Physics Book Form Four International Syllabus

Mechanics
Mechanics is one the most important subject in physics. You will learn many concepts and key
points under mechanics title those will also be used in other subjects of physics.
Mechanics can be defined as the behavior of the bodies under any effects. It can be studied under
main two topics which are kinematics concerning the motion of the bodies and dynamics concerning
the causes of motion.
Mechanics
kinematics dynamics
KINEMATICS
Kinematics is the study of classical mechanics which describes the motion of points, bodies (objects)
and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without consideration of the causes of motion.
Introduction of the motion
In physics, when a body is continuously changing its position with respect to the surroundings, then
we say that the body is in motion
EXAMPLE: When an athlete is running on the ground then he is continuously changing his position
with respect to the audience who are sitting at rest.
Types of motion
Linear motion : when a body moves either in a straight line or along a curved path, then we say that
it is executing linear motion.
1. When a body moves in a straight line then the linear motion is called rectilinear
motion.
1 Eng: farah khadaad

e.g., an athlete running a 100 meter race along a straight track is said to be a linear
motion or rectilinear motion.
2. When a body moves along a curved path then the linear motion is called curvilinear
motion.
e.g., a planet revolving around its parent star
Other types of motion are:
Rotatory motion: A body is said to be in rotatory motion when it stays at one place and turns round
and round about an axis.
Example: a rotating fan, a spinning top, the earth.
Oscillatory motion: a body is said to be in oscillatory motion when it swings to and fro about a mean
position, example: the pendulum of a clock, the swing etc.
Describing kinematic with words
The motion of objects can be described by words.
Even a person without a background in physics has a collection of words, which can be used to
describe moving objects. For example, going faster, stopped, slowing down, speeding up, and
turning provide a sufficient vocabulary for describing the motion of objects.
In physics, we use these words as the language of motion
1. Distance and Displacement
2. Speed and Velocity
3. Acceleration
These words which are used to describe the motion of objects can be divided into two categories.
The quantity is either a vector or scalar.
Scalars are quantities which are described by a magnitude only.
Vectors are quantities which are described by both a magnitude and a direction.
Distance Displacement
Distance refers to the total length of travel Displacement refers to the distance moved in a
irrespective of the direction of the motion. particular direction.
It is a scalar quantity. It is the object's overall change in position.
SI unit: meter (m) It is a vector quantity.
Other common units: kilometer (km), centimeter SI unit: meter (m)
(cm) Other common units: kilometer (km), centimeter
(cm)
Example 1

A student walks 4 m East, 2 m South, 4 m West, and finally 2 m North.
Total distance = 12 m
During the course of his motion, the total length of travel is 12 m.
Total displacement = 0 m
When he is finished walking, there is no change in his position.
The 4 m east is canceled by the 4 m west; and the 2 m south is canceled by the 2 m north.
Speed
Speed can be defined as how fast something moves or it can be explained more scientifically as
the distance covered in a unit of time. In daily life we use the first definition and say the faster
object has higher speed. Speed does not show us the direction of the motion it just gives the
magnitude of what distance taken in a given time. In other words it is a scalar quantity.
metric unit of speed: m/s
English unit of speed: ft/s
We use a symbol v to show speed. Let me formulate what we talk above;
Average speed
The instantaneous speed of an object is not to be confused with the average speed. Average speed is
a measure of the distance traveled in a given period of time; it is sometimes referred to as the
distance per time ratio. Suppose that during your trip to school, you traveled a distance of 5 miles
and the trip lasted 0.2 hours (12 minutes). The average speed of your car could be determined as
On the average, your car was moving with a speed of 25 miles per hour. During your trip, there may
have been times that you were stopped and other times that your speedometer was reading 50
miles per hour. Yet, on average, you were moving with a speed of 25 miles per hour.
Instantaneous speed:
Instantaneous speed: is the speed at any instant
Use speedometer to find instantaneous speed

Can be found by finding the gradient of the tangent to the displacement-time graph, at that
point in time
Constant speed
Sometimes when we are describing motion we use the terms "steady speed" or "constant speed".
An object is travelling at a steady or constant speed, For example, if a car is travelling at a constant
speed the reading on the car's speedometer does not change. The speedometer reads the speed of
the car at each moment in time throughout the car's journey.
Examples of speed
Example1
What is the speed of a car traveling 144 km in 90 minutes per hour?
Solution
How many hours are in 90 minutes? There are 60 minutes in 1 hour; therefore 90 minutes equals
1.5 hours
= /
144
= 1.5
= 96 km/h
Example2
What is the speed of a sailboat that is traveling 100 meters in 120 seconds?
Solution

=

100
= 120
= 0.83m/s (2dp)
Example3
I ran 1000 m in 3 minutes then ran another 1000 m uphill in 7 minutes. What is my average speed?

Solution
Total Dist. = 1000 m + 1000 m = 2000 m
Total Time = 3 min + 7 min = 10 min
Ave speed = total dist/total time =
2000m/10 min = 200 m/600s = 0.33m/s
Example4
An object moves, along a line, from point A to B to C and then back to B again as shown in the figure
below in half an hour
a) Find the average speed of the moving object in km/h.
Solution
a) The total distance d covered by the object is
s = AB + BC + CB = 5 km + 4 km + 4 km = 13 km
distance 13km
average speed = time
= 0.5h
= 26km/h
Velocity
Velocity is the speed of an object, but the direction is also included. It is calculated the same as
speed, but you must include a direction in your answer.
Example: the bass boat was moving 12 km/h toward the north.
Average Velocity
The average speed of an object is defined as the distance traveled divided by the time elapsed.
Velocity is a vector quantity, and average velocity can be defined as the displacement divided by the
time.
Example1
If a cyclist in the Tour de France traveled southwest a distance of 12,250 meters in one hour, what
would the velocity of the cyclist be?
Solution
Given
S= 12,250m, T= 1h, V= ?

Convert one hour in second , 1h= 3600s

=
,
=
= 3.4m/s southwest
Example2
Calculate the velocity of a mountain climber if that climber is moving northeast at a pace of 1.6 km in
1.4 hours? Give your answer in the SI unit for velocity.
Solution

=
.
= .
= 50.4m/s
Example3
A motorist drives north for 35 minutes at 85 km/h and then stops for 15 minutes. He then continues
north, traveling 130 km in 2 hours.
(a) What is his total displacement?
(b) What is his average velocity?
Solution
7
a. d1 = v1t1 = 85km/h 12 = 49.6 km
In the next 2 hours he travels 130 km. The total distance traveled is 179.6 km. His
displacement is 179.6 km (north)

b. =
Total time 15min+35min+120min=2.83h

.
= .
= 63.4km/h
Example4
The magnitude of the displacement D is equal to the hypotenuse AB as shown below
a) Find the magnitude of D?

b) Average velocity?
Solution
Use Pythagorass theorem to find AB as follows
AB2 = 32 + 32 = 18
D = AB = 32 km

average velocity = = = =
+ .
average velocity = 2.52 km/h = 3.5 km/h

example5
An fast object moves from point A to B to C to D and then back to A along the rectangle shown in the
figure below in 5 seconds.
a) Find the average speed of the moving object in m/s.
b) Find the velocity of the object in m/s.
Solution:
a. The total distance d is equal to the perimeter of the rectangle. Using the given scale,
s = 2 AB + 2 BC = 10 + 6 = 16 km
distance 16km 1600m
Average speed= = = = 3200m/s
time 5s 5s
b. Since the moving objects starts at point A and finish at A, there is no change in the position
of the object and therefore the displacement is equal to zero.
0
Average velocity = 5s = 0
Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. Acceleration is inherently a vector quantity,
Acceleration = speeding up
Acceleration :the rate at which velocity changes
Acceleration can be an:
Increase in speed , Example: Car speeds up at green light
Decrease in speed, Car slows down at stop light
Change in direction, Car takes turn (can be at constant speed)

The acceleration is given by
vu
=
t
The units for acceleration can be implied from the definition to be meters/second divided by
seconds, usually written (m/s2)
Uniform acceleration
A body is said to move with uniform acceleration if its rate of change of velocity with time
is constant.
Notes
If velocity is constant throughout, there is no acceleration (a= 0)

If the velocity is increasing, the object is said to be accelerating.
if the velocity of a body decreases then the final velocity is less than the initial velocity in
such cases the body is said to be decelerating(retardation) because the acceleration is
negative
if a body starts from rest its initial velocity is zero (vi=0)
if the body that was initial travelling comes to a stop, the final velocity is zero (v f= 0)
Example1
A skydiver accelerates from 20 m/s to 40 m/s in 2 seconds. What is the skydivers average
acceleration?
Solution

Example2
The car is accelerated as the following
Example3
A car is moving from rest and attained a velocity of 80 m/s. Calculate the acceleration of the car
after 5 s?
Solution

=

//
= = /

Example4
An automobile is traveling at a speed of 20m/s along a straight level highway, the driver sow an
object lying on the road set the brakes, causes the deceleration of 5m/s2 how long did the
automobile travel before coming to rest?
Solution

=

/
=
/
Describing kinematics with Graphs
1. Plot and interpret a distance-time graph and a speed-time graph.
2. Deduce from the shape of a distance-time graph when a body is:

(a) At rest
(b) Moving with uniform speed
(c) Moving with non-uniform speed
3. Deduce from the shape of a speed-time graph when a body is:
(a) At rest
(b) Moving with uniform speed
(c) Moving with uniform acceleration
(d) Moving with non-uniform acceleration
4. Calculate the area under a speed-time graph to determine the distance travelled for motion with
uniform speed or uniform acceleration.
Key Concepts
Distance-time Graph
Gradient of the Distance-time Graph is the speed of the moving object
Speed-time Graph
Gradient of the Speed-time Graph is the acceleration of the moving object.
Area under the Speed-time Graph is the distance travelled
Distance-time graph
A car has travelled past a lamp post on the road and the distance of the car from the lamp post is
measured every second. The distance and the time readings are recorded and a graph is plotted
using the data. The following pages are the results for four possible journeys. The steeper the line,
the greater the speed
(a) Car at rest

Car is parked 25m from the post, so the distance remains the same
(b) Car moving with a uniform speed 10m/s
Distance increases 10m for every 1s

(c) Car moving with non-uniform speed
I. Car accelerating
Speed increases, so the car travels a long distance as time increases.
II. Car decelerating
Speed decreases, so the car travels a shorter distance as time increases
The gradient of the distance-time graph gives the speed of the moving object.
Speed-time graph
The shapes of the speed-time graphs may look similar to the distance-time graphs, but the
information they provide is different.

