and feeling in-between would be
related to heavier alcohol use and that higher levels of negativity/
instability would be related to more alcohol-related problems.
Based on the finding by Lee et al. (2015) that intrapersonal
influences become more important than contextual influences as
individuals move further into young adulthood, we also expected
effects of emerging adult identity to become stronger as individ-
uals moved toward the end of the period of emerging adulthood.
For example, high levels of experimentation may be less normative
and therefore more indicative of a pathological process for a
24-year-old who is more than a year beyond graduation than for a
22-year-old who is still enrolled in college. Although we had
specific hypotheses about only three of the five dimensions of
emerging adult identity for heavy drinking and one of five for
alcohol-related problems, we examined all five dimensions as
predictors of heavy drinking and problems given the lack of prior
longitudinal studies controlling for other known predictors of
maturing out.
 348 GATES, CORBIN, AND FROMME

Method Table 1
Descriptive Statistics
Participants and Procedures Variable N M or % (SD) Range
The UT Experience! originally recruited all incoming first- Gender
time freshman at The University of Texas (UT) at Austin in the Male 316 34.80
summer before matriculation. Data for the current analyses come Female 591 65.20
Age at Wave 1 907 21.76 (.35) 20.5323.24
from participants who were assigned to a longitudinal condition
Relationship statusNot in relationship
with 10 waves of data collection from summer prior to college Wave 1 400 48.7
entry until 2 years after senior year (N 2,245; 60% female). Wave 2 298 47.2
Eligible participants were unmarried, first-time college students Wave 3 260 41.8
between the ages of 17 and 19. Of the total sample, 53.9% were Relationship statusIn a committed
relationship
Caucasian, 18.4% Asian American or Hawaiian Pacific Islander, Wave 1 385 46.9
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15.2% Hispanic/Latino, 4.1% African American, .1% American Wave 2 267 42.2
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Indian/Alaska Native, 6.7% multiethnic, and 1.6% declined to Wave 3 266 42.8
report race/ethnicity. For more detailed information about recruit- Relationship statusMarried or
engaged
ment, see Hatzenbuehler, Corbin, and Fromme (2008).
Wave 1 36 4.4
Of the 2,245 participants who completed the initial survey, a Wave 2 67 10.6
total of 1,857 completed one of the three surveys on which the Wave 3 96 15.4
current analyses were based (senior year of high school and the fall Employment statusUnemployed
of the first and second years after graduation). These represented Wave 1 349 38.6
Wave 2 111 16.1
Waves 8 10 of the original study but we refer to them as Waves Wave 3 107 16.3
13 in the remainder of the paper given that Waves 17 of the Employment statusPart-time
original study were not included in the analyses. The sample was Wave 1 527 58.3
further restricted to those who graduated in 4 years to allow for Wave 2 148 21.5
Wave 3 78 11.9
examination of the transition out of college. Of the 1,857 partici-
Employment statusFull-time
pants who completed at least one survey across these three time Wave 1 28 3.1
points, 907 (48.9%) met inclusion criteria of completing college in Wave 2 429 62.4
4 years (see Table 1 for descriptive statistics and Table 2 for Wave 3 472 71.8
correlations among all study variables). In order to be counted as IDEAExperimentation
Wave 8 862 3.10 (.68) 14
4-year graduates, participants had to report that they were gradu- Wave 9 664 3.00 (.71) 14
ating in their fourth year (Wave 1) and confirm that they graduated Wave 10 635 2.89 (.81) 14
at Wave 2 (1 year later). Thus, 48.9% is likely an underestimate of IDEASelf-focus
the true graduation rate as those who indicated that they were Wave 8 863 3.37 (.57) 14
Wave 9 663 3.37 (.68) 14
graduating at Wave 1, but did not complete the survey at Wave 2
Wave 10 635 3.39 (.64) 14
were not counted as 4-year graduates. The average age in Year 4 IDEANegativity/Instability
