intervals assimilate as tempo increases, maintaining andemphasizing the long/short distinction (Fraisse,

1956;Repp et al., 2002).

4
We do not see this tendency; instead,t h e l o n g a n d s h o r t i n t e r v a l s c o n v e r g e d t o w a r d s
t h e intermediate interval.The tempo drift that we observed can also be inter-preted as a central
tendency towards an intermediate duration (here, the tempo range 100-120 bpm). Below 100 bpm (70 bpm),
participants successively sped up. At100-120 bpm, the tempo was produced most consis- tently. As tempo
increased above 140 bpm, participantsboth started at increasingly slower tempi and slowed d o w n
within trials. This is consistent with previousresearch that has found 100 bpm / 600
m s I O I t o b e the rate that is determined to be neither too fast nor tooslow and is judged most accurately, thus it is
known asthe indifference interval (Parncutt, 1994; Wundt, 1911).Thus, both absolute (e.g., the indifference interval)
andr e l a t i v e ( e . g . , o t h e r i n t e r v a l s i n a p a t t e r n ) d u r a t i o n s influence rhythm production. Separating
the contribu-tion of each type of temporal divergence may be a topicfor future research.Our results suggest that the
way in which intervals aretimed within rhythmic configurations may have less todo with mathematical ideals and
more to do with localtemporal references. The local position and relative dura-tion of intervals affected how a rhythm was
articulatedmore than the complexity or simplicity of constituentinterval ratios as tempo increased. It may be that
fastertempi induce beats at higher metricallevels, leaving fewerbeats as temporal references, or metrical attractors,rel-ative to which
to orient intervals (Clarke, 1985; Repp et al., 2002; Repp et al., 2013). Performers are then
facedwiththetaskofconfiguringmoreunevenintervals within a beat period, and thus look for nonmetrical
temporalreferences. Likely references are intervals that are mostprominent (because of their position within the sequence
FIGURE 8.
Effect plot showing the performance deviation for each of the six nonadjacent interval ratios (see Figure 4) of the 3-
2 son clave pattern(panels) by tempo (x-axis). Points and confidence intervals were computed with a categorical
model of tempo, whereas model curves were computedwith tempo constrained to be a continuous,
quadratic predictor. The effect is predominantly negative for 3/1, slightly negative for 5/1 and
5/2(especially at higher tempi), predominantly positive for 4/1 and 4/2, and slightly positive for 5/3 (especially at
higher tempi).
4
Alternatively, one could argue that as tempo increases, the absolutedurations are either generally contained by or
gravitate towards Fraisses(1956)
short
category (200-300 ms). As tempo increases, there are moreshort durations and fewer long durations, thus we
see assimilationtowards a single representative short value. This explanation is not totally satisfying
as 1) many of the actual produced durations were either< 200 ms or > 300 ms, and thus outside the proposed
short category boundaries; and more importantly 2) we must be careful to not confusethe idea of a short
category with the idea that all durations within thatcategory are normalized to a particular value. That is,
even if all theintervals produced at the fastest tempi were within the boundaries of theshort category, this
doesnt mean that performers stopped trying to make distinctions between intervals in order to convey the
identity of therhythm.
310
Scott Barton, Laura Getz, & Michael Kubovy
or the number of times they are repeated, for example),which subsequently influence how other intervals
areproduced.Although the findings showed systematic deviationsa c r o s s p a r t i c i p a n t s , t h e
g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y i s l i m i t e d b y several factors. First, we only investigated one
rhythmp a t t e r n ; t h u s , f u t u r e e x p e r i m e n t s s h o u l d v a r y t h e meter, the number of notes,
the proportion of intervalratios, and the length of patterns. Second, the 3-2
 son
clave contains syncopation, which may have affected how the rhythm was perceived and produced as
tempochanged. Third, because there is a relationship betweenf a s t e r t e m p i a n d h e i g h t e n e d s e n s e
o f t h e g r o o v e (Janata, Tomic, & Haberman, 2012), it is possible that p e r f o r m e r s
s e n s e o f g r o o v e c h a n g e d a s t e m p o increased in this experiment, leading to
alterations of p r o d u c e d i n t e r v a l r a t i o s . F o u r t h , t h e w a y s i n w h i c h rhythms are produced
and perceived depends on con-text. It is an open question how sensitivity to stylistic conventions,
performance strategies, expertise, setting ( r e c o r d i n g s t u d i o , c o n c e r t h a l l , l a b o r a t o r y, e t c . )
a n d materials (full piece, musical excerpt, pseudo-musicaltemporal configuration, etc.) affect
rhythmic produc-t i o n a n d p e r c e p t i o n t e n d e n c i e s . F i n a l l y , t h e s t u d y reported here
focused solely on rhythm performance. It is an open question how performers
perceive
rhythmsat different tempi.
Author Note
C o r r e s p o n d e n c e c o n c e r n i n g t h i s a r t i c l e s h o u l d b e addressed to
Scott Barton, Worcester Polytechnic Insti-tute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA 01609; E-
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Variation (music)
Franz Schubert - Impromptu in B-flat

Menu
0:00
Franz Schubert's Impromptu in B flat (D 935) No. 3. A theme and variations based on a
theme from Schubert's Rosamunde.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the musical form. For other uses, see Variation (disambiguation).