(a) Car at rest (=0m/s)
This is so because the speed of the object is zero, as the red line shows in the graph above. As a
result, there is no movement and the body is at rest.
(b) Car moving with uniform speed(=10m/s)
The speed of the object is constant. This is so because there is no increase in the vertical
axis, meaning there is no increase in the speed of the object. This also means that there is no
acceleration, as there is no increase in the speed of the object.
(c) Car moving with uniform deceleration

The speed of car decreases by 4m/s for every 1s increase in time
(d) Car moving with uniform deceleration (4m/s2)
The speed of car decreases by 4m/s for every 1s increase in time

(e) Car moving with non-uniform acceleration
i. Acceleration increases
Acceleration increases so speed increase more when time increases
ii. Acceleration decrease
Acceleration decrease, so speed increase less when time increases
The gradient of the speed-time graph gives the acceleration of the moving object If the
object is travelling in only one direction, the distance-time graph is also known as
displacement-time graph and the speed-time graph is also its velocity-time graph.
Example1
Using the given graph find the velocity of the object in intervals (1s 3s) and (3s 5s).
Solution
Example2

Example2

Area under a speed-time graph
The figure below shows the speed-time graph of a car travelling with a uniform speed of 20 m/s The
distance travelled by the car is given by:
Distance = speed x time = 20 x 5 = 100 m
The same information of distance travelled can also be obtained by calculating the area under the
speed-time graph.
The area under a speed-time graph gives the distance travelled.
Example3

Example4
The figure below show a velocity time graph for a scooterist having a total mass of 150 kg From the
graph calculate - a) The acceleration in first 4 seconds b) The distance covered in the first 4 seconds.
c) The force acting in the first 4 seconds
Solutions
a) The acceleration in the first four seconds is given by the slope of the graph AB
20/0
AB = BF/AF = =5 m/s2
4
b) The distance covered in the first four seconds = area of ABF
1 1 1
= 2bh = 2AF x BF=2x 4 x 20 = 40m
Example5
A cyclist started from rest achieved a speed of 10 m s-1 in 5 s. He then cycled at this speed constantly
for the next 15 s. Finally he decelerate to complete his 30 s journey.
a) Sketch a velocity-time graph for the whole journey?
b) Calculate his deceleration in the last 10 seconds of the journey.
c) Calculate the distance that he travelled during the journey.
Solutions

A)
B)
Equations of kinematic
The variable quantities in a uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion are time, speed, distance
covered and acceleration. Simple relations exist between these quantities. These relations are
expressed in terms of equations called equations of motion.
There are three equations of motion.
1. v = u+at
+
2. = ( 2 )

3. S = ut + at2
4. v2 = u2 + 2as
Where,
v = Final Velocity
u = Initial velocity
a = acceleration
s = distance traveled by a body
t = time taken.
Derivation of Equation of Motion
First Equation of Motion
Consider a particle moving along a straight line with uniform acceleration 'a'. At t=0, let the particle
be at A and u be its initial velocity and when t=t, V be its final velocity.

=
=
at = v u
v = u+ at ......................................................................... First equation of motion
Second Equation of Motion:
s
Average Velocity =
=
s
Average Velocity = .(1)
+
Average Velocity can be written as 2
+
Average Velocity = .................(2)
2
From equations (1) and (2)
s/t = (u+v)/2 ...................................(3)
+
=

+
=( ) . ()

The first equation of motion is = + .
Substituting the value of v in equation (2) we get

s + +
=
2
+ +
=( ) = = +

= + .third equation(3)
The first equation of motion is = + .
= . (1)
s
Average velocity =.. (2)
+
Average velocity = 2
... (3)
From equation (2) and equation (3) we get,
+
2
=
... ..(4)
Multiplying eq (1) and eq (4) we get,

2s
(v - u)(v + u) = at x t
(v - u)(v + u) = 2as
[We make use of the identity a2 - b2 = (a + b) (a - b)]

v2 - u2 = 2as.......................... Fourth equation of motion
Derivation of Equation of Motion (Graphically)

First Equation of Motion
Consider an object moving with a uniform velocity u in a straight line. Let it be, given a uniform
acceleration at time, t = 0 when its initial velocity is u. As a result of the acceleration, its velocity
increases to v (final velocity) in time t and s is the distance covered by the object in time t. The figure
shows the velocity-time graph of the motion of the object.
Slope of the v - t graph gives the acceleration of the moving object.

Thus, acceleration = slope = AB = = 0
=a =
v - u = at
v = u + at...................................................................................... (1)
second equation
u+v
s=( 2
)t ..second equation

Third Equation of Motion
Let u be the initial velocity of an object and 'a' the acceleration produced in the body. The distance
traveled s in time t is given by the area enclosed by the velocity-time graph for the time interval 0 to
t.
Distance traveled s = area of the trapezium ABDO
= area of rectangle ACDO + area of ABC
1
= OD x OA + 2BC x AC
1
= t x u + (v - u) x t
2
1
= ut + 2 (v - u) x t
(v = u + at I eqn of motion; v - u = at)
1
S = ut + 2at x t
1
S = ut + 2at2third eq (3)
Fourth Equation of Motion

Let 'u' be the initial velocity of an object and a be the acceleration produced in the body. The
distance travelleds in timet is given by the area enclosed by the v - t graph.
S = area of the trapezium OABD.

= (b1 + b2)h

= (OA + BD) AC

= (u + v)t ....(1)
But we know that a = vut

Or t = vua
Substituting the value of t in eq. (1) we get,

s = (u+v)(vu)a = (v+u)(vu)a
2as = (v + u)(v - u)
(v + u)(v - u) = 2as [using the identity a2 - b2 = (a + b) (a - b)]
v2 - u2 = 2as....................... Fourth Equation of Motion
How do we select the right equation?

The flow chart below can be used to help you to select the correct equation of motion to use:
Example1
A toy car accelerates from 3m/s to 5m/s in 5 s. What is its acceleration?
Solution
Example2
The speed of an automobile is moving at 10m/s increases at rate of 3m/s each second, find the
distance traveled in 8seconds?
Solution

= +

S = (10m/s)(8s)+ (/ ) (8s2)

S = 80m/s+96m
S= 176m
Example3
a train moves forwards with an initial velocity of 4m/s and acceleration of 8m/s2, what is the
magnitude of the objects final velocity after moving a distance of 8m?
Solution
Given
= 4/
= 8/ 2
= 8
v 2 = u2 + 2as
v 2 = (4m/s)2 + 2(8/)2 (8m)
v 2 = 144m2 /s2 = 12m/s2
Example4
A train is moving on a straight line with a velocity of 40km/h is brought to rest applying brakes after
traveling distance of 100m calculate its retardation?
Solution
Stopping Distance
Stopping distances
To be a safe driver you need to understand the factors that affect a car's stopping
distance:

Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance
Thinking distance
It takes time for a driver to react to a situation and start to apply the brakes. The car carries on moving
during this reaction time. The thinking distance is the distance travelled in this reaction time. The
thinking distance increases if the reaction time increases. This can happen if the driver is:
Tired
Distracted
Under the influence of alcohol or other drugs
medication,
The thinking distance also increases as the car's speed increases (as the car will travel further during
the reaction time).
Braking distance
The braking distance is the distance taken to stop once the brakes are applied. The braking distance
increases if:
The car's brakes or tyres are in poor condition

The road and
weather conditions are poor (icy or wet roads, for example)
The braking distance also increases as the cars speed increases.
Stopping distances

When the brakes are applied, work is done by the friction force between the brakes and the wheels.
This:
Reduces the kinetic energy of the vehicle (because its speed decreases)
Increases the temperature of the brakes
exercise
1. A car accelerates uniformly from a speed of 20ms-1 to a speed of 25ms-1 in 2s. Calculate
a. the average speed for this period of 2s
b. the distance travelled during this period
c. the acceleration
2. Describe the motion of the lorry over the following sections of graph along...
a. PQ
b. QR
c. RS
3. a. How far has the object travelled during the first 5 seconds?
b. What is the acceleration of the object
c. For how long does the object move at uniform velocity?
d. What is the average speed of the object during the first 15 seconds?
4. The figure below shows the velocity of a bus moving along a straight road over a period of
time
a. What does the portion of the graph between O and A indicate?

b. What can you say about the motion of the bus between B and C?
c. What is the deceleration of the bus between C and D?

d. What is the total distance travelled by the bus in 100 s?
e. What is the average velocity of the bus?
5. Two cyclists, A and B, start a race. A accelerates for the first 5 s, until his velocity reaches
12ms-1, after which he travels with constant velocity. B accelerates for the first 10 s, until his
velocity reaches 15ms-1, after which he travels with constant velocity
a. Sketch the velocity-time graphs for the two cyclists
b. Calculate the distance travelled by both cyclists in the first 10 s
c. Who is in the lead after 10 s?
6. A car travels along a straight road. The speedometer reading after every 5 s is tabulated
below
Time/s 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Velocity
0 10 20 30 30 30 30 15 0
m/s
a. Draw a velocity-time graph to show the variation of velocity with time

b. Describe the motion of the car
c. How far from the starting point is the car after 20 s
d. What is the total distance travelled by the car
e. What is the average velocity of the car for the whole journey
7. Find the average velocity of a car which travels 360km in 6 hours in
a. km/h
b. m/s
8. Find the average velocity of an athlete who runs 1500m in 4 minutes in
a. m/s
b. km/h
9. The graph below shows the speed-time graph for a child on a swing
a) Write down
i. the maximum speed
ii. The time at which the maximum speed occurs

b) i. On the graph, mark with 'Z' the point where the magnitude of acceleration of the child
is maximum
ii. Mark with 'M' one point at which the acceleration is zero
c) Estimate the distance travelled by the child in 1.2s
d) Describe briefly the changes in acceleration during the period shown on the graph
10. When we say that an object is being accelerated, we mean that
a. it is at rest,
b. it is moving,
c. it is either at a state of rest or a state of constant velocity,
motion part two

Dynamics
This is derived from the Greek word 'dynamis', meaning power. Dynamics involves the study of the
cause of motion, which is force. When we relate motion of an object to the forces associated with it
and to the properties of the moving objects, we are dealing with dynamics.
Effects of Force
A force is push or pull exerted on an object.
Force is a vector quantity that has magnitude and direction.
The unit of force is Newton ( or kgms-2). (1N=1kgm/s2)
Unbalanced Force/ Resultant Force
When the forces acting on an object are not balanced, there must be a net force acting on it. The net
force is known as the unbalanced force or the resultant force.
When a force acts on an object, the effect can change the
size,
shape,
stationary state,
speed and
Direction of the object.
Formula of Force
from Newton's Second Law, we can derived the equation

(IMPORTANT: F Must be the net force)
Newton I
Newtons First Law states:
Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is
compelled to change that state by an external force acting on it.
A car will maintain a constant speed if the drive force and the drag are balanced. The total force is
zero.
Newton's First Law Example

1) Why do the dry leaves and fruits fall when we shake the tree?
When we shake the tree, the fruits and dry leaves remain at their position due to first law of motion,
the inertia resist the motion, so, as the branches shake, they get detached from the tree.
2) Passengers fall forward when bus suddenly stops. Why?

The passengers are in motion due to first law and as the bus suddenly stops due to inertia their
upper body opposes the force and continues to remain in motion.
Newton II
Newton's Second Law states:
Rate of change of momentum is proportional to the total force acting on a body, and occurs in the
direction of the force.
An object of mass, m, is pushed with a constant force, F, so that its velocity increases from an initial
value, u, to a final value, v, in time, t.

mvmu
F
t
m(vu)
F
t
( )
Now acceleration, a =
F m a
F = k m a (k is a constant with no units. k = 1)
Force (N) = Mass (kg) acceleration (m s-2)
F = ma
Make sure you use the right units:
Force in N,
Mass in kg,
Acceleration in m/s2.
Acceleration is always caused by a total force, the vector sum of all the forces. The acceleration is
always, without exception, in the same direction as the total force.
Example1:
A box of mass 150kg is placed on a horizontal floor with a smooth surface; find the acceleration of
the box when a 300N force is acting on the box horizontally.
Solution:
F = ma
(300) = (150)a
a = 2 ms-2
Example2:
A object of mass 50kg is placed on a horizontal floor with a smooth surface. If the velocity of the
object changes from stationary to 25.0 m/s in 5 seconds when is acted by a force, find the
magnitude of the force that is acting?
solution
We know that we can find the magnitude of a force by using the formula F = ma. The mass m is

already given in the question, but the acceleration is not give directly.
We can determine the acceleration from the formula

250
a= = 5 =5ms2
From the formula
F = ma = (50)(5) = 250N
The force acting on the box is 250N.