of college for the final sample of 907 was 21.76 (SD .35), and Wave 8 864 3.09 (.71) 14
the average age 2 years later was 23.76 (SD .34). Wave 9 665 2.83 (.84) 14
Demographics. Basic demographics variables included gen- Wave 10 634 2.82 (.83) 14
IDEAIdentity exploration
der, ethnicity/race, and age. Wave 8 862 3.40 (.65) 14
Wave 9 662 3.24 (.76) 14
Wave 10 635 3.21 (.76) 14
Predictor Variables IDEAFeeling in-between
Dimensions of emerging adult identity. Emerging adulthood Wave 8 861 3.30 (.64) 14
Wave 9 660 3.14 (.77) 14
identity was assessed using the Inventory of the Dimensions of Wave 10 633 3.04 (.82) 14
Emerging Adulthood (IDEA; Reifman, Arnett, & Colwell, 2007). Binge drinking
The inventory includes 31 items assessing five dimensions includ- Wave 8 905 4.25 (6.79) 054
ing experimentation/possibilities, self-focus, negativity/instability, Wave 9 689 3.58 (6.58) 050
Wave 10 654 3.09 (5.37) 045
identity exploration, and feeling in-between. A sixth dimension
Drunk
(other-focused), serves as a counterpoint to self-focus but was not Wave 8 905 3.75 (6.28) 060
included in the current study (Reifman et al., 2007). All items are Wave 9 689 2.92 (5.47) 060
measured on a 4-point Likert-type scale with response options Wave 10 653 2.78 (5.01) 047
ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. In the current Alcohol-related problems
Wave 8 892 2.84 (5.55) 054
study, 15 of the 31 original items were included to capture the five Wave 9 682 1.80 (3.85) 031
original dimensions using the three highest loading items from Wave 10 649 1.83 (4.53) 043
each subscale. Sample items include: A time of learning to think
for yourself and a time of trying out new things. In the original
measurement development, internal consistency coefficients (al-
pha) ranged from .70 to .85 and testretest reliability ranged from
 EMERGING ADULT IDENTITY AND ALCOHOL USE 349

Table 2
Correlations Among All Variables in the Model

Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1. Gender 1 .01 .02 .08 .04 .01 .02 .12 .08 .14 .14 .12 .06 .05
2. Employment status 3A 1 .59 .04 .05 .03 .08 .15 .05 .06 .01 .03 .06 .12
3. Employment status 3B 1 .07 .07 .01 .10 .23 .02 .10 .06 .04 .00 .05
4. Relationship status 3A 1 .37 .02 .06 .02 .04 .07 .03 .06 .04 .04
5. Relationship status 3B 1 .24 .17 .00 .13 .17 .15 .11 .19 .16

6. Experimentation 1 .46 .16 .47
.32
.23 .17
.17
.12
7. Self-focus 1 .08 .41 .22 .04 .01 .18 .10
8. Negativity/Instability 1 .18 .26 .11 .03 .05 .14
9. Identity exploration 1 .52 .09 .03 .08 .05
10. Feeling in-between 1 .04 .08 .05 .07
11. Sensation seeking 1 .50 .21 .18
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12. Impulsivity 1 .15 .18

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13. Heavy drinking 1 .61

14. Alcohol-related problems 1

p .05. p .01. p .001.

.64 to .76. Internal consistency reliability in the current study was
good (.76 to .87 at Wave 1).
Relationship status. Relationship status was assessed with a
question that provided seven response options including: not dat-
ing, dating but not exclusively, dating exclusively, engaged, mar-
ried, other, and divorced. In an attempt to avoid exclusion of
participants, we attempted to reclassify those who provided a
response of other into one of the six categories based on the
information provided by the participant. We were able to recode
five of 13 at Wave 1, three of eight at Wave 2, and four of six at
Wave 3. Participants who indicated that they were divorced or
who provided a response of other that could not be recoded into
one of the other categories were excluded from the analyses (n
15). For purposes of this study, responses were reduced to three
categories: not dating, and dating but not exclusively were com-
bined into a group that was not in a committed relationship; dating
exclusively comprised the second class of participants who were in
a committed relationship but not engaged or married; engaged, and
married were combined into the final group. Two dummy codes
were created to contrast participants who were not in a committed
relationship against those who were a) in a committed relationship
but not engaged/married and b) engaged/married.
