9.

2 Production of Materials
Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to
compare the reactivity of corresponding alkenes and alkanes in
bromine water
Gather and present information from first-hand or secondary
sources to write equations to represent all chemical reactions
encountered in the HSC course
Alkanes:
o Saturated (all bonds are single bonds) and least reactive
hydrocarbons
o Naturally found in crude oil
o Uses fuel, good solvent, lubricant, polishing, road sealing,
insecticides, etc.
o Chemical properties least reactive but undergo some reactions
such as:
Combustion (burning in oxygen):
Alkanes combust and produce large amounts of energy
and are used in common fuels. E.g. methane, petrol,
kerosene
E.g. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) +2H2O(g/l) (complete
combustion)
3
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO(g) +2H2O(g/l) (Incomplete

combustion)
CH4(g) + O2(g) C(s) +2H2O(g/l) (Incomplete combustion)
Depending on the fuel to oxygen ratio the alkanes
combust differently. When less oxygen in available
they undergo incomplete combustion as shown above
Substitution reaction:
Because alkanes are saturate hydrocarbons the
hydrogen atoms can be substituted by other elements
such as halogens. However, for this to occur some
form of energy is required(usually UV radiation) to
break the bonds
E.g. CH4(g) + Cl2(g) (UV catalyst) CH3Cl(g) + HCL
Cracking:
Larger alkanes are very inefficient and in small
demand. Therefore in the petroleum industry they are
cracked for smaller molecules. During this process
alkenes are produced. Cracking can be performed
under different condition to obtain desired products
Thermal cracking steam is used at extremely high
pressures and temperature (750C and 2000-3000kPa).
E.g. C2H6(g) C2H4(g) +H2(g)
Catalytic cracking the catalyst zeolite
(aluminosilicate) is used at around (500C and 200-
300kPa). E.g. C10H22(l) C8H18(l) + C2H4(g)
 E.g. C10H22(l) C8H18(l) + C2H4(g)
Alkenes:
o Unsaturated(at least one double bond) and more reactive than
alkanes
o Naturally found in crude oil but can be produced industrially by
thermal cracking
o Uses ethene or ethylene is the most commonly used alkene for
the production of polymers and ethanol. Larger alkenes(after
butane) have limited use
o Chemical properties alkenes are unsaturated and therefore are
more reactive than their corresponding alkanes. The double bonds
open up and atoms, molecules and compounds join with the carbon
atoms. This is known as an addition reaction which is much faster
than substitution in alkanes. Types of addition reactions:
Hydrogenation (addition of hydrogen atoms):
E.g. C2H4(g) + H2(g) (250C with Pt/Ni/Pd as catalyst)
C2H6(g)
Hydrogen reacts with alkenes with finely ground
platinum, nickel or aluminium and produces
corresponding alkanes. This reaction is used in
margarine industry to convert unsaturated oil into
polyunsaturated fat
Hydration:
E.g. C2H4(g) + H2O(g) (phosphoric or sulfuric acid as
catalyst) C2H5OH
Alkenes react with water/steam in the presence of
concentrated acids such as sulfuric acid or phosphoric
acid to produce alkanols. This reaction is used to
produce ethanol from ethylene in industries
Halogenation:
E.g. CH3CH=CH2(g) + Cl2(g) CH3CHClCH2Cl(g)

Physical properties
Property Alkanes Alkenes
Intermolec
Weak dispersal forces Weak dispersal forces
ular forces
States(RTP) Exist in all three states. Slightly lower boiling
First few (up to butane) and melting points than
are gaseous, the middle alkanes as they have
alkanes (up to less dispersal forces.
octadecane) are liquids.
Solid alkanes are
extremely large (18
carbons and higher) in
molecular size but exist
in small amounts.
Straight chain alkanes
have higher boiling
points than branched
alkanes as they have
 more dispersal forces for
their molecular size.
do not conduct do not conduct
Conductivit electricity as they have electricity as they have
y no free moving electrons no free moving electrons
or ions or ions
soluble in non-polar soluble in non-polar
Solubility compounds, insoluble in compounds, insoluble in
polar polar
Same strong smell as
Odour strong unique smell
alkanes
As crude oil, they are
dark in colour. Smaller
Colour alkanes are lighter and Similar to alkanes
clearer and larger ones
are darker
Similar density to
Density lower density than water
alkanes
Volatility High High

Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to

compare the reactivities of appropriate alkenes with
corresponding alkanes in bromine water