Newton III
Newtons Third law states that:
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
If body A exerts a force on body B, body B must exert an equal and opposite force on body A.
In other words, forces always act in pairs. This is true whether the forces are in equilibrium,
moving, stationary or accelerating.
Newtons Third Law Example
1) In case of inflated balloon, the air rushing outward is action while the balloon going upward is
reaction.
2) Same thing happens in the rocket propulsion.

The rocket leaves or exerts fuel with some force, the fuel in return produces an equal force on the
rocket, which makes the rocket accelerate in the forward direction.
Momentum
Momentum is a vector quantity, given the symbol p, which measures how hard it is to stop a moving
object. Of course, larger objects have more momentum than smaller objects, and faster objects have
more momentum than slower objects. We can therefore calculate momentum using the equation:
Momentum is something which is associated with mass of the moving body. It is equal to the
product of mass and velocity of the body in motion.
The change in momentum formula is given as
Where
p = momentum of the body,
m = mass of the body and
v = velocity of the body.
The S.I unit for momentum is Kgms-1.
Example1
A ball is thrown whose mass is 1 kg is traveling at 10 meters per second. Calculate its momentum?

Solution
Example2
A motor bike is moving at the rate of 20 m/s having momentum of 6000 kgm/s
Calculate its mass?
Solution
Example3
A student releases a ball with mass of 2 kg from a height of 5 m from the ground. What would be the
momentum of the ball just before it hits the ground?
Solution
M=2kg
This is a free falling motion,
The initial velocity, u = 0
The acceleration, a = gravirational acceleration, g = 10ms-2
The dispacement, s = high = 50m.
The final velocity = ?
From the equation
v2 = u2 + 2as
v2 = (0)2 + 2(10)(5)
v = 10ms-1
The momentum,
p = mv =(2)(10) = 20 kgms-1
Principle of Conservation of Momentum
The principle of conservation of momentum states that in a system make out of objects that react
(collide or explode), the total momentum is constant if no external force is acted upon the system.
=
Formula
Example1
A Car A of mass 600 kg moving at 40 ms-1 collides with a car B of mass 800 kg moving at 20 ms-1 in

the same direction. If car B moves forwards at 30 ms-1 by the impact, what is the velocity, v, of the
car A immediately after the crash?
Solution
m1 = 600kg
m2 = 800kg
u1 = 40 ms-1
u2 = 20 ms-1
v1 = ?
v2 = 30 ms-1
According to the principle of conservation of momentum,
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
(600)(40) + (800)(20) = (600)v1 + (800)(30)
40000 = 600v1 + 24000
600v1 = 16000
v1 = 26.67 ms-1
Example2
A 0.50kg ball traveling at 6.0 ms-1 collides head-on with a 1.0 kg ball moving in the opposite direction
at a speed of 12.0 ms-1. The 0.50kg ball moves backward at 14.0 ms-1 after the collision. Find the
velocity of the second ball after collision.
Solution
m1 = 0.5 kg
m2 = 1.0 kg
u1 = 6.0 ms-1
u2 = -12.0 ms-1
v1 = -14.0 ms-1
v2 =?
(IMPORTANT: velocity is negative when the object moves in opposite direction)
According to the principle of conservation of momentum,
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

(0.5)(6) + (1.0)(-12) = (0.5)(-14) + (1.0)v2
-9 = - 7 + 1v2
v2 = -2 ms-1
Explosion
Before explosion both object stick together and at After collision, both object move at opposite
rest. direction.
Total Momentum before collision Is zero Total Momentum after collision :
m1v1 + m2v2
From the law of conservation of momentum:
Total Momentum Before collision = Total Momentum after collision
0 = m1v1 + m2v2
m1v1 = - m2v2
(-ve sign means opposite direction)

Example1
A man fires a rifle which has mass of 2.5 kg. If the mass of the bullet is 10 g and it reaches a velocity
of 250 m/s after shooting, what is the recoil velocity of the pistol?
Answer:
This is a typical question of explosion.
m1 = 2.5 kg
m2 = 0.01 kg
u1 = 0 ms-1
u2 = 0 ms-1
v1 = ?
v2 = 250 ms-1
By using the equation of conservation of momentum principle

0 = m1v1 + m2v2
0 = (2.5)v1 + (0.01)(250)
(2.5)v1 = -2.5v1 = -1 ms-1
Impulse
As you can see, momentum can change, and a change in momentum is known as an impulse.
Is a vector quantity
The impulse is represented by a capital J, and since it's a change in momentum, its units are the
same as those for momentum, [kgm/s], and can also be written as a Newton-second [Ns].
Example2
A body having 3 kg weight is traveling at 2m/s is subjected to Velocity of 10m/s.
Find:
(a) Initial momentum
(b) Final momentum
(c) Change in momentum
(d) Impulse
Solution
Impulsive Force
1. Impulsive force is defined as the rate of change of momentum in a reaction. Mathematically,

we write

F=
2. It is a force which acts on an object for a very short interval during a collision or explosion.
Effects of impulse vs Force

A force determines the acceleration (rate of velocity change) of an object. A greater force
produces a higher acceleration.
An impulse determines the velocity change of an object. A greater impulse yields a higher
velocity change.
Example1
A car of mass 1000kg is traveling with a velocity of 25 m/s. The car hits a street lamp and is stopped
in0.05 seconds. What is the impulsive force acting on the car during the crash?
Solution
m = 1000kg
u = 24 m/s
v=0
t = 0.05s
(1000)(0)(1000)
F= t
F= (24)0.05
=F=480,000N
Application of momentum and impulses

Safety Features in Vehicles
Crumble Zone
The crumple zone increases the reaction time of

collision during an accident.
This causes the impulsive force to be reduced and
hence reduces the risk of injuries.
Seat Belt
Prevent the driver and passengers from being
flung forward or thrown out of the car during an
emergency break.
Airbag
The inflated airbag during an accident acts as a

cushion to lessen the impact when the driver
flings forward hitting the steering wheel or
dashboard.
Padded Dashboard
Cover with soft material. This may increases the
reaction time and hence reduce the impulsive
force when passenger knocking on it in accident.

Collapsible Steering Columns
The steering will swing away from drivers chest
during collision. This may reduce the impulsive
force acting on the driver.
Passenger Safety Cell

The body of the car is made from strong, rigid stell
cage.
This may prevent the car from collapsing on the
passengers during a car crash.
Projectile Motion
Projectile motion is a form of motion in which an object or particle (called a projectile) is thrown
near the earth's surface, and it moves along a curved path under the action of gravity only. The only
force of significance that acts on the object is gravity, which acts downward to cause a downward
acceleration
(not be exanimate )
Using Vector Quantities
Vector and Scalar Quantity
A scalar quantity is a quantity which can be fully described by magnitude only.
A vector quantity is a quantity which is fully described by both magnitude and direction.
Vector Diagram
The arrow shows the direction of the vector.

The length representing the magnitude of the vector.
Equal Vector
Two vectors A and B may be defined to be equal if they have the same magnitude and point in the
same direction.
Vector Addition
Vector Addition - Triangle Method
Join the tail of the 2nd vector to the head of the 1st vector. Normally the resultant vector is marked
with double arrow.
Vector Addition - Parallelogram Method

Join the tail of the 2nd vector to the tail of the 1st vector. Normally the resultant vector is marked
with double arrow.
Addition of 2 Perpendicular Vectors
If 2 vectors (a and b) are perpendicular to each others, the magnitude and direction of the resultant
vector can be determined by the following equation.
Example1
Two forces, P and Q of magnitude 10N and 12N are perpendicular to each others. What is the
magnitude of the resultant force if P and Q are acting on an object?
Solution
Magnitude of the resultant force
F=102+122 =244=15.62N
Example2
Diagram above shows that four forces of magnitude 2N, 4N, 5N and 8N are acting on point O. All the
forces are perpendicular to each others. What is the magnitude of the resultant force that acts on
point O?
Solution
The resultant force of the horizontal component = 5 - 2 = 3N to the right
The resultant force of the vertical component = 8 - 4 = 4N acting downward.
Therefore, the magnitude of these 2 force components,

F=32+42 =25=5N
Vector Resolution
Vector Resolution
A vector can be resolve into 2 component which is perpendicular to each others.

Example1
Diagram above shows a lorry pulling a log with an iron cable. If the tension of the cable is 3000N and
the friction between the log and the ground is 500N, find the horizontal force that acting on the log.
Solution
Horizontal component of the tension = 3000 cos30 =2598N
Friction = 500N
Resultant horizontal force = 2598N - 500N =2098N
Example2
Diagram above shows two forces of magnitude 25N are acting on an object of mass 2kg. Find the
acceleration of object P, in ms-2.
Solution
Horizontal component of the forces = 25cos45 + 25cos45 = 35.36N
Vertical component of the forces = 25sin45 - 25sin45 = 0N
The acceleration of the object can be determined by the equation
F = ma
(35.36) = (2)a
a = 17.68 ms-2
Inclined Plane
Weight component along the plane = Wsin.

Weight component perpendicular to the plane = Wcos.
Example2

A block of mass 2 kg is pulling along a plane by a 20N force as shown in diagram above. Given that
the fiction between block and the plane is 2N, find the magnitude of the resultant force parallel to
the plane.
Solution
First of all, let's examine all the forces or component of forces acting along the plane.
The force pulling the block, F = 20N

The frictional force Ffric = 2N
The weight component along the plane = 20sin30o = 10N
The resultant force along the plane = 20 - 2 - 10 = 8N
Friction force
If you rub your hands together they get warm there is resistance to the rubbing motion.
What is the name of this resistive force called?
It is called friction.
What causes this force?
Your hands might look smooth, but on a microscopic level they have rough surfaces. So when you
rub your hands together you feel the resistive force of friction.
Friction is a force that always exists between any two surfaces in contact with each other
2. There is no such thing as a perfectly frictionless environment.

3. Even in deep space, bits of micrometeorites will hit a moving object, causing some friction
(although it is incredibly small).
There are two kinds of friction, based on how the two surfaces are moving relative to each other:
1. Static friction
the friction that exists between two surfaces that is not
moving relative to each other.
2. Kinetic friction
the friction that exists between two surfaces that is
moving relative to each other.
a. Sliding friction friction experienced when
two solid objects are in contact and a force is
applied to slide one object against the other,
sliding friction force resists the motion
b. Rolling friction friction experienced by a body when it rolls over a surface.

