Cell Movements during Gastrulation

Comparative Vertebrate Fate Maps at Gastrulation

 Oticooccipital unit Ethmosphenoid unit

Suprabranchials

Epibranchials
Palatoquadra
Hyomandibula Palatine
te
Symplectic
Nasal
Quadrate Ectopterygoid Basipterygoid
opening
Ceratohyal Hypohyal process
(b) Chondrocranium
Articular
Mandible
Ceratohyal
Prearticular
Angular anterior

(a) Splanchnocranium

Hyomandibula

Opercular

Subopercular Dentary

Infradentary
Ceratohyal

Supratemporal
Postorbital

Components of Postparietal

Spiracle
Intertemporal
Parietal
Postfrontal Frontal
the Head Skeleton Extrascapular

Opercular
Nasal
Premaxilla

Dentary
Preopercular
Maxilla
Lacrimal
Jugal
Subopercular
Squamosal
Quadratojugal
Submandibul
ar Surangular
branchiosteg
al
plate
 Head Skeleton of the Shark
Perilymphatic Superficial opthalmicforamina
foramen
Orbit Epiphyseal foramen

Precerebral cavity

Endolymphatic Supraorbital Rostrum

fossa crest
Postorbital process Nasal capsule
Antorbital process

(a) Otic capsule Basiorbital

process

Rostral carina

Anterior orbital Nares

(b) Notochord
Optic pedicel
Basal plate
shelf
Occipital condyle
Nasal capsule

Rostral fenestra
Exit of vagus (X) nerve

Exit of glossopharyngeal
(IX) Nerve

(c) Foramen magnum

Chondrocranium of the shark. (a) Chondrocranium, dorsal view. (b) Chondrocranium, ventral
view. (c) Chondrocranium, posterior view
 Endochondral Contributions of the Chondrocranium
Endochondral Fishes Amphibians Reptiles/Birds Mammals
Structure (Teleost)
Occipital bones Supraoccipital Supraoccipita Supraoccipital Supraoccipital
Exoccipital l Exoccipital Exoccipital Occipital bone
Basioccipital Exoccipital Basioccipital Basioccipital
Basioccipital
Mesethmoid Mesethmoida Absent Absent Mesethmoid
bone (internasal) (absent in primitive
Mammals & ungulates)
ethmoid
Ethmoid region ossified unossified unossified
Turbinals
(ethmo-, naso, maxillo)
Sphenoid
bones Sphenethmoid Sphenethmoi Sphenethmoid Presphenoid
Sphenethmoid d Orbitosphenoid Orbitosphenoid sphenoidc
Orbitosphenoid Orbitosphenoi Orbitosphenoi Basisphenoid Basisphenoid
Basisphenoid d d absent
Basisphenoid Pleurosphenoid
Pleurosphenoid Basisphenoidb ? (crocodilians,
amphisbaenian
Pleurosphenoi s)
d
Laterosphenoid Laterosphenoid Absent
(snakes)

Otic capsule Prootic Prootic Prootic Petrosal with mastoid process

Periotic Epiotic Opisthotic Opisthotic
a: bone of dermal origin; b: usually absent or reduced
Sphenotic in fish; c: alisphenoid from splanchnocranium
Epiotic
 Branchial Arches

Branchial arches
Epibranchial (dorsal)
Ceratobranchial (ventral)
Hypobranchial (connects ceratobranchial to
basibranchial)
Basibranchial (at the pharyngeal floor)
Pharyngobranchial (roof of the pharynx

Skeletal components of various branchial arches

Derivatives of Branchial Arches in Sharks, Teleosts & Tetrapods
Arch Shark Teleost Frog Reptile Mammal
1 Palatoquadrate Quadrate Quadrate Quadrate Incus
Epipterygoid Epipterygoid Alisphenoid
Metapterygoid
Annulus tympanicus (?)
Meckels cartilage Articular Articular Articular Malleus
Mentomeckelian