First-hand Investigation
Aim: To determine the reactivities of alkenes with bromine water compared
corresponding alkanes in bromine water
Risk assessment: Bromine water produces toxic vapours that can cause severe
burns to the eyes and skin. Therefore, the experiment must be performed in a
fume cupboard and safety glasses must be worn at all times
Equipment: 3 x test tubes, cyclohexane, cyclohexene, diluter bromine water
solution (0.2 molL-1) HOBr
Method:
1. Set up 3 test tubes A,B and C in a test tube rack
2. Add 2mL of cyclohexane to test tube A and 2mL of cyclohexene to test
tube B.
3. Add 2 mL of bromine water to all test tubes
4. Observe the test tubes for any colour changes
5. Record your observations in the table below
Variables:

Independent: homologous series of hydrocarbon (alkane or alkene)

Dependent: colour change (reactivity in bromine water)
 Control: same equipment, same temperature, etc.

Results:

Test tube Contents Observations

Cyclohexane + bromine
A
water
Cyclohexene + bromine
B
water
C Bromine water

Equation: C6H10(l) + HOBr(aq) C6H10BrOH(l)

Discussion:

Reliability: compare with other groups who performed the same

experiment and/or secondary resources
Validity: the validity was improved by have a control set-up with only
bromine water in the test tube

Identify that ethylene, because of its high reactivity of its double

bond, is readily transformed in to many useful products
 Identify that ethylene serves as a
monomer from which polymers
are made
Ethylene is the simplest and smallest
alkene that can undergo several
reactions (due to its double bond) and
transform into many useful products
Ethylene reactions:
o Hydrohalogenation:
CH2CH2 + HCl
CH3CH2Cl
Chloroethane - can be
used as a solvent,
refrigerant or as an
ethylating agent in other
reactions
o Producing ethanol (hydration)
CH2CH2 + H 2O
CH3CH2OH(high pressure,
300C and phosphoric
acid as catalyst)
Ethanol important
solvent. Also used in
toiletries, cosmetics,
detergents, disinfectants and flavouring
o Producing vinyl chloride:
4CH2CH2(g) + 2Cl2(g) + O2(g) 4CH2CHCl(g) + 2H2O(g) (150C
and copper(II) chloride as catalyst)
Vinyl chloride monomer used to produce polyvinylchloride
(PVC)
o Producing ethylene oxide:
Ethylene oxide is an intermediate in the production of other
important petrochemical such as 1,2-ethandiol (antifreeze)
and polyesters that are used in fibres and plastic films:
2CH2CH2(g) + O2(g) 2C2H4O(g) (250C and silver as
catalyst)
The ethylene oxide can be converted to 1,2-ethandiol
(ethylene glycol):
C2H4O(g) + H2O(l) CH2OHCH2OH(l) (acid as catalyst)
o Producing styrene:
Ethylene reacts with benzene (C6H6) to produce
ethylbenzene:
C6H6 + CH2CH2 C6H5(C2H5) (0.1 MPa, 80-100C and
aluminium as catalyst)
This product then undergoes catalytic dehydrogenation to
produce styrene
C6H5(C2H5) + S C6H5(CHCH2) + H2S
 Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers
are made
Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the
meaning of this term
Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example
of commercially and industrially important polymer
Identify the following as commercially significant polymers:
o Vinyl chloride
o Styrene
by both their systematic and common names
Describe the use of the polymers made from above monomers in
terms of their properties
Monomer simple units that join together to form larger molecules
(polymers) e.g. ethylene
Polymerisation the process of combining monomers to produce polymers
Addition polymerisation
o Type of polymerisation where no loss of atoms or molecules occurs
o The monomers must contain a double bond
o Ethylene is a starting material (feedstock) for most polymerisations:
Polyethene (Polyethylene)
OR n(CH2=CH2) (CH2

CH2)n
There are two types of poylethylenes:
Low density polyethylene (LDPE) produces by gas
phase process under
high pressures (1000-
3000 atmospheric
press.) and high
temperatures (300C). An
organic peroxide is
also used as an
initiator to produce branched polyethylene. Because
the polymer is branched they cannot be easily stacked.
Therefore, their mass is low per unit of volume, hence
LDPE. Although it is soft and more flexible it also has
lower tensile strength. It is non-polar and therefore can
be used in wrapping materials (cling wrap), shopping
bags, squeezable bottles, etc.
High density polyethylene (HDPE) produced at low
temperatures (50-75C) high at low pressures (1-2
 atmospheric press.) in
the presence of
titanium chloride
(TiCl4) and trialkyl
aluminium
compounds (e.g.
Al(C2H5)3). This results in unbranched molecules that
can be stacked neatly and easily. This increases the
mass per unit of volume (density), hence HDPE. HDPE
is used in kitchen utensils, furniture, toys, etc.
Polyvinylchloride (PVC):
Made from vinyl chloride which originally comes from
ethylene
PVC is a good electrical insulator, rigid because of the
Cl atoms (larger than H atoms) and non-polar (Cl is in
small amounts therefore it does not increase overall
polarity). Due these properties it is used in pipes,
gutter
and