Effect of friction
ADVANTAGES OF FRICTIONS
Friction plays a vital role in our daily life. Without friction we are handicap.
1. It is becomes difficult to walk on a slippery road due to low friction. When we move on ice, it
becomes difficult to walk due to low friction of ice.
Friction is needed for

w alking!
2. We cannot fix nail in the wood or wall if there is no friction. It is friction which holds the nail.
3. Writing: If you are writing with a pencil needs friction. You cannot keep a pencil in your hand
without friction.
4. Driving car: Your car would not begin moving if it wasn't for the friction of the tires against
the street. With no friction, the tires would just spin. Likewise, you could not stop without
the friction of the brakes and the tires.
DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
Despite the fact that the friction is very important in our daily life, it also has some
disadvantages like:
1. The main disadvantage of friction is that it produces heat in various parts of machines. In this
way some useful energy is wasted as heat energy.
2. Due to friction we have to exert more power in machines.
3. It opposes the motion.
4. Due to friction, noise is also produced in machines.
5. Due to friction, engines of automobiles consume more fuel which is a money loss.
METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION

There are a number of methods to reduce friction in which some are discussed here.
USE OF LUBRICANTS:
The parts of machines which are moving over one another must be properly lubricated by using
oils and lubricants of suitable viscosity.
USE OF GREASE:
Proper greasing between the sliding parts of machine reduces the friction.
USE OF BALL BEARING:
In machines where possible, sliding friction can be replaced by rolling friction by using ball
bearings.
DESIGN MODIFICATION (Streamlining)

Friction can be reduced by changing the design of fast moving objects. The front of vehicles, racing
cyclists and airplanes made oblong to minimize friction.
Modern cars are also streamlined. Their smooth shapes make the air resistance smaller, which
allows them to travel further on the same amount of fuel.
Terminal velocity
When an object falls, it accelerates. As its speed increases, the air resistance increases.
Eventually, the force from the air resistance willequal the force from the weight of the object
At that point, the speed will remain constant: the object has reached its "terminal velocity" and can't
fall any faster.
Terminal velocity depends on the drag, so a streamlined shape will fall quickly, whilst a parachute
will fall slowly.

For a free-fall parachutist, before the parachute opens, terminal velocity is around 120 miles
per hour. When the parachute opens, the terminal velocity decreases to only a few miles per
hour - a much better way to hit the ground
Free falling
In the absence of air resistance, it is found that all bodies at the same location above the Earth fall
vertically with the same acceleration.
Free falling is a motion under force of gravity as the only force acting on the moving object.
If the distance of the fall is small compared to the radius of the Earth, then the acceleration remains
essentially constant throughout the descent
This idealized motion is called free-fall and the acceleration of a freely falling body is called the
acceleration due to gravity.
The gravitational acceleration is the acceleration of an object due to the pull of the gravitational
force. It has the unit of ms-2
The symbol of gravitational acceleration is " g ".
Gravitational acceleration does not depend on the mass of the moving object.
The magnitude of gravitational acceleration is taken to be
g 9.80 m s2 or 32.2 ft s2
g 10 m s2 or 30 ft s2
I could give a boring lecture on this and work through some examples, but Id rather make it more
real
Case of Free Falling 1 - Falling from High Place
When an object is released from a high place,

its initial velocity, u = 0.
its acceleration is equal to the gravitational acceleration, g,
which taken to be 10ms-2 in SPM.
the displacement is the of the object when it reaches the ground
is equal to the initial height of the object, h.
Case of Free Falling 2 - Launching Object Upward
If an object is launched up vertically,

the acceleration = -g (-10ms-2)
the velocity become zero when the object reaches the highest point.
the displacement of the object at highest point is equal to the
vertical height of object, h
the time taken for the object to move to the maximum height = the
time taken for the object to fall from the maximum point to its initial
position.
Example1
The referee tosses the coin up with an initial speed of 5.00m/s. In
the absence if air resistance, how high does the coin go above its
point of release?
Solution

H A v Vo t
2
? 0 m/s +5.00m/s
-9.80 m/s
v 2 vo2
v 2 vo2 2ah h
2a
h
0 m s 5.00 m s
2 2
1.28 m
2 9.80 m s2
Example2
A stone is dropped into the river from the bridge. The Stone takes 4s to touch the water surface of
the river. Calculate the height of the bridge from the water level
Solution
Example3
Calculate the height of the body if it is having mass of 2 Kg and reaches the ground after 5 seconds?
Solution
The Velocity in free fall is independent of mass.
Velocity of iron V = gt = 9.8 m/s2 5s = 49 m/s
Velocity of cotton V = gt = 9.8 m/s2 3s = 29.4 m/s.
The Velocity of iron is more than cotton.
Graph of Free Falling
Launching Object Upward
Motion Velocity-Time Graph Acceleration-Time Graph
Dropping Object from a High Place

Motion Velocity-Time Graph Acceleration-Time Graph

The Universal Law of Gravitation
Sir Isaac Newton gave a mathematical relation to calculate the force of gravitation and this relation
is known as the universal law of gravitation.
The Universal law of gravitation states that:
Every mass exerts an attractive force on every other mass.
If there are two masses m1 and m2 and the distance between them is d as shown in figure.
The gravity formula is given by
Where G is a constant equal to 6.67 10-11 N-m2/kg2,

m1 = mass of the body 1,
m2 = mass of body 2,
r = radius or distance between the two bodies.
The gravitational force formula is very helpful in finding larger radius, larger mass, gravity values
etc.
example1
find the forces due to gravitation acting on two bodies of mass 2kg and 5kg separated by the
distance 5cm?
Solution
Example2
A spaceship is moving round the planet having mass of 2000kg if it is at the distance 8106m from
the planet calculate the mass of planet?
Solution

Circular Motion
When an object moves in a circle at a constant speed its velocity (which is a vector) is constantly
changing. Its velocity is changing not because the magnitude of the velocity is changing but because
its direction is. This constantly changing velocity means that the object is accelerating (centripetal
acceleration). For this acceleration to happen there must be a resultant force, this
Force is called the centripetal force.
Angular Speed
The angular speed () of an object is the angle () it moves through measured in radians (rad)
divided by the time (t) taken to move through that angle. This means that the unit for angular speed
is the radian per second (rad s-1).
= Angular speed
v = is the linear velocity measured in meters per second (ms-1).
r = is the radius of the circle in meters (m).
f =is the frequency of the rotation in hertz (Hz).
Example1
A train is travelling on a truck which part of a circle of radius 600m, at a constant speed of 5m/s,
what is the angular velocity of train?
Solution
= v/r
= 50/600 = 0.083rads-1
Centripetal Acceleration
Centripetal acceleration (a) is measure in meters per second per second (ms-2). It is always directed
towards the center of the circle.

Example1
A 5-kg object moves at a constant speed of 10 m/s in a 5.0 m radius circle. What is the object's
acceleration?
Solution
Centripetal Force
When an object moves in a circle the centripetal force (F) always acts towards the centre of the
circle. The centripetal force, measured in Newton (N)
Factors affecting centripetal force

The centripetal force needed to keep an object moving in a circle increases if:
the mass of the object increases
the speed of the object increases
the radius of the circle in which it is travelling decreases
Example1
A car of mass 1000 Kg moves in a circular path of radius 50 m. The constant speed of car is given by
12 m/s. Determine the centripetal force of the car?
Solution
Work
Work done by a constant force is given by the product of the force and the distance moved in the
direction of the force.
The unit of Nm(Newton metre) or J(Joule).
Work is a scalar quantity.
The SI units for work are Joules J (with force, F, in Newton's N and distance, s, in meters ( m)
Formula

When the direction of force and motion are same, = 0o, therefore cos = 1
Work done,
=
When the angle is 90 then the work done is zero.
Example1
Diagram above shows a 10N force is pulling a metal. The friction between the block and the floor is
5N. If the distance travelled by the metal block is 2m, find
the work done by the pulling force
the work done by the frictional force
Solution
(a) The force is in the same direction of the motion. Work done by the pulling force,
W = F s = (10)(2) = 20J
(b) The force is not in the same direction of motion, work done by the frictional force
W = F s cos180o= (5)(2)(-1) = -10J
example2
How much work is done when a force of 5 kN moves its point of application 600mm in the direction
of the force.
Solution
Example3
A force of 50 N acts on the block at the angle shown in the diagram. The block moves a horizontal
distance of 3.0 m. Calculate the work being done by the force.
solution
Work done,
W = F s cos
W = 50 3.0 cos30o = 129.9J

Example4
the graph above shows the force acting on a trolley of 5 kg mass over a distance of 10 m. Find the
work done by the force to move the trolley.
Solution
In a Force-Displacement graph, work done is equal to the area below the graph. Therefore, work
done
W=12(10)(8)=40Nm=40J
Example5
Applied force vs. position graph of an object is given below. Find the work done by the forces on the
object.
Solution
Area under the graph gives us work done by the force.
Work done between 0 - 5m:
W1=4.5=20 joule
Work done between 5-8m:

(+)
W2= .
=15 joule

.
W3= =9 joule

.
W4= =-10 joule

W net=W1+W2+W3+W4=20+15+9+(-10)
W net=34 joule
Energy
Energy
Energy is defined as the ability to do work.
Work is done when energy is converted from one form to another.
The unit of work is Nm or Joule(J)
Kinetic Energy

K.E. = mv2
Kinetic energy stored in an object that is moving equals the amount of work done accelerating it
from stationary to that speed.
=
But F = ma, and displacement = s
So Work done = .
Remember v2 = u2 + 2as
Reorganized v2 - u2 = 2as
But if the object is stationary at the start, u=0, so,
v2 = 2 as
V2
This makes 2 = as
But W = m . as
V2
So W = m 2 Or
1
Work done = Ek = 2mu2
Gravitational Potential Energy
= . . =
Units: J, Joules
Potential Energy is the energy stored in objects which have been lifted against a gravitational field
(or you can also have potential energy in magnetic or electric fields - see later).
=
=
= =
= =
= = . .
Note: this equation only applies if g remains constant. This is true for any movement near the Earth's
surface.
The Work - Energy Theorem
This is our complete Work-Energy theorem. It is powerfully simple, and gives us a direct relation
between net work and kinetic energy. Stated verbally, the equations say that net work done by
forces on a object causes a change in the kinetic energy of the object
Work-Energy Principle
Implying that
W net = K
The change in the kinetic energy of an object is equal to the net work done on the object.
Example1
What is the kinetic energy of a 2 kg ball that travels a distance of 50 meters in 5 seconds?
Solution
50m
The velocity of the ball is easily calculable: v = = 10 m/s . With values for the mass and velocity of
5s
the ball, we can calculate kinetic energy:
1 1
K = 2mv 2 = 2(2 kg)(10 m/s)2 = 100 J
Example2
a) Find the work done by the engine of a car when the car, when he car is accelerated from rest a
constant acceleration o 2m/s2 for 20s, the car has a mass of 1000kg?
b) What is the kinetic energy of the car after 20s?
Solution
a). F = am = 10002= 2000N
1 1
s= ut + 2at2 = 2 2400= 400m
W= FS= 2000N 400m = 800000J

b). final kinetic energy = work done (because the initial kinetic energy is zero )
example3
a car of a mass 800kg is increases is kinetic energy from 20m/s t0 30m/s.
a). calculate the initial kinetic energy o the car ?
b). calculate the final kinetic energy of the car ?
c) Calculate the change in kinetic energy?
Solution
1 1
a) kE1=2mu2 = 2 (800)(20)= 160000j
1 1
b) KE2= 2 mv2= 2 (800)(30)= 360000j
c). kE= kE2 kE1 = 360000j-160000j=200,000j
Example4
A trolley of 5 kg mass moving against friction of 5 N Its velocity at A is 4ms-1 and it stops at B after 4
seconds. What is the work done to overcome the friction?
Solution
In this case, kinetic energy is converted into heat energy due to the friction. The work done to
overcome the friction is equal to the amount of kinetic energy converted into heat energy, hence
=
Power
Power is the rate at which work is done, which means how fast a work is done.
Formula:
Example1
An electric motor takes 20 s to lift a box of mass 20kg to a height of 1.5 m. Find the amount of work
done by the machine and hence find the power of the electric motor.
Solution
Work done
= = (20)(10)(1.5) = 300
Power,
w 300
P= t = 20 =15J
example2
John is having mass 60 kg runs up to 12m high in 40 seconds. Calculate his power.
Solution:
Given: mass m = 60 kg,
Height h = 12 m,
time taken t = 40 seconds.
Power is given by P = w/t
1260
= 40
= 588 Watts.