Employment status. Employment status was assessed with a
question that included three response options: no, part-time, and
full-time. As with relationship status, two dummy codes were
created contrasting those who were not employed against those
who were a) employed part-time, and b) employed full-time.
Sensation seeking and impulsivity. Sensation seeking and
impulsivity were assessed at each wave using 19 truefalse items
from the Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire (ZKPQ;
Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Joireman, Teta, & Kraft, 1993). Sensation
seeking is characterized by the willingness to take risks for the
sake of varied and intense experiences and impulsivity reflects
acting without forethought. In the present study, internal consis-
tency reliabilities were good for both sensation seeking (alphas of
.79 to .81) and impulsivity (alphas of .74 to .79).
Outcome Variables
Heavy drinking. Heavy drinking was assessed with two
items: a) frequency of getting drunk (not just a little high) and b)
frequency of binge drinking. Frequency of getting drunk was
assessed with the single item: During the past 3 months, how
many times did you get drunk (not just a little high) on alcohol?
(Jackson et al., 2001). Binge drinking was also assessed with a
single item: During the past 3 months, how many times did you
have four/five (for women/men) or more drinks at a sitting?
(Wechsler & Isaac, 1992). The mean of the two measures was
computed as a composite measure of heavy drinking.
Alcohol problems. Alcohol-related problems were assessed
using the Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index (RAPI; White & Labou-
vie, 1989). The measure includes 23 items assessing the frequency
of negative consequences resulting from drinking in the prior 3
months. Example items include: relatives avoided you, missed
a day (or part of a day) of school or work, and not able to do your
homework or study for a test. Items were scored on a 1 (0 times)
to 5 (more than 10 times) scale. The internal consistency reliability
for the scale in the current study was .91 at Wave 1 (Year 4).
Data Analytic Plan
Prior to conducting the primary analyses, distributions of all
variables were examined for non-normality and transformations
were conducted as necessary. For the primary analyses, time
varying covariate growth models were conducted in Mplus 7.0
(Muthn & Muthn, 2013) using bootstrapping (5,000 bootstraps)
and Full Information Maximum Likelihood (FIML) estimation to
manage missing data. Initially, we tested an unconditional growth
model in which loadings from the intercept latent variable to heavy
drinking at each wave were set to 1. The latent variable for the
slope represented linear growth in heavy drinking over time, with
loadings set to 0, 1, and 2 for Waves 13, respectively. In addition
to examining fit of the unconditional growth model, we examined
residual variances for heavy drinking at each wave to ensure that
there was sufficient residual variability to allow for meaningful
prediction within our time-varying covariate (TVC) models. We
also examined means for heavy drinking and alcohol problem
slopes to verify expected age-related decreases in these outcomes.
Next we proceeded to test the TVC models. We initially entered
gender as a time-invariant predictor of the intercept and slope, and
the five IDEA scores as the only time-varying predictors of resid-
ual variability in heavy drinking at each wave. This allowed us to
 350 GATES, CORBIN, AND FROMME
examine the extent to which IDEA scores predicted time-specific
deviations from the expected trajectory of heavy drinking based on
the underlying growth model. Next, we tested models with the
addition of time-varying covariates including relationship status,
employment status, sensation seeking, and impulsivity, to deter-
mine unique effects of emerging adult identity, accounting for
other well established correlates of maturing out. Correlations
among the time-specific predictors and between gender and the
time-specific predictors were freely estimated. Within both unad-
justed and covariate adjusted models, we first compared models
that constrained IDEA effects to equality to models that allowed
effects to vary across time. A significant difference in model fit
indicated that the magnitude of effects differed across time. In the
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absence of evidence for time specific effects, we presented only
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averaged effects across time. If model fit differed between con-
strained and unconstrained models, we presented the magnitude of
effects at all time points. The same procedures were followed for
the alcohol-related problems outcome variable.