electrical insulators
Polystyrene:
Made from addition of ethyl benzene (phenyl ethylene)
Available in crystalline or foam structure. When the
polystyrene is in liquid form, air is pumped through.
When the air is trapped, it acts as a thermal insulator
and a shock absorber. Styrofoam is used for packaging
material and food storage. Crystalline polystyrene is
very rigid because benzene is a large molecule it gives
less flexibility. It is used to make tool or knife handles
(Teflon is a common brand).
Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds
presently obtained from the petrochemical industry
Petrochemicals are chemicals obtained from petroleum and natural gas
reserves. Although Australia has a large supply of natural gas, the oil
reserves are declining. Fossil fuels take hundreds of millions of years to
form and accumulate. Over 95% of these fossils fuels are burnt for energy
and around 5% are used in the production of plastics only a small
proportion of which are recycled. Alternative sources are needed to meet
the future demands as the fossil fuels are used up.
Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer
Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is
formed
Condensation polymerisation polymerisation where a small molecular
weight (usually water) is eliminated at each condensation step
 Condensation polymerisation reaction reaction where two monomers
combine to form a polymer with the elimination of a smaller molecule.
E.g. n(HOC6H10O4OH) (glucose) H(OC6H10O4)nOH (cellulose) +
(n 1)H2O (water)

Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example

of condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass
Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures
needed to build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw
material
Biomass organic matter
Cellulose is a polymer of glucose (6 C atoms 5 C atoms in a straight
chain) and it is regarded as the basic structure of many starting molecule
for petrochemicals. This because glucose can glucose can be broken down
into ethene, propene, and butene, therefore they can be used as starting
materials for most plastics. Glucose can also be fermented to get ethanol
which is a good biofuel (however it is difficult to break cellulose into
glucose and the process is very expensive).
Cellulose to glucose:
o This can be done either by enzymatic digestion (cellulase) or acid
treatment
o Cellulase - it is first grinded and treated with sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) to swell and open up the fibres. The cellulase then break
glyosidic bonds and forming glucose
o Acid treatment husk/straw is treated with concentrated sulfuric
acid (H2SO4)
o The insoluble material is filtered from the produced glucose
solution. The filtrate (glucose) is neutralised (to get rid of the acid)
to get the glucose
Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary
sources and analyse progress in the recent development and use
of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name the specific
enzyme(s) used or organism used to synthesise the material and
an evaluation of the use or potential use of the polymer produced
related to its properties
Polylactic acid (PLA):
o Characteristics:
Biodegradable
Inherently clear and naturally glossy
Resistant to moisture and grease
Naturally stiff
Easily processed and can be copolymerised with other
materials
 Readily accepts fillers
o Process:
Direct condensation polymerisation:
Starch is extracted from corn or potatoes
Dextrose (crystalline glucose) is processed from starch
Dextrose is converted into lactic acid, by anaerobic
fermentation with Lactobacillus bacteria or Rhizopus
Oryzae (fungi)
PLA is produced by condensation polymerisation of
lactic acid with Eutrophus bacteria as catalyst