Example3
A constant force of 2kN pulls a crate along a level floor a distance of 10 m in 50s.
What is the power used?
Solution
Alternatively we could have calculated the speed first
and then calculated power
Solid materials
Introduction: Solid materials are often categorized by their mechanical behavior. One such category
is tensile materials, which operate by resisting being pulled upon. Four common types of tensile
materials are found in living organisms:
silk,
collagen,
cellulose, and
Chitin.
Silk and collagen are both composed of proteins, while cellulose and chitin are composed of
polysaccharides (sugars). The properties of tensile materials are often investigated using stress-
strain tests, which involve pulling on a sample from each end.
Spider webs, which function in prey capture for many species, are made of silk, a well-studied
example of a tensile material.
Material Properties
There are a variety of terms that can be used to describe a material.
Hard - Can scratch or indent, and withstands being scratched
Brittle - Breaks without plastic deformation
Ductile - Can be drawn into a wire
Malleable - Can be reshaped
Elastic - Returns to its original shape after being deformed
Plastic - Does not return to its original shape after being deformed
Strong - Withstands large static loads without breaking
Tough - Withstands large dynamic loads without breaking
Stiff - Resists deforming by tension or compression
Strong materials can withstand large static loads whilst tough materials can withstand large
dynamic loads.
Tensile Strength is the force that is used to stretch a sample at any time while the
Ultimate Tensile Strength is the force required to break it.
Stress
Stress is "force per unit area" - the ratio of applied force F and cross section - defined as "force per
area".

tensile stress - stress that tends to stretch or lengthen the material - acts normal to the stressed area
compressive stress - stress that tends to compress or shorten the material - acts normal to the
stressed area
shearing stress - stress that tends to shear the material - acts in plane to the stressed area at right-
angles to compressive or tensile stress
Tensile or Compressive Stress - Normal Stress
Tensile or compressive stress normal to the plane is usually denoted "normal stress" or "direct
stress" and can be expressed as

= (1)
Where
= normal stress ((Pa) N/m2, psi)
Fn = normal component force (N, lbf (alt. kips))
A = area (m2, in2)
a kip is a non-SI unit of force - it equals 1,000 pounds-force
1 kip = 4448.2216 Newtons (N) = 4.4482216 kilonewtons (kN)
Example - Tensile Force acting on a Rod
A force of 10 kN is acting on a circular rod with diameter 10 mm. The stress in the rod can be
calculated as
(10 103 )
= ( ((10 103 ) / 2)2
= 127388535 (N/m2)
= 127 (MPa)
Example - Force acting on a Douglas Fir Square Post
A compressive load of 30000 lb is acting on short square 6 x 6 in post of Douglas fir. The dressed size
of the post is 5.5 x 5.5 in and the compressive stress can be calculated as
( )
=((. ) (. ))
= 991 (lb/in2, psi)
Shear Stress
Stress parallel to the plane is usually denoted "shear stress" and can be expressed as
= Fp / A ..(2)
where
= shear stress ((Pa) N/m2, psi)
Fp = parallel component force (N, lbf)
A = area (m2, in2)
Strain
Strain is defined as "deformation of a solid due to stress" and can be expressed as

=
0
= / E .. (3)
Where
dl = change of length (m, in)
lo = initial length (m, in)
= unit less measure of engineering strain
E = Young's modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) (N/m2 (Pa), lb/in2 (psi))
Young's modulus can be used to predict the elongation or compression of an object.

Example - Stress and Change of Length
The rod in the example above is 2 m long and made of steel with Modulus of Elasticity 200 GPa. The
change of length can be calculated by transforming (3) as
dl = lo / E
(127 106 )(2 )
= (200 109 )
= 0.00127 (m)
= 1.27 (mm)
Young's Modulus - Modulus of Elasticity (or Tensile Modulus) - Hooke's Law
Most metals deforms proportional with imposed load over a range of loads. Stress is proportional to
load and strain is proportional to deformation as expressed with Hooke's law

E=

=/
= (Fn / A) / (dl / lo) ..(4)
Where
E = Young's modulus (N/m2) (lb/in2, psi)
Modulus of Elasticity, or Young's Modulus, is commonly used for metals and metal alloys and
expressed in terms 106 lbf/in2, N/m2 or Pa. Tensile modulus is often used for plastics and is expressed
in terms 105 lbf/in2 or GPa.
Shear Modulus
S = stress / strain
=/
= (Fp / A) / (s / d) .. (5)
Where
S = shear modulus (N/m2) (lb/in2, psi)
= shear stress ((Pa) N/m2, psi)
= unit less measure of shear strain
Fp = force parallel to the faces which they act
A = area (m2, in2)
s = displacement of the faces (m, in)
d = distance between the faces displaced (m, in)
Elastic Moduli
Elastic moduli for some common materials:
Material Young's Modulus Shear Modulus Bulk Modulus
10 2 6 2 10 2 6 2
10 N/m 10 lb/in 10 N/m 10 lb/in 1010 N/m2 106 lb/in2
Aluminum 7.0 10 2.4 3.4 7.0 10
Brass 9.1 13 3.6 5.1 6.1 8.5
Copper 11 16 4.2 6.0 14 20
Glass 5.5 7.8 2.3 3.3 3.7 5.2
Iron 9.1 13 7.0 10 10 14
Lead 1.6 2.3 0.56 0.8 0.77 1.1
Steel 20 29 8.4 12 16 23
Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of a sub-stance to recover its original shape and size after distortion.
Hooke's Law
Hooke's Law states that if a spring is not stretched beyond its elastic limit, the force that acts on it is
directly proportional to the extension of the spring.
Elastic Limit
The elastic limit of a spring is defined as the maximum force that can be applied to a spring such that
the spring will be able to be restored to its original length when the force is removed.

Equation derived from Hooke's Law
From Hook's Law, we can derived that
Spring Constant
Spring constant is defined as the ratio of the force applied on a spring to the extension of the spring.
It is a measure of the stiffness of a spring or elastic object.
F-x graph and spring constant
the higher the gradient, the greater the spring constant and the harder (stiffer) spring.
For example, the stiffness of spring A is greater than spring B.

Spring
Arrangement in series: Arrangement in parallel:

Extension = x number of spring Extension = x number of spring
Stiffness decreases Stiffness increases
Spring constant = k/number of spring Spring constant = k number of spring
Factors Affecting the Stiffness of spring

Stiffer Less stiff

Material type of spring
(A steel spring is stiffer than a copper spring)
Diameter of wire of spring

(The greater the diameter of the wire, the stiffer the spring)
Diameter of the spring

(The smaller the diameter of spring, the stiffer the spring)
Length of the string

(Shorter spring is stiffer)
Eaxample1
When a 13.2-kg mass is placed on top of a vertical spring, the spring compresses 5.93 cm. Find the
force constant of the spring.
Solution
From Hooke's Law: F = kx
The force on the spring is the weight of the object, 13.29.8 = 129 N
x = 5.93 cm =0.0593 m
129 = (0.0593)x
x = 2181 N/m
Elastic Strain Energy

Up to the elastic limit of a sample, all the work done in stretching it is stored potential energy, or
Elastic Strain Energy. This value can be determined by calculating the area under the the force-
extension graph. If the sample obeys Hooke's Law, and is below the elastic limit, the Elastic Strain
Energy can be calculated by the formula:
E = kx2

Graph of Stretching Force - Extension
Gradient = Spring constant

Area below the graph = Work done
Example1
A spring has a spring constant of 1000N/m, when it is compressed to an extension of 10cm, find
the spring tension work?
Solution
Given
K= 1000N/m x= 10cm = 0.1cm

W= kx2

W= (1000N/m)(0.01m)2
W = 5Nm= 5j

Introduction
Wave
Wave: Is a disturbance causing energy transfer from one point to another without the actual
movement of particle, is called a wave.
Must Know:
Waves transfer energy without transferring physical matter.
Waves can be classified in two types:
1. Electromagnetic Waves
2. Mechanical waves
Electromagnetic wave:
The existence of medium is not essential for propagation. The Periodic changes takes place in
electric and magnetic fields hence it is called Electromagnetic wave.
Mechanical Waves
A Mechanical wave is a periodic disturbance, which requires a material medium (solid, liquid or gas)
for its propagation. Examples for Mechanical waves are:
Sound waves and water waves, vibration of string, the surface wave produced on the surface of solid
and liquid,
Types Of Waves
Waves can be classified into 2 groups
transverse wave
longitudinal wave

Transverse Wave
A transverse wave is a wave where the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction that is
perpendicular to the direction of the wave motion.
Example:
Light wave, ripple, radio wave
Longitudinal Wave
A longitudinal wave is a wave where the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction that is parallel
to the direction of the wave motion.
Example:
Sound Wave
Transverse Wave Crest and Trough
When discussing wave, its important to know what is meant by the crest and trough of a
wave.
The point at which the displacement of the water from its normal level is highest called the
crest of the wave

The point at which the displacement of the water from its normal level is lowest called the
trough of the wave.
Longitudinal Wave Compression and Rarefaction
Unlike transverse wave, longitudinal waves have no crest and trough, instead, they have
compression and rarefaction.
In compression regions of longitudinal waves, wave particles of the medium are packed
closer.
In rarefaction regions, wave particles of the medium are packed further apart.
Wave Characteristics
Wavelength
The wavelength () is defined as the distance between two successive points which are at
the same phase (exactly the same point in their paths and are moving in the same direction.)
,(crest to crest or trough to through )
Finding Wavelength From Diagram
Transverse Wave Longitudinal Wave Wave front diagram
Wavelength is the distance Wavelength is the distance Wavelength is the distance

between two successive between two successive between two successive wave
crest or trough.
compression or rarefaction. front
Example 1:
Figure above shows the propagation of a water wave. What is the amplitude of the wave?
solution
Amplitude=10cm/2=5cm
Example 2:
The figure above shows the simulation of longitudinal wave by using a slinky spring. What is
the wavelength of the wave?
solution
Example 3:
The figure above shows the simulation of transverse wave by using a slinky spring. What is
the wavelength of the wave?
solution
Amplitude (A): This is the maximum displacement from the rest/centre position. It is the
height of the crest or depth of a trough measured from the rest position. It tells you the
'loudness' if it's a sound wave. The bigger the amplitude, the louder the sound Its SI unit is
the meter (m).
Frequency (f): This is the number of complete wave produced per second SI unit-hertz
(Hz). Frequency relates to the pitch of a sound, the higher the frequency the higher the
pitch.
Period (T): This is the time taken for one point on the wave to complete one oscillation.
Or you can think of it as the time taken to produce one complete wave. The SI unit is
second (s).
Speed of the wave
It is the distance covered by the wave in one second.