II Hyomandibula Hyomandibula Columella Columella Stapes

Symplectic Extracolumella Extracolumella
Interhyal

Ceratohyal Epihyal Styloid process

Ceratohyal Anterior hyoid horn Anterior hyoid horn Anterior hyoid
Hypohyal horn

Basihyal Basihyal Hyoid body Entoglossus Hyoid body

III Pharyngobranchial Pharyngobranchial 2nd hyoid horn 2nd hyoid horn
Epibranchial Epibranchial
Ceratobranchial Ceratobranchial Hyoid body
Hypobranchial Hypobranchial Hyoid body Hyoid body
IV Branchial skeleton 2nd hyoid horn Last reptilian horn Thyroid cartilage
V Branchial skeleton
Branchial skeleton Cricoids & arytenoids (?) (precise homologies unknown)
VI Branchial skeleton
VII Branchial skeleton Not present
Phylogeny of the Splanchnocranium

Phylogeny of the Splanchnocranium. Note

how the branchial arches are remodelled to
serve various functions within each
succeeding group. Parts of the branchial
basekt become the jaws, tracheal cartilages,
tongue supports, components of the
neurocranium and ear ossicles. Roman
numerals indicate the branchial arch numbers.
 Major Bones of the Dermatocranium
F: frontal
It: intertemporal
J: jugal
L: lacrimal
M: maxilla
N: nasal Pm Ec: ectopterygoid
P: parietal Pl: palatine
Pf: postfrontal N V Ps: parasphenoid
Po: postorbital M F Pt: pterygoid
Pp: postparietal
Prf Pl V: vomer
Prf: prefrontal
Qj: quadratojugal
Sq: squamosal Pt
St: supratemporal Ec
T: tabular
Qj P
It
Ps
Sq St
T Pp

An: angular
D: dentary
Sa: surangular Sa
Sp: splenial D Coronoids
An Pa
Sp Sp
Pa: prearticular
 Contributions of the 3
Components to the Head
Skeleton
Chondocranium (blue) a supportive
platform
Splanchnocranium (yellow)- contributes to
the supportive platform, particularly the
epipterygoid; but also gives rise to the
articular, quadrate, hyomandibula and
hyoid apparatus
Dermatocranium (pink)- encases most of the
chondrocranium together with
contributions from the splanchnocranium
Vertebrae and Ribs
 Axial Column of a Cat

Axial column of a cat. (a)

Complete skeleton, lateral
view; (b) Atlas (bottom) &
axis (top). All vertebrae (b-
d, f-h) are in oblique view,
with the cranial end to the
right. (c) More caudal
(a) cervical vertebra; (d)
Thoracic vertebra; (e) Rib;
(f) Lumbar vertebra; (g)
Sacral vertebra; (h) Caudal
vertebra.

(b)
(c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

 Pelvic Girdle, Pectoral Girdle and Limbs of a Pigeon

Right pelvic girdle, right pectoral

girdle and limbs of a pigeon. (a)
Skeleton showing the general
position of each girdle. The left
element of paired structures is not
shown for clarity. (b) Hindlimb,
lateral view. (c) Partial pectoral
girdle and forelimb, lateral view.
Physiology of Muscle Contraction

Adenosine triphosphate

Creatine phosphate
Embryonic Origin of Post-Cranial Muscles (Tetrapod)

1. Segmented epimere forms somite.

2. Somite forms dermatome, myotome
and sclerotome

1. Dermatome move under the skin.

2. Dermatome differentiate into dermal
muscles.
3. Ventral tip of myotome grow
downward and meet mesenchymal
cells from hypomere.
4. Sclerotome differentiates into
vertebrae

1. Interacting cells from myotome and

mesenchymal cells from hypomere
promote limb muscle development.
2. Longitudinal division of myotome
produces epaxial and hypaxial
muscles.
 Summary: Muscle
Ontogeny
Muscles of Appendages & Body Wall Head Muscles

Myotomes
Paraxial Mesoderm
Ventral extensions Lateral Plate Mesoderm
Peripheral to
Lateral plate mesoderm
Somatic layer Splanchnic layer