Ring-opening polymerisation (yields PLA with a greater

molecular weight):
Lactic acid molecule is condensed to form a cyclic
lactic acid dimer called lactide
The ring-opening reaction with Tin (II) 2-
ethylhexanoate as catalyst opens up the ring structure
into a straight chain forming PLA
o Uses:
Fabrics
Dinnerware
Food-wraps
Rigid containers, dairy containers and food trays
Garbage bags
o Development:
First produced in 1932 at the DuPont laboratories. The
process was patented in 1954 but because of the high cost of
obtaining the monomer
More research conducted until the 1980s
During the period 1987-92, Cargill Inc. (USA) developed a
pilot plant for PLA production
In 1997, Cargill-Dow undertook the commercialisation of the
polymer
By 2002 the Nebraska and Iowa facilities were producing
large commercial of PLA from corn starch
 Describe the dehydration of ethylene and identify the need for a
catalyst in this process and catalyst used
Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the
production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this
process and the catalyst used
Alkanols:
o Homologous series of compounds that are a sub-set of a larger
group known collectively as alcohols.
o Functional group (OH) group
o General formula CnH2n+1OH (n=1, 2, 3)
o Suffix ol. E.g. ethanol
Ethylene and ethanol:
o Ethylene converted to ethanol via an addition reaction with water
(hydration):
Indirect hydration - Ethylene is reacted with 98% sulfuric acid
in absorption columns held at 55-80C and 1-3.5MPa
pressure. Water is then added to the reaction mixture until
the sulfuric acid concentration is about 50% and then heated
to 70-100C. The ethanol that forms is distilled off and has a
concentration of 70% (v/v). This reaction occurs in two steps:
1. The sulfuric acid goes through an addition reaction with
ethylene to produce ethyl hydrogen sulphate. C 2H4 + H2SO4
C2H5HSO4
2. The ethyl hydrogen sulphate reacts with the water generating
ethanol; sulfuric acid is reformed. C 2H5HSO4 + H2O C2H5OH
+ H2SO4
3. Overall addition C2H4+ H2O C2H5OH (H = 46 KJmol-1)
Catalytic hydration ethylene and steam are passed over a
silica gel or zeolite surface impregnated with phosphoric acid
(H3PO4) or tungstic acid (H2WO4) catalyst. The reaction occurs
under high pressures (1-9 MPa) and temperatures (300C).
C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH
o Ethanol can be converted to ethylene by a dehydration reaction
with sulfuric acid as catalyst:
1. C2H5OH + H2SO4 C2H5HSO4 + H2O
2. C2H5H2SO4 C2H4 + H2SO4
Overall dehydration: C2H5OH C2H4 + H2O
Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent
for polar and non-polar substances
Outline the uses of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be
called a renewable source

Property Value
Melting point 114.1C
Boiling point 78.3C
Density 0.79 g/ml
Solubility in water Miscible in all proportions
 Physical properties of ethanol:
In addition, ethanol can dissolve in and dissolve other polar and non-polar
substances. Therefore, it is used as an industrial solvent in lacquers,
paints, resins, oils and fatty acids. It is also used as a solvent in toiletries,
medications, antiseptics and perfumes

Chemical properties of ethanol:

o Ethanol combusts and produces carbon dioxide, water and large
amounts of energy used as a fuel extender or alternate fuel.
C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O (H = -1360KJmol-1
o Ethanol can also be obtained from plant material such as
sugarcane. Sugars, mostly glucose, can be fermented to obtain
ethanol (this method is renewable)
o Ethanol as a fuel is theoretically carbon neutral:
Sugarcane plants use carbon dioxide and water to produce
glucose:
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
The glucose is fermented to produce ethanol:
C6H12O6(yeast catalyst) 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Ethanol is combusted as a fuel:
2C2H5OH + 6O2 4CO2 + H2O
The plants use up six molecules of carbon dioxide and the
fermentation and combustion produce six molecules of
carbon dioxide making ethanol carbon neutral as a fuel (CO 2
produced = CO2 used)
However, the production of ethanol involves growing
sugarcane which includes processes like planting, ploughing,
transporting, etc. that require large amounts of fuel which
also release CO2. Therefore, practically it is not neutral
Uses of ethanol as a fuel:
Extended fuel extends life of conventional fuel
(petroleum). It is a mixture of ethanol and petrol at a
ratio. E.g. In Australia, it is 10% ethanol added fuel.
Usually if the over 15% of the fuel is ethanol, engine
modifications are needed
Alternate fuel some countries such as Brazil (85%)
use ethanol as n alternate fuel
 Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process
Describe the conditions under which fermentation of sugars is
promoted
Solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to
carry out the fermentation of glucose and monitor mass change
Fermentation the biochemical reaction in which sugars are converted
into ethanol and carbon dioxide under the action of an enzyme (produced
by microbes such as yeast or bacteria). The reaction is exothermic and
heat must be dissipated to ensure that the yeast does not die.
Fermenting glucose produces ethanol. More complex carbohydrates (e.g.
sucrose and starch) can also be fermented by first breaking it down to
maltose (enzyme diatase) and then converting maltose to glucose
(enzyme - maltase) so it can be fermented. In Australia sucrose is
extracted from molasses syrup (a by-product of the sugar industry) and
hydrolysed and then fermented:
o Hydrolysis of sucrose C12H22O11 + H2O 2C6H12O6
o Fermentation of glucose: C6H12O6 2CH3CH2OH + O2
o Net C12H22O11 + H2O 4C2H5OH + 4CO2
Conditions necessary for fermentation:
Condition Reason
Low pH (slightly acidic) 3.7-4.6 The low pH prevents the
pathogens from growing. It also
prevents growth of bacteria that
would convert the ethanol into
acetic acid
Anaerobic conditions To prevent yeast from respiring
aerobically and producing carbon
dioxide and water, instead of
ethanol
Temperature at 37C If the temperature is too low, the
fermentation rate will be too slow if
the temperature is too high the
enzyme will be denatured and
killed
Alcohol tolerant yeast Prevents yeast from dying when
alcohol concentration increases