Results
Evaluation of Variable Distributions
The heavy drinking composite measure and alcohol-related
problems were positively skewed (skewness values ranging from
2.53 to 4.69) and were therefore log transformed. Resulting skew-
ness values suggested that the log-transformations were successful
in normalizing the distributions of these variables (all skewness
values 1.5).
Growth Models for Heavy Drinking
Unconditional model. The unconditional growth model for
heavy drinking displayed excellent model fit, 2(1 df) .66, p
.41; comparative fit index (CFI) 1.00; root mean square error
approximation (RMSEA) 0.00, Standardized Root Mean Square
Residual (SRMR) .01. The mean for the slope was .05 (SE
.008), p .001, indicating significant decreases in heavy drinking
over time, and examination of residual variability in heavy drink-
ing at each wave indicated that there was significant remaining
variability that might be accounted for by the predictor variables in
the TVC models (all p values .001).
Time-varying model without covariates. The growth model
for heavy drinking with only the IDEA scores as time-variant
predictors displayed excellent fit, 2(32 df) 37.12; CFI 1.0;
RMSEA .01, SRMR .03. Gender was not a significant
predictor of either intercept or slope (p values .53). Tests of
constrained (constraining effects of individual IDEA scores to
equivalence across time) versus unconstrained models found no
significant effects (p values .35). Thus, averaged effects across
time were examined. Note that ranges are provided for standard-
ized effects as standardized coefficients vary somewhat even in
constrained models due to differences in the variances of the
predictor and outcome measures across time. Experimentation/
possibilities emerged as a significant risk factor, such that those
with higher levels of experimentation were heavier drinkers than
would be expected based on their underlying trajectories (b
.067, SE .016, p .001). Standardized coefficients ranged from
.08 to .11. Self-focus also emerged as a significant risk factor (b
.053, SE .017, p .002), with standardized coefficients ranging
from .06 to .07. Those with higher levels of self-focus reported
heavier drinking than would be expected based on their underlying
trajectories. Effects of negativity/instability, identity exploration,
and feeling in between were not statistically significant (p val-
ues .34).
Time-varying model with covariates. The model with the
addition of covariates provided good fit to the data, 2(68 df)
114.44; CFI .96; RMSEA .03, SRMR .02. With respect to
the time-varying covariates, relationship status emerged as a pro-
tective factor and significantly predicted residual variability in
heavy drinking at all three waves. Relative to those not in a
relationship, individuals who were in a relationship but not en-
gaged or married reported less drinking at all three time points
(standardized coefficients .06, .07, and .14, respectively)
than would be expected based on their underlying trajectory (all p
values .05). Effect sizes were similar when comparing those
who were married or engaged to those not in a relationship
(standardized coefficients .09, .09, and .12; all p val-
ues .001). Employment status (part time and full time
employment each contrasted against no employment) was not a
significant predictor of heavy drinking at any wave (all p
values .18). Although impulsivity did not predict residual
variability in heavy drinking at any wave (p values .28),
sensation seeking was associated with residual variability in
heavy drinking at all waves (standardized coefficients .13,
.12, and .08; p values .05).