Somatic (Flank) muscles 7

Visceral muscles Somitomeres
(e.g. digestive tract)
Axial Appendicular

Epaxial Hypaxial Dorsal Ventral

Extrinsic ocular muscles 1st, 2nd, 3rd & 5th Somitomere

Mandibular muscles 4th Somitomere

Hyoid muscles 6th Somitomere

1st branchial arch muscle 7th Somitomere

Branchiomeric muscles 4 Postotic Somites

Epibranchial & Hypobranchial muscles
Summary: Types of Fish Muscles & Extrinsic Ocular
Muscles
Eyeball movement Extrinsic ocular muscles
Function Feeding and breathing Branchiomeric muscles
Hypobranchial muscles
Locomotion Epibranchial and Epaxial muscles
Hypaxial muscles

Anteromedial origin dorsal oblique (IV: trochlear)

Insert on dorsal & ventral
surfaces of eyeball
Extrinsic ocular muscles
Posteromedial origin
Insert on dorsal, ventral,
medial & lateral surfaces
ventral oblique (III: oculomotor)
dorsal rectus (III)
ventral rectus (III)
medial rectus (III)
lateral rectus (VI: abducens)

Extrinsic ocular muscles 6 muscles retained by tetrapods

lateral rectus retractor bulbi (pulls eyeball into orbit)

superior rectus (birds) levator palpebrae superioris (upper eyelid: birds & mammals)
inferior rectus (birds) levator palpebrae inferioris (lower eyelid: birds & some mammals)
 Summary: Fish Branchiomeric Muscles

Along the branchial interbranchial muscle

arches (IX: 1st arch; dorsal & ventral superficial constrictors
X: 2nd 5th arch) levator muscles (cucullaris in shark)
adductor & interarcual muscles

Mandibular muscles adductor mandibulae (closes jaw)

Branchiomeric
of 1st visceral arch levator palatoquadrati (lifts palatoquadrate)
muscles
(V: trigeminal) spiracularis (opens & closes spiracle)
preorbitalis (jaw protractor during feeding)
intermandibularis (compress throat)

Hyoid muscles of levator hyomandibulae

2nd visceral arch dorsal ventral hyoid constrictors
(VII: facial) interhyoideus
Branchiomeric Musculature and its Innervation in Fishes

Branchiomeric muscles of 3 different kinds of Fishes

 Summary: Branchiomeric
Branchiomeric Muscles Muscles
Fish Tetrapod
Mandibular muscles intermandibularis mylohyoid (mammals)
digastric (anterior par; mammals)

mandibular levator retained in amphibians & reptiles

(with kinetic skulls)
tensor veli palati (remnant in mammals)

mandibular adductor temporalis, pterygoids & masseter

(attached to dentary)
tensor tympani (malleus of middle ear)
(mammals)

Hyoid muscles interhyoideus interhyoideus & sphincter colli

& sphincter colli (ventral sheets in amphibians)

branchiohyoideus branchiohyoideus & depressor mandibulae

& depressor mandibulae (dorsal sheets in amphibians)

geniohyoid & other retained in mammals

hypobranchial muscles

depressor mandibulae lost in mammals; replaced by digastric

stylohyoid, stapedius, platysma (mammals)

Other branchiomeric deep muscles in walls of pharynx

muscles intrinsic muscles of the larynx

cucullaris (fish) cucullaris (amphibians)

trapezius & sternocleidomastoid complex

Summary: Epibranchial & Hypobranchial Muscles

Muscles

Dorsal to the gill region Ventral to the gill region

Epibranchial Hypobranchial

Forward continuation Innervation - Forward Innervation -

of epaxial muscles dorsal rami of continuation of ventral rami of
spino-occipital hypaxial muscles spino-occipital

Prehyoid muscles Posthyoid muscles

between jaws & hyoid apparatus between hyoid arch & pectoral girdle

coracomandibulars (sharks) rectus cervicis complex

coracoarcuals
coracohyoids
coracobranchials
 Summary: Hypobranchial
Muscles

Hypobranchial Muscle Shark Tetrapod

Prehyoid coracomandibular geniohyoid (extends from jaw to hyoid)

genioglossus (retracts tongue)

hyoglossus, styloglossus & lingualis

(other prehyoids in mammals)

Posthyoid rectus cervicis rectus cervicis

slips of rectus cervicis (some species)

omoarcual
pectoriscapularis (attach to girdle)

sternohyoid, sternothyroid, thyrohyoid

& omohyoid (in some species)
(other posthyoids in mammals)
 Trunk and Tail Muscles