The speed of the wave in a given medium is always constant.
The speed of the wave (v), frequency (f) and wavelength () are related by the relation
Speed of the wave is usually measured in meter/second (m/s)
Phase
1. A phase is the current position in the cycle of something that changes cyclically.
2. Two vibrating particles are in the same phase if their displacement and direction of motion are
the same.
a. In phase Same phase
b. Out of phase Different phase
c. Anti-phase Phase different = 180o
Wave front
A wave front is a line or a surface that connects points that are moving at the same phase and
has the same distance from the source of the waves.
When a circular wave is formed, a circular wave front is formed.
Characteristics of wave front:
a) Wave fronts are always perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. (As shown in
the diagram below)
b) all the points on a wave front have same distance from the source of the wave.
Equation of a wave
We can calculate the speed of a wave using:
Where:

v = speed (m/s)
f = frequency (Hz)
= wavelength (m)
You need to be able to derive this equation from speed = distance/time.
If the time for one complete wave is the time period, T and the distance is the wavelength, , then:
Example1
A wave is introduced into a thin wire held tight at each end. It has an amplitude of 3.8
cm, a frequency of 50 Hz and a distance from a crest to the neighbouring trough of 12.8
cm. Determine the period of such a wave.
solution:
f=1/T, so T=1/f
The question had a lot of useless information to throw you off, all you have to do is use
T=1/f, so T=1/50
T=0.02s
Example2
Some ripples travel 55cm in 5 seconds. Find their speed in cm/s.
The wavelength of these waves is found to be 2.2cm. What is their frequency?
Solution
55/5=11cm/s
v= f x so f=v/ (use the equation triangle I included above) f=11/2.2=5Hz
example3
What is the wavelength of a sound wave of frequency 100 Hz. (speed of sound=340 m/s).
Solution
v= f x

= v / f
= 340 / 100 = 3.4m
Phenomena of a wave
Ripple tank
The behavior of wave can be studied in the laboratory using ripple tank, consist of transparent tray
containing water with a point-light source above it and white screen below the floor of the tank .
Phenomena of Waves
There are 4 phenomena of waves:
a. Reflection
b. Refraction
c. Diffraction
d. Interference
Reflection
Reflection occurs when an incident wave hits a reflector and reflected back.
The direction of propagation of the wave changed when it is reflected.
The wavelength, frequency and speed of wave remain unchanged.
The amplitude of the wave may or may not change depend on the material of the
reflector and the shape of the wavefront.
Reflection of Straight and Circular Wave

1. Reflection of waves obeys the law of reflection, that is
a. The angle of incident is equal to the angle of reflection
b. The incident wave, reflected wave and the normal lie on the same plane.
2. For reflection of circular wave, the distance of image from the reflector is equal to the
distance of source of wave from the reflector.
Reflection of Light Wave

1. The characteristic of reflection of light enables us to see objects. Objects that do not emit
light are not seen in the dark. An object only is seen if light is incident on it a reflected
back to our eyes
Experiment
2. The experiment of reflection of light wave shows that reflection of light wave obeys the law
of reflection.
Application of Reflection of Light

Plane water wave strikes a plane barrier, is reflected as plane wave.
Plane waves reflected off of a concave barrier are reflected as circular waves
towards the focus
Plane waves that strikes a convex barrier, the reflected wave fronts spread out .

Circular water wave strikes plane barrier. The reflected wave reversed circular.
Circular wave reflection from a convex barrier/obstacle, the reflected wave are circular
Refractions
Speed of Water Waves
1. When straight waves pass from deep to shallow water, their

a. wave-length becomes shorter
b. speed decreases
c. frequency remain unchanged
2. This can be illustrated by placing a piece of rectangular Perspex of suitable thickness in the tank to
reduce the local water depth.
3. Figure below shows the wavefront diagram of the wave formed.
4. We can see that the wavelength above the Perspex is shallower.

Refraction of Waves at a Boundary

1. Refraction is the change in direction of propagation when a wave moves from one medium to
another medium.
2. It is caused by the change of the speed of the wave when moving from one medium to another.
3. For water waves, refraction occurs when the waves move from one region to another region of
different depth.
4. If water waves pass through a shallow region of convex shape, the waves will be converged.
5. If water waves pass through a shallow region of concave shape, the waves will be diverged.
Note
There is one special case you need to know. Refraction doesn't happen if the waves cross the
boundary at an angle of 90 (called the normal) - in that case they carry straight on.
Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading of a wave when it travels through an opening or a small obstacle.
(Diffraction happen when waves pass through an opening)

(Diffraction happen when waves encounter an obstacle)
Characteristics of Diffracted Wave
a. Wavelength does not change.
b. Frequency does not change.
c. Speed of diffracted does not change.
d. The amplitude of the wave decreases after diffraction.
Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Diffraction

The magnitude of diffraction (or angle of diffraction) depends on
a) The wavelength
b) The size of the opening
Experiment 1
Shorter wavelength - The wave spreads to a Longer wavelength - The wave spreads to a wider
smaller area area
Conclusion:
Diffraction is affected by the wavelength. The longer the wavelength, the greater the effect of
diffraction
Experiment 2
Bigger opening - The wave spreads to a smaller Smaller opening - The wave spreads to a wider
area area
Conclusion:
Diffraction is affected by the size of the opening. The smaller the size of the opening, the greaterthe

effect of diffraction
Interference
Principle of Superposition
The principle of superposition states that where two or more waves meet, the total displacement at
any point is the vector sum of the displacements that each individual wave would cause at that
point.
Coherent Wave
Two wave sources which are coherent have same frequency or have constant phase difference.
Interference
1. The effect of superposition of two coherent waves is interference.
2. Interference is a phenomenon of wave caused by the superposition of 2 or more coherent waves.
3. The effect of interference can be studied using a ripple tank. Two dippers are used to produce two
sources of coherent waves.
4. Figure 3 shows the interference pattern observed.
5. Interference can be constructive or destructive.
Constructive Interference and Anti-node
1. In the interference of 2 waves, there are places where the 2 waves are always in phase (same
phase) and the superposition of the waves produces oscillation with maximum amplitude. This is
called the constructive interference.
2. A place where constructive interference occurs is called the anti-node.
Destructive Interference and Node
Summary
In the interference of 2 waves, there are also places where the 2 waves are always anti-phase
(phase difference = 180) and the superposition of the waves produces oscillation with minimum
amplitude. This is called the destructive interference.
A place where destructive interference occurs is called the node.
The same rules apply... the resultant displacement at any point is always the sum of the separate
displacements of the wave at that point:
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum consists of seven kinds of waves
radio waves
microwaves
infra-red radiation
visible light
ultraviolet radiation
X-rays
gamma rays
The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency.
Properties of electromagnetic waves
They are all transverse waves.

They transfer energy from one place to another.
They all show wave properties such as reflection and refraction.
They can all travel through a vacuum
They all travel at a speed of 3 x 108 ms-1 in a vacuum.
The equation [wave speed = frequency x wavelength] applies to them.

Uses of electromagnetic waves
Effects of electromagnetic waves on cells and tissue
High energy electromagnetic waves (those with higher frequencies) can ionize atoms and
molecules of living matter, causing damage to body cells.
Type Waves Effects of absorption
Ionizing Gamma rays Ionizations can cause DNA damage in body cells
X-rays mutating effect to future generations
cause cancer
Non-ionizing Ultraviolet heating of body surface

Visible light
Infra-red
Microwaves
Radio waves

Introduction
The structure of an atom
Although the word 'atom' comes from the Greek for indivisible, we now know that atoms are not the
smallest particles of matter. Atoms are made from smaller
Describe the composition of the nucleus of an atom in terms of protons and neutrons
Matter is made up of very small particles called atoms
Each atom has a very small and very dense core called nucleus. Most of the mass of atom is
contained in the nucleus
The electrons move in orbits around the nucleus.
There are a lot of empty spaces within atom
A nucleus consists of a number of protons and neutrons.
Protons and neutrons also known as nucleons.
A proton has a unit positive charge.
A neutron is an uncharged particle of about the same mass as the proton.
An atom is neutral because it contains an equal number of negatively charged electrons. So
the net charge is zero.
Proton number,( Z), is defined as the number of protons in a nucleus
The number of electrons = the number of protons
An element is identified by its proton number
Nucleon number, (A) is defined as the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
Number of neutrons, N = A - Z
A nuclide is an atom of a particular structure. Each element has nucleus with a specific
number of protons.

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms with the same proton number but different nucleon number.
Isotopes of an element contain the same number of protons and the same number of
electrons. So isotopes have the same chemical properties chemical reactions involve the
electrons in an atom.
However they have different physical properties because their mass is different.
Some isotopes exist naturally. Isotopes can also be made artificially.
Example
Radioactivity
In general, the nucleus of the various atoms is stable. In some casesespecially

with the larger, heavier atomsthe nucleus can be unstable and will decay into
smaller, stable particles. Often in this process, high energy gamma radiation and
other particles are emitted. This is called radioactivity.
Radioisotopes
Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes which decay and give out radioactive emissions.
Radioisotopes are naturally occurring or artificially produced
Radioisotopes Half life Uses Process
Sodium-24 15 hours detect the positions of injected into the blood stream and gamma
Emit and blood clots rays and beta rays emitted is detected by a ray
(thrombosis) in veins camera outside the body
Technetium -99 6 days study the blood in emit gamma and produces no harmful alphas
heart or betas inside the body. The Technetium is
Emit combined into samples of the protein albumin,
and this is injected into the patient.
Iodine-131 8 days. for detecting changes Patients are given an intravenous injection of
Emit and in the thyroid glands. iodine-131 . A detector is placed near the
thyroid to read its activity or function.
Cobalt-60 5years treatment of internal Gamma radiation is carefully directed at
cancers cancer site from an external cobalt source. its
Emit and operated by remote control from behind thick
lead and concrete walls.
Cobalt-60 also is used to sterilise medical
equipments.
Radioactive decay
Many nuclei are radioactive. This means they are unstable, and will eventually decay by emitting a
particle, transforming the nucleus into another nucleus, or into a lower energy state. A chain of
decays takes place until a stable nucleus is reached.
Nuclear radiation
When an unstable nucleus decays, there are three ways that it can do, so Its nucleus may give out:
An alpha particle

A beta particle
It may also give out a gamma ray
Alpha decay
Mass number decreases by 4 (2 protons + 2 neutrons lost). Atomic number decreases by 2 (2

protons lost).
Beta decay
Gamma emission
Often after either alpha or beta decay the nucleons have an excess of energy. By rearranging the
layout of their protons and neutrons, they reach a lower energy state and the excess energy is
emitted in the form of a gamma ray.
Characteristics of alpha particles, beta particles and gamma ray
Characteristic Alpha particles, beta particles gamma rays

Nature Helium nucleus Fast moving electron Electromagnetic
radiation.
Symbol 4
He 0
e -
2 1
Charge +2 (positive) -1(negative) No charge
Mass Large Very small No mass
Speed 10 % of the speed of 90 % of the speed of light Speed of light, c.

light.
Ionising power Strongest intermediate Weakest
Penetrating power Weak Moderate Strong
Range in air A few cm A few m A few hundred meter

Stopped by Human skin or a thin A few mm of Aluminium A few cm of lead or
piece of paper. concrete
Effect of electric field Deflected towards the Deflected towards the No deflected because
negative plate positive plate. has no charge.
has a positive charge Deflection is greater due
to the small mass of
electron
Effect of magnetic Small deflection Greater deflection No deflection because

field because has a large because has a very has no charge.
mass. small mass.