Aqueous solution of simple sugar To kill bacteria that would convert

in water. (sugar content around ethanol to acetic acid
20% weight sugar in water. This
should contain 30-50 ppm sulfur
dioxide)
Sterile conditions Prevents induction and growth of
microorganisms
Diammonium Phosphate (N and P Aid the growth of yeast
nutrients)
Enzymes (Zymase) To catalyse the reaction
First-hand investigation
Aim:

To show that during fermentation of glucose, ethanol and carbon dioxide

are produced
To show that mass reduction occurs during fermentation of glucose

Equipment: Conical flask, delivery tube, limewater, distilled water, glucose and
yeast
Method:
1. Take conical flask
2. Add 200mL of distilled water and 30g of glucose and dissolve thoroughly
3. Add 2g of yeast and mix well
4. Measure the initial mass of the flask with the mixture
5. Fix the delivery tube shown and leave one end in limewater
6. Leave the setup in warm area
7. Measure the mass at regular intervals (every 6 hours) and record the
results
8. After 72 hours, observe the lime water (colour change). Record any
observations during the 72 hours
9. Remove the set-up and filter the mixture in a flask
10. Distil the filtrate and collect the distillate and sniff
Results:
Mass(g)
Observations:

Unique alcohol smell when sniffed

Bubble observed in the water
Lime water becomes cloudy

Time(s)

Equation:

C6H12O6(aq) (yeast-zymase catalyst) 2CO2(g) + 2C2H5OH

Risk assessment:

Alcohol must not be consumed only sniffed as it is harmful

 Identify data sources, choose resources and perform a first-hand
investigation to determine and compare heats of combustion of at
least three liquid alkanols per gram and mole
Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate
the value for ethanol from first-hand data
Molar heat of combustion amount of heat energy released when 1
mol of a substance is completely burnt in oxygen
First-hand investigation
Aim: To find the molar heat of combustion of ethanol
Equipment and diagram: three alkanols ethanol, propanol and butanol

aluminium can

Method:
1. Take a clean aluminium can and measuring its mass using an electronic
balance
2. Fill the can with 150mL of water and measure the total mass
3. Setup the spirit burner as shown in the diagram and measure its initial
mass
4. Using a thermometer measure the initial temperature of the water
5. Light the spirit burner keeping the flame very close to the can so heat loss
is minimised
6. Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram
7. Let the flame heat the water for 3 minutes
8. Extinguish the flame and measure the final temperature of water
9. Record the mass of the spirit burner with the alkanol
Results (ethanol):

Mass of water (g) 250

Initial mass of burner(g) 221.4
Final mass of burner(g) 219.1
Initial temperature of water(C) 19
Final temperature of water(C) 79

Calculation:
Heat transferred into the water = mcT n of ethanol =
= 250 x 4.18 x (79 19) 2.3
12.01 2+1.008 6 +16
= 62700
= 0.05 mols
Therefore, molar heat of ethanol =
62700
0.05
Risk assessment:

Hot aluminium can can burn the skin therefore use thermal gloves, tongs
and let it cool down before removing it
Discussion:

Accuracy perform the experiment in a fume cupboard to avoid heat loss

by wind. Keep the flame as close as possible so the maximum heat is
transferred to the can. Use an electronic balance for accurate
measurement. The heat loss can also be determined by using an alkanol
whose published molar heat of combustion is known
Validity using an aluminium can instead of a glass beaker
Reliability repeat the experiment and compare you results with other
groups and secondary resources
 Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss
the advantages and disadvantages of its use
Property/feature Ethanol Conventional fuel
Renewability Can be produced from Non-renewable as fossil
glucose from plant fuels take millions of
material, hence years to form and
renewable deposit
Clean burning C2H5OH No oxygen content. Can
% of O by mass go undergo complete
16 combustion to produce
= 46.068 100 35 carbon monoxide or
carbon. When
Higher oxygen content combusted completely it
means clean complete (octane) produces a lot
combustion and it also more carbon dioxide
produces less carbon perm molecule (8
dioxide per molecule (2 molecules)
molecules, hence 4x
less)
Carbon neutrality Theoretically, the carbon No natural or artificial
dioxide used in processes convert the
photosynthesis is equal carbon dioxide produced
to the carbon dioxide from burning
released in the conventional fuel
fermentation and constituents into
combustion (not true environmentally friendly
practically as sugarcane products
production uses much
more energy)
Solubility Has a polar end large Non-polar large spills
spills can be cleaned are harder to clean
easily. It is also especially in marine
biodegradable environments. Non-
biodegradable
Ignition temperature 363C similar to 390C
the minimum conventional fuel
temperature at which making it equally safe to
the fuel-air mixture store
spontaneously ignites
Flashpoint lowest 16C safer to store -43C extremely
temperature at which unsafe
a fuel produces
enough vapour to
form an explosive
mixture
Molar heat of H= -1360KJmol-1 less H= -5460KJmol-1 a lot
combustion efficient than more energy efficient
conventional fuel (5x)
Boiling point 78.3C more volatile 125.7C less volatile,
hence safer to store
Land usage Sugarcane plants need Crude oil wells can be
to be produce in large set up in oceans where
scale for ethanol huge deposits are found.
production which can be Therefore, it requires
used for food production less land usage
instead
Waste products Production by Heavier hydrocarbons
fermentation leaves that are left over after
plant material at the end fractional distillation can
that requires special be used as lubricants
waste management less waste produced
 Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of
metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons
Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in
solution by other metals to relative activity of metals
Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of
their loss or gain of electrons
Displacement reaction a reaction where a reactive metal displaces a
less reactive metal ion from its solution. E.g. A magnesium strip is added
to a copper sulphate solution Mg (s) + CuSO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s),
copper ions are displaced by magnesium atoms because magnesium is
more reactive and can form a stronger ionic bond with the sulphate ion.
The electron transfer in the reaction can be shown by oxidation and
reduction equations:
o Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e- (oxidation half equation)
Redox
o 2Ag+(aq) + 2e- 2Ag(s) (reduction half equation)
reaction
o Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) (net ionic equation)
Oxidation state when an element loses an electron its oxidation state =
+1. Therefore, in the example above, copper has an oxidation state of +2
(hence Cu(II)). However, the silver ions gain one electron each so they
have an oxidation of -1.
Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction
reactions
Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction
of the electron flow
Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to
describe galvanic cells
Perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under
which a galvanic cell is produced
Galvanic cell:
o A device which generated electricity from chemical reactions
o Uses a redox reaction however, the oxidation and reduction are
separated into two different cells so the electrons can move in a
circuit where a load is connected to do the work
 Voltmet Wires
er

Mg NO3- K+ Cu

Anode () Cathode
(+)
Salt bridge
Soaked in
KNO3

MgNO3(aq) CuSO4(aq)

Mg(s) Mg2+(aq)+ Cu2+(aq)+ 2e-

2e- Cu(s)
o Parts of a galvanic cell:
Electrode terminals to connect to the external circuit so the
electrons can move from the oxidation half to reduction half
Anode electrode where oxidation occurs (ANOX)
Cathode electrode where reduction occurs (REDCAT)
Electrolyte solutions where freely moving charged ions are
available (MgNO3, CuSO4, KNO3)
Salt bridge completes the circuit. It is usually soaked in a
solution which does not precipitate (e.g. nitrates or ammonia
compounds). In the example above the potassium nitrate
(KNO3) separates into its ions K+ and NO3-. The nitrate ions
are negative and they travel to the left to maintain the
direction of movement of the negative charge. Similarly, the
potassium ions move to the right to follow the path of the
conventional current, hence completing the circuit
o Conditions under which a galvanic cell is produced:
Dissimilar electrodes
A salt bridge soaked in an electrolyte of sufficient
concentration
Separated conducting electrolytes

Perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand

information to measure the difference in potential of different
combinations of metals in electrolyte solution
First-hand investigation
Aim: to investigate and measure the differences in voltage when different
combinations of metals are used in constructing a galvanic cell
Equipment: 5 x 50mL beakers; 1 x 100mL beaker; stirring rod; voltmeter;
connecting wires; fine sandpaper or steel wool; strips of zinc, copper and lead;
strips of filter paper (1cmx10cm); forceps; 30mL 1molL -1 of zinc nitrate
(Zn(NO3)2), copper nitrate (Cu(NO 3)2), lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2) and saturated
potassium nitrate solution
Diagram:

Method:
1. Clean the metal strips with sand paper or steel wool
2. Place the solutions of zinc nitrate copper nitrate and lead nitrate into
separate 100mL beakers, about half full. Add the same metal strips to the
beaker containing the metal ion (electrolyte) solution. These are the half
cells
3. Put strips of filter paper in a 100mL beaker, add saturated potassium
nitrate to and leave it to soak to make the salt bridges
4. Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram
5. Record the voltage on the voltmeter
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 with other half cell combinations
Results:

Half cell1/ Half cell 2 Voltage (V)

Zinc/Copper
Copper/Lead
Zinc/lead

Variables:

Independent half cell combinations

Dependent voltage (potential difference)
Controlled concentrations of electrolyte solutions, temperature,
pressure, same wire, same voltmeter, same solution for salt bridge
Discussion:

Accuracy use voltmeter with small increments and avoid parallax error
when taking the reading
 Validity keep control variables constant and used pure metals (remove
metal oxide)
Reliability repeat the method until consistent results are obtained and
compare your results with other groups or secondary data
Gather and present information on the structure of a dry cell or a
lead acid cell and evaluate in comparison to button cells

Cell type Dry cell Button (silver oxide) cell

Chemistry Cell notation Cell notation
Zn|ZnCl2, NH4Cl|MnO2, C Zn, ZnO | KOH (paste) | Ag2O, Ag
Cell voltage Cell voltage
1.5V 1.3 V
Cathode reaction Cathode reaction
2NH4(aq)+2MnO2(s)+2e- Ag2O (s) + H2O (l) + 2e- 2Ag (s) + 2OH-
Anode reaction
Mn2O3(s)+2NH3(g)+H2O(l) Zn (s) + 2OH- ZnO (s) + H2O + 2e-
Anode reaction Overall reaction
Zn(s) Zn2++2e- Zn (s) + Ag2O (s) 2Ag (s) + ZnO (s)
Overall reaction
Zn(s)+MnO2(s)+2NH4(aq)
Mn2O3(s)+2NH3(g)+H2O(l)+Zn
Diagram

Cost and Very cheap very small

practicalit Form of paste is very relatively long life
y convenient, being very silver is an expensive metal, making the
transportable cell reasonably expensive
Small, easy to store and use constant output voltage
Maintains steady voltage Non-rechargeable
Cannot be recharged
Short life
Cannot deliver high current
Battery may leak
Impact on Low constant voltage used Small size allows the production of
society for common appliances such small appliances
as torches, toys, etc. Non-toxic it can be used to power
Mobility allows usage of implants inside the human body
portable devices like
flashlights and increases the
development of electrical
equipment
Environme Zinc and Manganese - heavy Non-rechargeable has to be discarded
ntal metals therefore disposal in or recycled after single use
impacts large quantities is dangerous KOH found inside the cell is corrosive
for the environment No highly toxic materials that harm the
environment

Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe

the conditions under which a nucleus is stable
Describe how transuranic elements are produced
Describe how commercial isotopes are produced
Nuclear stability:
o Related to the balance of the strength of the three forces that hold
nuclear particles together
o The forces are:
Electrostatic force between protons
Gravitational attraction between any particle
The electrostatic repulsion between protons is a lot stronger
than the gravitational attraction between protons and other
protons, and protons and neutrons. Scientists suggest a third
force nuclear force exists that holds the particles together
o The balance between the three forces depends on the entropy ratio
(N:P ratio). Unstable nuclei emit charged particles to achieve the
balance. This process of emitting particles is known as radioactive
decay and the isotopes of elements go through radioactive decay
are called radioactive isotopes. All isotopes of elements with the
mass number greater than 83 (bismuth) are radioactive
Different isotopes emit different kinds of radioactive particles depending
on the N:P ratio:
o Alpha emission:
Occurs in nuclei whose N:P ratio is too high
Alpha particles helium nuclei i.e. H e24
E.g. alpha decay of radon-222
222 218 4
R n86 P o 84 + H e 2
Low penetration travels a few centimetres in the air and can
be blocked by paper
High ionising ability
o Beta emission:
Occurs in nuclei with too many neutrons
Neutron decays into a proton (remains in the nuclei) and an
electron (released)
E.g. beta decay of zirconium-97
218 97 0
Z r 84 N b41 +e1
Medium penetration travels a few metres in the air and can
be blocked by several centimetres of aluminium
Medium ionising ability
o Electron capture:
Occurs in nuclei with a surplus of protons (N:P ratio is too low)
 The nucleus captures and inner shell electron and combines it
to a proton to form a neutron (called neutrino) and releases it
E.g. electron capture by beryllium-7
B e74 + e01 Li 73
o Gamma emission:
Accompanies nuclear decay excess energy released as
particle rearrange
Electromagnetic radiation
E.g. gamma emission as cobalt-60 goes through beta decay
C o 60 60 0
27 N i 28 +e1+