Phrase and variation from Chopin's Nocturne in F minor.[1] Play (helpinfo)

In music, variation is a formal technique where material is repeated in an altered form. The
changes may involve harmony, melody, counterpoint, rhythm, timbre, orchestration or any
combination of these.

Contents
1 Variation form

2 History of variations

3 Improvised variations

4 See also

5 Notes

6 References

7 Further reading

8 External links

Variation form
Variation forms include ground bass, passacaglia, chaconne, and theme and variations.[2] Ground
bass, passacaglia and chaconne are typically based on brief ostinato motifs providing a repetitive
harmonic basis and are also typically continuous evolving structures. 'Theme and variation'
forms are however based specifically on melodic variation, in which the fundamental musical
idea, or theme, is repeated in altered form or accompanied in a different manner. 'Theme and
variation' structure generally begins with a theme (which is itself sometimes preceded by an
introduction), typically between eight and thirty-two bars in length; each variation, particularly in
music of the eighteenth century and earlier, will be of the same length and structure as the theme.
[3]
This form may in part have derived from the practical inventiveness of musicians; "Court
dances were long; the tunes which accompanied them were short. Their repetition became
intolerably wearisome, and inevitably led the player to indulge in extempore variation and
ornament";[4] however, the format of the dance required these variations to maintain the same
duration and shape of the tune.

Variation forms can be written as 'free-standing' pieces for solo instruments or ensembles, or can
constitute a movement of a larger piece. Most jazz music is structured on a basic pattern of
theme and variations.[5]

Examples include John Bull's Salvator Mundi, Bach's Canonic Variations on "Vom Himmel hoch
da komm' ich her, Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor, Violin Chaconne, and (D minor solo
violin suite), Corelli's La Folia Variations, Beethoven's Diabelli Variations, the Finale of
Brahms's Fourth Symphony, Variations on a Theme of Haydn, Op. 56, Elgar's Enigma
Variations, Franck's Variations Symphoniques, and Richard Strauss's Don Quixote.[6] Both
Schubert's Death and the Maiden Quartet and Trout Quintet take their titles from his songs used
as variation movements.[6]

History of variations
Although the first isolated example emerged in the 14th century, works in theme-and-variation
form first emerge in the early sixteenth century.[7] Possibly the earliest published example is the
diferencias for vihuela by Luis de Narvez (1538).[3] A favorite form of variations in Renaissance
music was divisions, a type in which the basic rhythmic beat is successively divided into smaller
and smaller values. The basic principle of beginning with simple variations and moving on to
more elaborate ones has always been present in the history of the variation form, since it
provides a way of giving an overall shape to a variation set, rather than letting it just form an
arbitrary sequence.

Keyboard works in variation form were written by a number of 16th-century English composers,
including William Byrd, Hugh Aston and Giles Farnaby. Outstanding examples of early Baroque
variations are the "ciaccone" of Claudio Monteverdi and Heinrich Schtz.[8] Two famous
variation sets from the Baroque era, both originally written for harpsichord, are George Frideric
Handel's The Harmonious Blacksmith set, and Johann Sebastian Bach's Goldberg Variations,
BWV 988.

In the Classical era, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote a great number of variations, such as the
first movement of his Piano Sonata in A, K. 331, or the finale of his Clarinet Quintet. Joseph
Haydn specialized in sets of double variations, in which two related themes, usually minor and
major, are presented and then varied in alternation; outstanding examples are the slow movement
of his Symphony No. 103, the Drumroll, and the Variations in F minor for piano, H XVII:6.[3]

Ludwig van Beethoven wrote many variation sets in his career. Some were independent sets, for
instance the Diabelli Variations, Op. 120, and the Eroica Variations in E major, Op. 35. Others
form single movements or parts of movements in larger works, such as first movement of the
Piano Sonata No. 12, Op. 26, or the variations in the final movement of the Third Symphony
(Eroica). Variation sets also occur in several of his late works, such as the slow movement of his
String Quartet No. 12, Op. 127, the second movement of his final Piano Sonata No. 32, Op. 111,
and the slow third movement of the Ninth Symphony, Op.125.

Franz Schubert wrote five variation sets using his own lieder as themes. Amongst them is the
slow movement of his string quartet Death and the Maiden D. 810, an intense set of variations
on his somber lied (D. 531) of the same title. Schubert's Piano Quintet in A (The Trout, D. 667)
likewise includes variations on his song The Trout D. 550. The second movement of the Fantasie
in C major comprises a set of variations on Der Wanderer; indeed the work as a whole takes its
popular name from the lied.