74
Background radiation
Radioactivity around us
When we use a Geiger counter, it clicks even without a radioactive source near it. This is due
to background radiation from radioactive substances found naturally all around us.
Background radiation is:
ionizing radiation from space (cosmic rays)
from devices e.g. X-ray tubes
from radioactive substances in environment-some are present due to nuclear weapons testing and
nuclear power stations, but most of it is from substances in the Earth (e.g. radon gas is radioactive
and is a product of the decay of uranium in the ground)
Detecting Nuclear Radiation

Most methods of detecting alpha-, beta- and gamma-rays are based on the fact that these
radiations have an ionizing effect.
The detectors used to detect radioactive emissions include
o 3 Types of Radioactive Emission
o Characteristics of Radioactive Emission
Detectors of Radiation
o Gold Leaf Electroscope
o Geiger-Muller Tube
o Cloud Chamber
o Spark-Chamber Detector
o Film Badge (Dosimeter)
1. Table below shows the types of emission that can be detected by different detectors
Detectors Alpha Beta Gamma
Gold Leaf Electroscope
Geiger-Muller Tube
Cloud Chamber

75
Spark-Chamber Detector
Film Badge (Dosimeter)
Radioactive Half Life
Half life can be defined as the time taken for the number of nuclei in a radioactive
material to halve. It can also be defined as the time taken for the count rate of a sample of
radioactive material to fall to half of its starting level.
Radioactive elements have a wide range of half life values. The isotope Uranium-238 has a half
life as long as 4.5 billion years whereas the half life of Thorium-234 is as little as 24 days.
We define activity as the number of nuclei that decay per second (N.B. 1 decay per second = 1 Bq).
Graph of half life
Calculating Half Life
We know that after one half life, one half of the original radioactive nuclei remain. After two half
lives, one half of this half remains or one quarter of the original radioactive nuclei remain.

76
We can therefore say:
1 half life = of the original radioactive nuclei remain

2 half lives = of the original radioactive nuclei remain
This can be written as an equation as:
Or use this
N = Amount of radioisotope particles

after nth half life.
N0 = Initial amount of radioisotope
particles.
n = number of half life
Or use
Example1
A radioactive isotope has a radioactivity measured on a Geiger-Muller tube at 10,000

Becquerels or 10,000 counts per second. What is the activity of the radioisotope after 3 half
lives?
The amount remaining = x Original amount
The amount remaining = x 10,000
The amount remaining = x 10,000
The amount remaining = 1250 Bq
Example2

77
Example 3
A radioisotope has half-life of 8 hours. Initially, there were 3.6 x 1018radioisotope atoms in a sample.
How much time is taken for the number of atoms of the radioisotope to fall to 4.5 x 1017?
solution
The sample take 3 half-life to decay from 3.6 x 1018 radioisotope atoms to 4.5 x 1017. Therefore, the time
taken
t=3T12/t=3(8)=24h
Example4
You discovered a new radioactive isotope and named it boogonium (don't ask). It's half life
is 1.23 years. If you start with a sample of45 grams, how much will be left in 6.7 years?
Solution
Example 5

78
The diagram shows the graph of the activity of a radioisotope, X, against time. What is the half-life of the
radioactive substance?
solution
The half-life is the time taken for the activity to decrease to become half of the initial value.
From the graph we can see that the radioisotope take 6 days for the activity to become half. Therefore
Half-life = 6 days
Exercise
An alien radioactive isotope has a half-life of 238years. If you start with a sample of 8 kg, how
much will be left in 100 years?
Uses of radioactive
Thickness control
A radioactive sends radiation through the sheet material as it comes off the production line. Beta
radiation is used for thin sheets. A radiation detector on the other side of the sheet measures the
intensity of the radiation passing through the sheet.
The amount of radiation received by the detector depends on the thickness of the rubber sheet
If the sheet is too thin, the reading of the detector increases.
A signal is sent from the roller control to the rollers so that the pressure on the sheets can be
reduced.
detecting leaks in underground water pipes.
A radioactive substance which emits beta particles is added to a fluid in a pipeline to measure the
flow rate in the pipeline and to find leaks.
The radiation produced by the radioactive substance can be detected with a GM tube counter
placed above ground.
A larger increase in the count rate will indicate that there is leak in that area.

79
Medicine
Radioactive tracers
Nuclear medicine is a branch of medicine that uses radiation to provide information about the
function of the specific organs of a patient or to treat disease.
A radioisotope is taken in by a patient through the digestive system, by inhalation or through the
blood vessels by injection.
The radiation emitted enables organs such as thyroid, bones, heart, liver to be easily imaged
by imaging equipment. Disorders can then be detected.
In archaeology radioisotope carbon-14
a) In archaeology radioisotope carbon-14 is used to study and estimate the age of ancient artifacts.
This method is named as the radiocarbon dating.
b) Radiocarbon dating can be used to estimate the age of organic materials, such as wood and
leather, up to about 58,000 to 62,000 years.

80
Example:
A piece of wood found in a cave of an archaeology site has a carbon-14 activity 25% of the activity from
a live plant. Estimate the age of the wood. [Half-life of carbon-14 = 5730 years]
Answer:
100% 50% 25%
Carbon-14 take 2 half-life to decay from 100% to 25%, hence the age of the wood
= 2(5730)
= 11460 years
Nuclear Energy
In a radioactive decay, one element changes into another in a process called transmutation.
The mass of the daughter particles are less than that of the parent particle. This difference in mass is
called mass defect or mass loss.
The mass lost is converted into energy.
Einstein's formula can be used to calculate the amount of nuclear energy released from the defect of
the mass in a radioactive decay or nuclear reaction.
Einstein Formula
E=mc2
where
m = mass change, in kg
c = speed of light, in m s-1
E = energy changed, in J
Nuclear Reaction
In a nuclear reaction, the mass of the parent particles will become less (know as mass defect). The
defected mass is then converted into energy called the nuclear energy.
1. In short, nuclear energy is the energy released owing to the defect of mass in a nuclear reaction.
There are 2 types of nuclear reaction

81
a) nuclear fission
b) nuclear fusion
2. Nuclear fission is the process of splitting nucleus into 2 smaller nuclei whereas nuclear fusion is
the process which 2 small nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus.
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is the process of splitting nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei
examples of fission reactions:

82
Chain Reaction
If neutrons from the fission of uranium-235 continue to split other nuclei causing further fission,
a chain reaction has occurred.
The number of nuclei which undergo fission multiplies rapidly.
In order for a chain reaction to take place, a minimum of one neutron from each fission must
trigger further fission.
At the same time, the mass of fission material must exceed a certain minimal mass known as
the critical mass. If the material is less than this value, too many neutrons escape without
hitting nuclei, preventing a chain reaction from happening.
Nuclear Fusion
1. In nuclear fusion, two or more small and light nuclei come together to form a heavier nucleus.
2. This process is accompanied by the release of a huge amount of energy.

3. Below are two examples of fusion reactions:
4. Fusion is much more difficult to achieve than fission because the hydrogen nuclei repel each
other. Therefore, the nuclei must be heated to 108 K or more so that the nuclei will have enough of
kinetic energy to overcome the electrical repulsion between the nuclei.
Example
The Sun get its energy from the fusion of hydrogen nuclei.
A hydrogen bomb uses the principle of nuclear fusion for its design.
Advantages of using nuclear fission:
Nuclear power costs about the same as coal, so it is not expensive

It does not produce smoke or carbon dioxide. It does not contribute to the greenhouse effect. It
produces less waste than fossil fuels.
It produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel.
Nuclear power stations need less fuel than stations which use fossil fuels
Vast reserves of nuclear fuel in the world.
Safety procedures in the administration of nuclear reactors are very advanced and safe
Produces useful radioisotopes as by-products that can be used in industry, medicine, agriculture
and research.

83
Disadvantages of using nuclear fission

The initial cost to design and build a nuclear power station is very high.
There is always a risk of accidents. If a chain reaction goes out of control, explosion or leakage or
large amounts of radioactive substance may happen.
Used fuel rods are very hot and highly radioactive with very long half-lives.
Expensive procedures are required to cool down the rods and store them.
The hot water discharged from the nuclear power stations can cause thermal pollution
People who work in the nuclear power station and those living nearby may be exposed to
excessive radiation.
Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor produces tremendous amount of energy through nuclear fission.
The energy liberated from the fusion of nuclear fuel heats the surrounding water.
As a result, steam is generated to drive turbines, which in turn drive the electrical generators.
The main components of a nuclear reactor:
a) Graphite moderator
Fast moving neutrons are slowed down by collisions with nuclei in the moderator so that they
can cause further fissions. In some nuclear power plant, the moderator is water.
b) Uranium rod (Fuel)
Fission reactions occur in the uranium rod to produce nuclear energy. The uranium used is often
'enriched' by increasing the proportion of the isotope uranium-235 above the natural value of
0.7% to 3%.
c) Control rod
The rate of the fission reaction is controlled by inserting or withdrawing these rods. The nuclei
in the rods absorb neutrons without undergoing any reaction. Sometimes the rod is made of
cadmium.
d) Coolant
To take away the heat from the nuclear reactor. Substances with high specific heat capacity such
as 'heavy' water and carbon dioxide are used.
e) Thick concrete wall
To prevent the escape of harmful radiations.
f) Steam generator
Water in the generator is heated and changed into steam. The steam then drives the turbines.
g) Turbine
To turn the dynamo in the electrical generator to produce electricity.

84
Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electric current by a changing magnetic field.

The induced current is produced only when there is relative motion between the conductor / coil
and the magnetic field lines.
The relative motion of a conductor across a magnetic field can be produced by:
a) Moving a straight wire quickly across a magnetic field between two flat magnets.
b) Moving a permanent magnet towards one end of a solenoid.
Each time the straight wire cuts across the magnetic field, or the permanent magnet
moves towards the solenoid, a current is induced in the coil and a deflection is observed
in the sensitive galvanometer.
This current is called induced current. The electromotive force that is produced is called
the induced e.m.f.
This can be achieved in two ways:
I. a conductor can be moved in a magnetic field

II. a magnet can be moved in a coil of wire Induction does not happen. if the conductor
moves in the same direction as the magnetic field.
Law of Electromagnetic Induction
There are two principal laws of electromagnetic induction:

85
The Faradays law
The Lenzs law
Faraday's Law
Faraday's Law states
that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
through a coil or alternatively the rate of the magnetic flux being cut.
Factors affecting the magnitude of induced e.m.f.
The size of the induced voltage increases when.
moving the magnet faster
Using a stronger magnet
increasing the number of turns on the coil
increasing the area of the coil
Lenz's Law

86
Lenz's Law: states that the induced current always flows in the direction such that opposes the change
which produced it.
Lenz's Law obeys the principle of conservation of energy. Work is done to move the magnet against the
repulsive force. This work done is converted to electric energy which manifests as an induced current.
Flemings right-hand rule:

If the thumb and the first two fingers on the right hand are held at right angles to each other with the
first finger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb in the direction of the motion,
then the second finger points in the direction of the induced current.

87
The direction of the current can be reversed by
Moving the magnet in the opposite direction.

Using a magnet facing the opposite way round (with North becoming South).
Example1
A wire 15cm long is moved upwards at a speed of 100cm/s at right angle to the magnet of strength
0.01T, the field goes from left to right.
Find the EMF induced in the wire and illustrate its direction by a diagram?
V= 100cm/s
Solution
= 0.01 0.15 1 = 0.0015 = 1.5 103
Using the right-hand rule we find that the induced current goes into the page along the wire.