Myotomes Trunk and Tail Muscles Myomere (folded muscle segments)

Myosepta (connective tissue)

Small buds associated with

median fins
 Summary: Epaxial and Hypaxial Muscles

Epaxial Muscle Shark: epaxial

Amphibian: dorsal trunci (salamander)

Reptile: transversospinalis
longissimus dorsi
iliocostalis

Mammal: multifidi & spinalis dorsi

longissimus dorsi erector spinae
iliocostalis (partially (some species)
united)

Hypaxial Muscle subvertebral group (ventral to vertebral column; assists epaxial)

(shark)
rectus abdominis (on either side of midventral line; supports abdomen)
thoracic abdominal
Tetrapods lateral group external intercostal external oblique
internal intercostal internal oblique
transversus
serratus dorsalis supracostalis
scalenius (partial 4th layer
(lung ventilation) in some reptiles)

diaphragm (M)

levator scapulae (A)

thoraciscapularis (A) serratus ventralis (M)
rhomboideus (M)
 Summary: Appendicular Muscles

Type Location Function

Appendicular Muscles adductor Posterodorsal part of girdle Pulls fin dorsally

& dorsal surface of fin & caudally

abductor Anteroventral part of girdle Pulls fin ventrally

& ventral surface of fin & cranially
 Summary: Muscles of the Forelimb (Ventral)

Tetrapods
Amphibians and Reptiles / Birds Mammals

Ventral pectoralis (limb retractor; raises body; flight muscle) supraspinatus

(shark) infraspinatus

paniculus carnosus

supracoracoideus (flight muscle of birds)

coracobrachialis greatly reduced or lost

(underside of humerus) (except bats; wing adductor)

biceps brachii & brachialis biceps brachii & brachialis

(antebrachium flexor) (flex radius & ulna)

antebrachial flexors antebrachial flexors

intrinsic flexors of hand intrinsic flexors of hand
(control delicate finger movements)
 Summary: Muscles of the Forelimb (Dorsal)

Tetrapods
Amphibians and Reptiles / Birds Mammals

Dorsal deltoid (limb protractor & abductor) deltoid

(shark)
latissimus dorsi (limb retractor) latissimus dorsi
teres major

subcoracoscapularis (inner surface of girdle) = subscapularis

scaphohumeralis anterior = teres minor
(back margin of scapula)

triceps of brachium triceps (extend forearm)

antebrachial extensors antebrachial extensors

intrinsic extensors of hand intrinsic extensors of hand

cutaneous trunci
 Summary: Hindlimb Muscle Evolution (Ventral)

Tetrapods
Lower Tetrapods (Reptile) Mammals
Ventral pelvis to femur (deep muscles)
(shark) puboischiofemoralis externus obturator externus
(adduct (fr. outer surface of pubis ischium; inserts quadratus femoris
femur; underside of femur near its head)
flex knee)
ischiotrochantericus obturator internus + gemelli
(fr. inner side of ischium; runs to femur head)

adductor femoris femoral adductors

(fr. puboischium; runs underside of femur)

covers undersurface of the thigh (flex tibia)

puboischiotibialis (deep slip) gracilis

flexor tibialis externus, flexor tibialis internus semimembranosus, semitendinosus,

biceps

pubotibialis adductor longus

ventral limb muscles (fr. underside of caudal vertebrae)

caudifemorales caudifemoralis
(pulls back the femur)
Summary: Hindlimb Muscle Evolution (Dorsal)

Tetrapods
Lower Tetrapods (Reptile) Mammals
Dorsal puboischiofemoralis internus psoas (fr. lumbar region)
(shark) (fr. lumbar & girdle inner surface; iliacus (fr. ilium)
inserts on femur near its head) pectineus (fr. pubis)

quadriceps femoris
iliotibialis rectus femoris (fr. Ilium)
femorotibialis vasti (fr. Femur)
ambiens sartorius

iliofemoralis gluteal muscles + pyriformis

(fr. iliac blade; inserts on femurs upper surface) (fr. ilium to femur; attach to outer
back of femur; pulls knee back)

iliofibularis tenuissimus (deep; often lost)

(fr. ilium to fibula)