In the Romantic era, the variation form was developed further. In 1824, Carl Czerny premiered
his Variations for piano and orchestra on the Austrian National Hymn Gott erhalte Franz der
Kaiser, Op. 73.[9] Frdric Chopin wrote four sets for solo piano, and also the Variations on "La
ci darem la mano" from Mozart's opera Don Giovanni, Op. 2, for piano and orchestra (1827). A
further example of the form is Felix Mendelssohn's Variations srieuses.

Johannes Brahms wrote a number of sets of variations; some of them rely on themes by older
composers, for example the Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel (1861; piano), and the
Variations on a Theme by Haydn (1873; orchestra). The latter work is believed to be the first set
of variations for orchestra alone that was a work in its own right, rather than part of a symphony,
suite or other larger work.[10] Karl Goldmark's Rustic Wedding Symphony (1875) starts out with a
set of variations as its first movement. Antonn Dvok's Symphonic Variations (1877) and
Edward Elgar's Enigma Variations (1899) are other well-known examples. Anton Arensky's
Variations on a Theme by Tchaikovsky (1894) is among his most popular compositions.

Variation sets have also been composed by notable twentieth-century composers, including
Sergei Rachmaninoff (Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini for piano and orchestra, and his
variations for solo piano on themes by Chopin and Corelli), Charles Ives (Variations on
"America", 1891), Ern Dohnnyi (Variations on a Nursery Tune for piano and orchestra, Op. 25,
1914), Arnold Schoenberg (Variations for Orchestra, Op. 31, and Theme and Variations, Opp.
43a and 43b), Igor Stravinsky (Pulcinella: XV Gavotta con due variazioni, 1920; Octet: II Tema
con variazioni, 1922; Ebony Concerto: III, 1945; and Variations: Aldous Huxley in memoriam,
196364), Anton Webern (Variations, Op. 27 for piano, and Variations, Op. 30 for orchestra),
Alban Berg (Act 1, Scene 4 and the beginning of Act 3 scene 1 of Wozzeck), George Gershwin
(Variations on "I Got Rhythm" for piano and orchestra, 1934), Paul Hindemith (Symphonic
Metamorphosis of Themes by Carl Maria von Weber, 1943), Olivier Messiaen (Thme et
variations for violin and piano, 1932), Benjamin Britten (including the Variations on a Theme of
Frank Bridge, 1937, and The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra (Variations and Fugue on a
Theme by Purcell), 1946), Reinhold Glire (Harp Concerto in E-flat: II, 1938), William Walton
(second movement of the Sonata for Violin and Piano, 194749, and Variations on a Theme by
Hindemith, 1963), Leonard Bernstein (part 1 of his Symphony No. 2: The Age of Anxiety, 1949,
is a Prologue and 14 variations), Luigi Nono (Variazioni canoniche sulla serie dell'op. 41 di A.
Schnberg, 1950), Frederic Rzewski, Thirty-six Variations on "The People United Will Never Be
Defeated!" (1975), Frans Geysen, De grote variatie for organ (1975), Cristbal Halffter,
Variaciones sobre la resonancia de un grito, for 11 instruments, tape, and live electronics (1976
77), Mikls Rzsa, Theme, Variations, and Finale (1933), John Cage, Variations IVIII (1958
67), Hymns and Variations, for twelve amplified voices (1979), Ben Johnston, String Quartet No.
4 "Ascent" (Variations on "Amazing Grace", 1973), John McGuire, Forty-eight Variations, for
two pianos (197680), Andrew Lloyd Webber, Variations for cello and rock band (1977), Steve
Reich (Variations for Winds, Strings and Keyboards, 1979), and John Williams, Variations on
"Happy Birthday" for orchestra (1995). An unusual option was taken in 1952 with the Variations
on an Elizabethan Theme, a set of six variations on Sellenger's Round for string orchestra, in
which each variation was written by a different composer, Lennox Berkeley, Benjamin Britten,
Arthur Oldham, Humphrey Searle, Michael Tippett, and William Walton.

A significant sub-set of the above consists of variations on a theme by another composer.

Improvised variations
Skilled musicians can often improvise variations on a theme. This was commonplace in the
Baroque era, when the da capo aria, particularly when in slow tempo, required the singer to be
able to improvise a variation during the return of the main material.

Musicians of the Classical era also could improvise variations; both Mozart (see Mozart's
compositional method) and Beethoven made powerful impressions on their audiences when they
improvised. Modern listeners can get a sense of what these improvised variations sounded like
by listening to published works that evidently are written transcriptions of improvised
performances, in particular Beethoven's Fantasia in G Minor, Op. 77,[11] and Mozart's Variations
on an Aria by Gluck, K. 455.[12]

Improvisation of elaborate variations on a popular theme is one of the core genres of jazz.

Improvisation by means of spontaneous variations, ornaments, embellishments and/or alterations

to a melody is the basis of most sub-Saharan African music (traditional and pop) extending from
melody and harmony to form and rhythmic embellishments.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________