88
Applications of electromagnetic induction (Small scale)

Moving coil microphone
When a sound wave strikes the diaphragm, a coil fixed to the diaphragm vibrates over a stationary bar
magnet, changing the flux in the coil and inducing an emf in the coil which is then amplified and sent to,
e.g., speakers.
Tape recording
Tape recorders store the information music, speech or data, on plastic tape that is coated with iron
oxide powder. You can tell that the tape is magnetic by attracting it with a magnet. Warning don't try
to do this with a tape that already has some music or data stored on it you will ruin it!
Each grain of iron oxide acts like a tiny magnet and on a tape that has no data stored on it these gains
are arranged irregularly on the tape the tape is unmagnetised.
Playback
Playback head of a tape deck As each tape magnet goes by the gap, some magnetic field lines pass
through the iron core and coil. The changing flux in the coil creates an induced emf which is then
amplified and then sent to the speakers.
Applications of electromagnetic induction (large scale)

Current Generator
Current generator functions by converting mechanical energy to electrical energy.
Current generator works based on electromagnetic induction and uses the Flemings Right hand
rule.
Current generator is divided into: direct current generator and alternate current generator.

89
Direct Current generator
consists of a rectangular coil of wire connected to a pair of slip rings.

coil is placed between the N-pole and S-pole of a magnet
when the coil is rotated, the magnetic field linked with the coil changes and an e.m.f. is induced
in the coil.
the slip rings (or commutator) connect the same carbon brush to the same end of the coil so
that current can flow to an external load.
Direct current is a uniform current flowing in one fixed direction in a circuit
Direct current (d.c) is usually supplied by acid-based batteries or dry cells.
A common example of acid-based (electrolyte) batteries is the car battery.
The induced current varies from a maximum to zero, it flows in one direction only. Hence, the
induced current is called a direct current.
Figure below shows the graph of current supplied by a dry cell over time.
Alternating Current Generator

90
Alternating current is an electric current in which the direction of flow of the electrons reverses
periodically
The two ends of the coil are connected to two slip rings which rotate with the coil.
Each slip ring is always in contact with the same carbon brush.
Alternating current changes direction 50 times every second. Its magnitude also changes with
time.
The output current generated is an alternating current because the current changes direction in
the external circuit each time the coil passes the vertical position.
Period And Frequency
The time taken for one complete cycle is known as the period, T.
The frequency f is defined as the number of complete cycles in 1 second.
The relationship between the frequency and the period is:
f=1/T
we need to know the effect of both the direct current and alternating current on
o a bulb
o a capacitor
o a moving coil loudspeaker

91
Table below give the summary of the comparison of the effect of direct current and alternating
on a bulb, a capacitor and a moving coil loudspeaker.
Direct Current Alternating Current

Effects on a bulb The bulb lights up The bulb lights up
Effects on a capacitor Current is detected at the very Current is detected
beginning and then ceased to
become zero afterward.
Effects on moving coil No sound produced Sound produced
loudspeaker
The Effective Voltage for a Sinusoidal Alternating Current
The maximum potential difference supplied by an a.c source is known as the peak voltage VP.
The effective potential difference for an a.c is equal to the potential difference of a alternating
current if both results in the same heating effect.
The effective potential difference for a.c is known as the root mean square voltage (r.m.s) of the
a.c. and is given y the following equation:
The root-mean-square (r.m.s) value of an alternating current is the value of the steady direct
current which produces the same power in a resistor as the mean power produced by the
alternating current.
The r.m.s current is the effective value of the alternating current.
The r.m.s. current can be calculated by using the following equation:
Example 1

92
Diagram above shows a graph of potential difference, V against time, t of an alternating current. Find
the Vr.m.s. of the power supply.
Solution
Example 2
The diagram above shows the wave form of an a.c. supply. What is the root mean square value of the
current?
Solution
Mutual induction
When AC is applied to a coil, a varying magnetic field will

be produced around it. When another coil is placed within
that magnetic field, it will induce a current flowing in
that coil. This principle is called MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

93
This will cause most of the energy

produced in the primary side to transfer to the secondary
with minimal losses.That is why transformers which
functioning on the principle of mutual induction has
efficiency near 99%.
Transformer
What is a transformer?
A transformer is a device that is used to raise or lower down the potential difference of an alternating
current.
Function:
The function of a transformer is to increase or decrease the potential difference of an alternating
current supply.
Symbol of A Transformer
The figure on the below shows the symbol of a transformer. The 2 lines in between the coil denote the
core.
Structure and Technical Terms

1. A transformer consist of 3 parts, namely
1. The primary circuit

2. The core
3. The secondary Circuit

94
Primary Circuit:
The primary circuit is the circuit that connected to the input energy source. The current, potential
difference and coil (winding) in the primary circuit are called the primary current (Ip), primary potential
difference (Vp) and primary coil respectively.
Core:
The core is the ferromagnetic metal wound by the primary and secondary coil. The function of the core
is to transfer the changing magnetic flux from the primary coil to the secondary coil.
Secondary Circuit:
The secondary circuit is the circuit that connected to the output of the transformer. The current,
potential difference and coil (winding) in the secondary circuit are called the secondary current (Is),
secondary potential difference (Vs) and secondary coil respectively.
Working Principle of A Transformer

A transformer consists of a primary coil and a secondary coil wound on a soft iron core.
When an alternating current flows in the primary coil, a changing magnetic flux is generated
around the primary coil.
The changing magnetic flux is transferred to the secondary coil through the iron core.
The changing magnetic flux is cut by the secondary coil, hence induces an e.m.f. in the
secondary coil.
The magnitude of the output voltage can be controlled by the ratio of the number of primary
coil and secondary coil.
Types of Current in A Transformer
The current in the primary circuit must be alternating current because alternating current can
produce changing magnetic flux. A changing magnetic flux is needed to induce e.m.f. in
secondary coil.
The induced current in secondary is also an alternating current. The frequency of the
alternating current in secondary coil is same as the frequency of the primary current.
The alternating in the secondary circuit can be converted into direct current by using a pair of
diode.
Types of Transformer
There are 2 types of transformer, namely
1. the step up transformer

95
2. the step down transformer
Step-up Transformer
A step-up transformer is one where the e.m.f. in the secondary coil is greater than the e.m.f. in
the primary coil. It is used to increases the potential difference.
The number of windings in the secondary winding is greater than the number of windings in the
primary coil.
The current in the primary coil is greater than the current in the secondary coil.
Step-down transformer
Conversely, a step-down transformer is one where the e.m.f. in the secondary coil is less than the
e.m.f. in the primary coil. It is used to reduce the potential difference.
The number of windings in the primary winding is greater than the number of windings in the
secondary coil.
The current in the primary coil is lesser than the current in the secondary coil.
Transformer Equations
Vp is the potential, Ip is the current, Np is the turn on the primary coil and Vs is the potential, Is is the
current, Ns is the turn on the secondary coil. We use following equations to find potential, current or
number of turns of any coil;
Np = number of turns in primary coil

Ns = number of turns in secondary coil
Vp = input (primary) potential difference
Vs = output (secondary) potential difference
Ip = input (primary) current
Is = output (secondary) current
Example1
A 16.5:1, 50 Hz single-phase transformer has 100 turns on the secondary coil.

96
a) What type of transformer is it?
b) Calculate the number of turns in the primary coil.
Solutions
a) This is a step-down transformer. There are 16.5 times more windings on the primary coil than the
secondary coil.
b) Np = 100 16.5
Np = 1650 turns
example2
A transformer has 20 turns on the primary and 400 on the secondary. What is the output voltage if the
input voltage is 500V?
Solution
Vp
/Vs = Np/Ns Therefore Vs/Vp = Ns/Np
Vs
/500 = 400/20
Vs = 500 x (400/20)
Vs= 10,000 Volts
Efficiency of transformer
Efficiency of a device is equal to the ratio of output to input. Since,
Factors that affect the efficiency
1. The heating effect of current in a coil
Power is lost as heat I2R whereby I is the current flowing through the coil and R is the resistance of
the coil
Methods to increase the efficiency
Use thick copper wires of low resistance. Use coolant to decrease the temperature of the
transformer.

97
2. Heating effect of induced eddy currents
In the iron core, when the magnetic field in the iron core fluctuates, eddy currents are generated in
the iron core.
Use a laminated iron core whereby each layer is insulated with enamel paint to prevent the flow of
eddy currents. The high resistance between layers of the iron core decreases the prevalence of eddy
currents and heat.
3. Magnetization of the Iron Core.
The energy used in the magnetization and de-magnetization of the iron core each time current
changes its direction is known as hysterisis. This energy is lost as heat which subsequently heats up
the iron core.
Use a soft iron core that is easily magnetized and de-magnetized.
4. Flux leakage.
Some of the induced magnetic flux from the primary coil is not transmitted to the secondary coil,
therefore the e.m.f in the secondary coil is decreased.
Wind tightly the secondary coil on top of the primary coil,
The iron core should form a closed loop.

98
Transmission of Electricity.
Electricity is generated on a large scale at power stations and then transmitted through a network
of cables (called the National Grid) to factories and homes.
Transformers are used to produce a very high voltage for the transmission of electricity, to minimize
energy loss.
end
prepared : farah khadad

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Mechanics

1 Eng: farah khadaad

e.g., a planet revolving around its parent star

Other types of motion are:

Example: a rotating fan, a spinning top, the earth.

Describing kinematic with words

The motion of objects can be described by words.

In physics, we use these words as the language of motion

1. Distance and Displacement

2. Speed and Velocity

The quantity is either a vector or scalar.

Scalars are quantities which are described by a magnitude only.

2 Eng: farah khadaad

During the course of his motion, the total length of travel is 12 m.

When he is finished walking, there is no change in his position.

metric unit of speed: m/s

English unit of speed: ft/s

We use a symbol v to show speed. Let me formulate what we talk above;

Instantaneous speed: is the speed at any instant

Use speedometer to find instantaneous speed

3 Eng: farah khadaad

What is the speed of a car traveling 144 km in 90 minutes per hour?

4 Eng: farah khadaad

Total Dist. = 1000 m + 1000 m = 2000 m

Total Time = 3 min + 7 min = 10 min

Ave speed = total dist/total time =

2000m/10 min = 200 m/600s = 0.33m/s

a) Find the average speed of the moving object in km/h.

5 Eng: farah khadaad

Total time 15min+35min+120min=2.83h

The magnitude of the displacement D is equal to the hypotenuse AB as shown below

a) Find the magnitude of D?

average velocity = 2.52 km/h = 3.5 km/h

a) Find the average speed of the moving object in m/s.

b) Find the velocity of the object in m/s.

Acceleration :the rate at which velocity changes

Acceleration can be an:

Increase in speed , Example: Car speeds up at green light

Decrease in speed, Car slows down at stop light

Change in direction, Car takes turn (can be at constant speed)

7 Eng: farah khadaad

If velocity is constant throughout, there is no acceleration (a= 0)

if a body starts from rest its initial velocity is zero (vi=0)

8 Eng: farah khadaad

The car is accelerated as the following

Describing kinematics with Graphs

1. Plot and interpret a distance-time graph and a speed-time graph.

2. Deduce from the shape of a distance-time graph when a body is:

9 Eng: farah khadaad

(b) Moving with uniform speed

(c) Moving with non-uniform speed

3. Deduce from the shape of a speed-time graph when a body is:

(b) Moving with uniform speed

(c) Moving with uniform acceleration

(d) Moving with non-uniform acceleration

Gradient of the Distance-time Graph is the speed of the moving object

Gradient of the Speed-time Graph is the acceleration of the moving object.

Area under the Speed-time Graph is the distance travelled

(a) Car at rest

10 Eng: farah khadaad

11 Eng: farah khadaad

(c) Car moving with uniform deceleration

12 Eng: farah khadaad