As in the unadjusted models, tests of constrained versus uncon-
strained models identified no time-varying effects of the IDEA
scores (all p values .22). Thus, averaged effects of IDEA scores
are reported here. See Figure 1 for standardized coefficients for all
time-specific effects from the unconstrained model. Accounting
for significant effects of relationship status and sensation seeking,
experimentation remained a significant predictor (b .044, SE
.166, p .007), though the magnitude of the effect was reduced
(standardized coefficients of .06 to .07) relative to the unadjusted
model (.08 to .11). Self-focus also remained a significant risk
factor (b .053, SE .017, p .002), and the standardized
effects (.06 to .07) were not reduced with the addition of the
covariates. Effects of negativity/instability, identity exploration,
and feeling in between remained nonsignificant when accounting
for effects of the covariates (all p values .38).
Growth Models for Alcohol-Related Problems
Unconditional model. The unconditional growth model for
alcohol-related problems displayed good model fit based on most
fit indices, CFI .99, SRMR .02. However, the chi-square test
was significant, 2(df 1) 9.54, .002, and the RMSEA
indicated marginal fit with a value of .10. The mean for the slope
was .053 (SE .007), p .001 indicating significant decreases
in alcohol-related problems over time, and there was significant
variance in alcohol-related problems at each wave that was not
accounted for by the underlying trajectories.
Time-varying model without covariates. The TVC growth
model for alcohol-related problems without covariates displayed
excellent overall model fit, 2(32 df) 44.37, p .07; CFI .98;
RMSEA .02, SRMR .03. The time invariant covariate of
gender was not a significant predictor of the intercept or slope for
 EMERGING ADULT IDENTITY AND ALCOHOL USE 351
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Figure 1. Time-varying covariate model for heavy drinking. Imp Impulsivity; SS Sensation seeking; Emp
Xa Unemployed versus part-time employed; Emp Xb Unemployed versus full-time employed; Rel Xa
Not in a relationship versus committed relationship but not engaged/married; Rel Xb Not in a relationship
versus engaged/married; IE Identity exploration; SF Self-focus; EXP Experimentation/Possibilities;
FIB Feeling in-between; NEG Negativity/Instability.

alcohol-related problems (p values .52). With respect to IDEA
scores, comparison of a model that constrained effects of negativ-
ity to equality across the three time points and one that freely
estimated time-specific effects yielded a significant difference in
model fit, 2(2 df) 7.02, p .03. Thus, effects for negativity/
instability were examined separately at each time point. Negativ-
ity/instability emerged as a significant predictor at Wave 3 (stan-
dardized coefficient .14, p .001) but not at either Wave 1
(standardized coefficient .02, p .52) or Wave 2 (standardized
coefficient .05, p .16).
Tests of constrained versus unconstrained models did not iden-
tify significant differences for any of the other IDEA scores (all p
values .25), indicating a lack of time-specific effects. Thus
averaged effects across time are reported for these variables. See
Figure 2 for standardized coefficients for all time-specific effects
from the unconstrained model. Experimentation was a significant
predictor of alcohol-related problems (b .042, SE .012, p
001), with standardized effects ranging from .07 to .09. Partici-
pants with higher levels of experimentation were at heightened risk
for alcohol-related problems than would be expected based on the
underlying trajectory. Effects of self-focus, identity exploration,
and feeling in between were not statistically significant (all p
values .49).
Time-varying model with covariates. Although the chi-
square test was significant in the model including covariates, 2(68
df) 108.43, p .001, all other indicators suggested good model
fit; CFI .95; RMSEA .03, SRMR .02. Effects of relation-
ship status were generally consistent with the heavy drinking
model, though effect sizes were smaller, and only engagement/
marriage was significantly protective at Waves 2 and 3. Effects of
employment status were inconsistent, with full-time employment
associated with reduced risk for alcohol problems at Wave 2 only
(standardized coefficient .09), and part-time employment as-
sociated with increased risk for alcohol problems at Wave 3 only
(standardized coefficient .09). Although both sensation seeking
and impulsivity were associated with greater risk for alcohol-
related problems at all waves (standardized coefficients ranging
from .02 to .12), effects for sensation seeking were significant only
at Waves 1 and 2, and effects of impulsivity were significant only
at Waves 1 and 3.
As in the model without covariates, comparison of fit between
models that constrained and freely estimated the negativity/insta-
bility paths identified a significant difference in model fit, 2 (2
df) 9.39, p .01. As in the unadjusted model, the effect of
negativity/instability was significant at Wave 3 (standardized co-
efficient .15, p .001) but not at Wave 1 (standardized
coefficient .02, p .48) or Wave 2 (standardized coefficient
.03, p .43). Comparisons of constrained and unconstrained
models for the other IDEA scores were not significant (all p
values .42), indicating a lack of time specific effects. Averaged
across time, the effect of experimentation was reduced to marginal
significance (b .024, SE .013, p .06) with the inclusion of
the covariates, and the standardized coefficients were substantially
reduced (.04 to .05) relative to the unadjusted model (.07 to .09).
Effects of self-focus, identity exploration, and feeling in between
remained nonsignificant when accounting for effects of the cova-
riates (all p values .48).
 352 GATES, CORBIN, AND FROMME
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Figure 2. Time-varying covariate model for alcohol-related problems. Imp Impulsivity; SS Sensation
seeking; Emp Xa Unemployed versus part-time employed; Emp Xb Unemployed versus full-time
employed; Rel Xa Not in a relationship versus committed relationship but not engaged/married; Rel Xb Not
in a relationship versus engaged/married; IE Identity exploration; SF Self-focus; EXP Experimentation/
Possibilities; FIB Feeling in-between; NEG Negativity/Instability.

Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine dimensions of emerging
adult identity in relation to drinking outcomes during the transition
out of college, controlling for the influences of personality and role
transitions. Specifically, we predicted that experimentation, self-
focus, and feeling in-between would predict heavier drinking and
that negativity/instability would predict more alcohol-related prob-
lems, with stronger effects emerging with time. The results of the
TVC growth models provided some support for study hypotheses.
The experimentation/possibilities dimension of emerging iden-
tity was a significant predictor of both heavy drinking and alcohol-
related problems and these effects were consistent across time.
However, when controlling for effects of covariates, standardized
effects were reduced by 25 to 50%, and became nonsignificant
(p .06) for alcohol-related problems. Significant effects of
self-focus on alcohol use were also consistent across time. How-
ever, unlike experimentation, the magnitude of the effects was
unchanged by the inclusion of the covariates. Negativity/instability
was the only facet of emerging adult identity that demonstrated
differential effects across time, emerging as a significant predictor
of alcohol-related problems at only Wave 3. As with self-focus, the
magnitude of this relation was consistent across models with and
without covariates. Whereas at least partial support was found for
other study hypotheses, feeling in-between was not a significant
predictor at any wave, calling into question its relevance as a risk
factor for heavy drinking and related problems.
In many ways, the findings of the current study were consistent
with those of prior studies demonstrating links between experi-
mentation and use of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana (Allem et al.,
2013; Lisha et al., 2014; Little et al., 2013). However, it is
important to note that ours is the first to examine these relations
using longitudinal data and to examine differences in the magni-
tude of effects across an important developmental transition. Fur-
ther, we controlled for other well-established predictors of matur-
ing out including employment, relationship status, sensation
seeking, and impulsivity, and this aspect of the study design shed
new light on findings of prior studies. Effects of experimentation
were reduced by one fourth to one half with the inclusion of the
covariates, and effects on alcohol-related problems were no longer
significant.
Examination of zero-order correlations suggests that the overlap
was largely between experimentation and the personality variables.
Within time-point correlations between experimentation and sen-
sation seeking ranged from .26 to .30 and correlations with im-
pulsivity ranged from .14 to .18. Thus, prior studies demonstrating
effects of experimentation likely overestimated the unique influ-
ence of emerging adult identity given the overlap with other
known personality predictors of risk. This is not to say that
personality risk is important and emerging adult identity is not, as
there may be important interplay among these risk/protective fac-
tors. For example, maturation in personality with brain develop-
ment in emerging adulthood may set the stage for emerging adult
identity development, adoption of adult roles, and subsequent
maturing out of heavy drinking. Prior studies have shown that
other psychosocial risk factors like positive alcohol expectancies
serve to mediate effects of trait personality risk on drinking out-
 EMERGING ADULT IDENTITY AND ALCOHOL USE
comes (Corbin, Iwamoto, & Fromme, 2011). Thus, it is possible
that sensation seeking and impulsivity have indirect effects on
drinking behavior through a delayed or slower process of emerging
adult identity development. This is an interesting question for
future research.
While small, effects of self-focus on heavy drinking were not
impacted by other known predictors of maturing out. This is
interesting as one might have expected a reduction in effects of
self-focus after accounting for relationship status. Although the
results suggest that effects of self-focus are not accounted for by
role transitions, they are consistent with the idea that committed
relationships might indirectly contribute to reductions in alcohol
use/problems through reduced self-focus. Although testing this
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
type of mediated effect was beyond the scope of the current study,
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
the zero-order correlation between marriage and self-focus was
robust (r .24), and effects of self-focus remained when ac-
counting for direct effects of marriage. Thus, prerequisites for
testing an indirect effect were met and deserve attention in future
studies.
The link between negativity/instability and alcohol-related prob-
lems is highly consistent with theoretical models of risk that
highlight the role of drinking to cope with negative emotion as a
risk factor for alcohol-related problems (Corbin, Farmer, & Nolen-
Hoekesma, 2013; Cooper, Russell, Skinner, Frone, & Mudar,
1992). Our results are also consistent with those of Smith et al.
(2014) who found that negativity/instability was significantly cor-
related with substance-related problems. Further, Luyckx, De
Witte, and Goossens (2011) found that negativity/instability sig-
nificantly predicted depressive symptoms, which have been shown
to increase risk for alcohol-related problems (Gonzalez, Reynolds,
& Skewes, 2011). The fact that negativity/instability did not
emerge as a significant predictor until Wave 3 is also interesting.
It may be that stresses associated with the transition out of college
(e.g., new work demands, development of new social networks)
contribute to this association. It will be particularly important to
examine effects of negativity/instability on alcohol problems in
later adulthood and among individuals reporting clinically signif-
icant alcohol problems.
Although time-specific effects were demonstrated for negativi-
ty/instability, we found no additional support for our hypothesis
that effects of emerging adult identity would increase with time.
The attenuation of the effects of experimentation when controlling
for personality risk suggests that this aspect of emerging adult
identity may be closely tied to personality maturation, which is
typically more pronounced in adolescence (at least for sensation
seeking; see Steinberg et al., 2008). Thus, evidence for time-
specific effects of experimentation may be more likely during the
transition into rather than out of emerging adulthood. With respect
to self-focus, effects did not increase with time despite major role
changes (e.g., entry into committed relationships), and significant
relations between these role changes and self-focus. This suggests
that, although there may be normative changes in self-focus with
the adoption of adult social roles, there may also be a more stable,
trait-like aspect of self-focus that confers risk for alcohol use,
regardless of developmental stage. Of course, further studies of
self-focus across additional developmental periods are needed to
directly test this hypothesis.
Whereas the findings have potentially important implications,
they must be considered in light of several limitations. Participants
353
were from a single university, a large percentage of participants
were excluded from analyses because they did not graduate in 4
years, and participants were roughly age 24 at the last wave. Thus,
it is not clear the extent to which findings will generalize to college
students more broadly and to later stages of the transition out of
emerging adulthood. The later emerging effects of negativity in the
current study highlight the need for future studies that extend into
later stages of emerging adulthood. The analyses also relied en-
tirely on self-report data. Although self-reports of high-risk behav-
iors like alcohol use may be biased, several studies have shown
that self-reports of alcohol use are reliable (Babor, Steinberg,
Anton, & Del Boca, 2000; LaForge, Borsari, & Baer, 2005) and do
not generally represent underestimates of actual use.
It is also important to acknowledge that, although the analyses
were longitudinal, relations between the time-varying predictors
and residual variance in drinking and problems were cross-
sectional. Thus, it is quite possible that alcohol use/problems at a
given time point would also predict deviations away from the
underlying trajectory of emerging adult identity development.
Such reciprocal relations would be quite consistent with the liter-
ature on relations between personality variables and drinking out-
comes (Littlefield et al., 2009). Our analytic approach also did not
examine how changes in emerging adult identity relate to changes
in drinking outcomes. If there is considerable variability in rates of
emerging adult identity development across individuals, it will be
important to understand the extent to which these differences are
associated with changes in drinking outcomes. It is also possible to
model relations between growth processes and time-specific resid-
ual effects simultaneously (e.g., Autoregressive Latent Trajectory
models; Bollen & Curran, 2004), or to simultaneously model
separate between- and within-person processes (Latent Curve
Models with Structured Residuals; Curran, Howard, Bainter, Lane,
& McGinley, 2014), which represent important directions for
future research. Unfortunately, with only three data points and a
large number of TVCs, such models were beyond the scope of the
current study.
It is also important to note the small magnitudes of the signif-
icant effects observed in this study, and the fact that we examined
a large number of parameters without control for multiple com-
parisons. Although we tested effects of each of the five IDEA
subscales on both alcohol use and related problems, we had a priori
hypotheses for only a subset of these parameters, many of which
were supported. Findings for more exploratory analyses require
future replication before we can draw firm conclusions. Regarding
the small magnitude of the effects of emerging adult identity
dimensions, measurement limitations may have been a contribut-
ing factor. In the context of a large battery of survey measures, we
were only able to include three items for each IDEA dimension.
Although internal consistency reliability was good for these brief
measures, effects may have been larger if the full IDEA measure
was included. Our measure of employment status was also limited
in that we did not capture the types of jobs in which participants
were working. It seems likely that different types of jobs would be
differentially related to risk for or protection against heavy drink-
ing and related problems. Thus, we may have underestimated
effects of both emerging adult identity and employment status in
the current study.
Finally, given the attenuation of relations between emerging
adult identity facets and drinking outcomes when controlling for
 354 GATES, CORBIN, AND FROMME
effects of personality, it is important to recognize that we were
unable to control for other personality variables of interest. Neu-
roticism and negative urgency have been linked to changes in
drinking behavior during emerging adulthood (Littlefield et al.,
2009, 2010a, 2010b; Settles, Cyders, & Smith, 2010), and it seems
quite possible that accounting for these personality variables might
attenuate relations between negativity/instability and alcohol-
related problems in the same way that controlling for sensation
seeking and impulsivity attenuated relations between experimen-
tation and alcohol use. Including these personality variables rep-
resents an important future direction as our results suggest that
prior studies may have overestimated the unique effects of exper-
imentation on substance use.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Despite the aforementioned limitations, the current study adds to
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
the literature by demonstrating complex relations between emerg-
ing adult identity and drinking outcomes. The longitudinal nature
of the study and control for other known predictors of maturing out
clarify our understanding of the unique effects of emerging adult
identity across a critical developmental transition. Nonetheless,
longer longitudinal studies are needed to determine if effects
persist or perhaps strengthen as individuals move further into
adulthood. It will also be important to examine the extent to which
changes in emerging adult identity relate to changes in drinking
behavior. Finally, it will be important to control for additional
personality variables (e.g., neuroticism and negative urgency) and
to identify potential mechanisms (e.g., drinking motives) through
which emerging adult identity facets contribute to drinking out-
comes. We hope the results of the current study will encourage
others to examine these important questions.
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Received May 20, 2015
Revision received March 7, 2016
Accepted March 7, 2016