High penetration unaffected by air and is blocked by several

centimetres of lead or many metres
of concrete
Low ionising ability
o Uranium decay series:
Uranium-238 and uranium-235 are
naturally occurring radioisotopes
that decay by a series of alpha and
beta emissions to form a stable
isotope of lead (lead-206)
Transuranic elements:
o Elements of atomic number 93 and
above. They are not naturally occurring
and can be synthesised in particle
accelerators (such as as a cyclotron)
small charged atomic particles are
accelerated at very high speeds using
electrical attraction and repulsion to hit a
target of large atoms
o Neutron bombardment:
Neptunium can be made in
nuclear reactors by
bombarding uranium-238 with
neutrons
The bombardment produces
uranium-239 which eventually decays
(beta emission) into neptunium-239 and
plutonium-239
U 238 1 239 239 0
92 + n0 U 92 Np 93 +e1

Np239 239 0
93 Pu94 + e1

o Alpha bombardment:
Curium can be made by bombarding plutonium atoms with
alpha particles
239 4 242 1
Pu94 + He 2 Cm96 + n0
o Ion accelerators:
 Elements such as Roentgenium can be by accelerating nickel-
64 ions to high speed and directing them towards bismuth-
209

64 209 272 1
28 + Bi83 Rg111 +n 0
Commercial isotopes:
o Technetium-99:
Has many medical applications in imaging the brain, thyroid,
lungs, liver, kidney, gall bladder, skeleton, blood pool, bone
marrow, salivary and lachrymal glands and heart blood pool
First, molybdenum-99 is produced in a nuclear reactor. Then
it is adsorbed into alumina and packaged into small glass
tubes for distribution to hospitals where it continuously
decays (beta) into Technetium-99. To extract technetium-99 a
saline solution is passed through the alumina
Technetium-99 emits gamma ray and has a half-life of 6
hours. This short physical half-life and a biological half-life of
1 day makes it suitable for therapeutic use keeps patients
under low radiation
o Iodine-123:
is used to widely to diagnose thyroid disorders and detect
adrenal dysfunction. It can also be further processed to
produce other important medical isotopes such as Ga-67 (for
the detection of soft tissue tumours, Tl-201 (for detecting
heart problems) and F-18 (a positron emitter that is used to
diagnose brain disease and the spread of cancers)
Xenon-124 is bombarded with a proton in a cyclotron to
produce caesium-123 and two neutrons. Caesium-123 emits
positrons to produce iodine-123
X e 124 1 123 1
54 + p1 Cs 55 +2 ( N 0 )

+
123
Xe123 0
Cs 55 54 +e 1

+
Xe123 I 123 0
54 53 +e 1

o Cobalt-60:
 Made by bombarding Co-59 with neutrons. This produces and
unstable Co-6- nucleus and begin to decay with beta and
gamma radiation
o Tritium:
Made by bombarding Li-6 with neutrons. This results in an
isotope of hydrogen, tritium and alpha particles
Tritium then decays into He-3 with the loss of a beta particle
Tritium formation - Li 63 +n10 H 31+He24

H 31 He32 +e1
0
Tritium decay -

Identify
instrument and
processes that can be used to detect

radiation

Photographic film:
o Film darkens when exposed to
radiation
o Can measure small amounts
o Relatively expensive
o Easy to use
o Laboratory workers wear film badges (thermoluminescent
dosimeters) that are analysed regularly to assess radiation
exposure dose
 Cloud chamber:
o Contains a supersaturated alcohol vapour with dry ice

o When radioactive particles pass through the chamber it ionises the

air inside. The alcohol vapour, because of the dry ice quickly
condenses onto these ions, hence revealing the path of the
radioactive particle (cloudy white trail)
o Alpha particles are strongly ionising but low penetration they
leave thick and short trails
o Beta particles are less ionising but more penetrating thinner,
longer trails that may have a zig-zag pattern
o Gamma rays are weakly ionising but have a high penetration long
wispy trails
o Electromagnetic fields can also be used to distinguish between the
radiations alpha is positive, beta is negative and gamma is neutral
Geiger-Muller (GM) tube and counter:
o The radiation enters the tube through a mica window
o The tube contains a low-pressure inert gas such as argon when
exposed to high-energy radioactive particles, electrons are ejected
from the neutral atoms. A high voltage is maintained between the
two electrodes. The ejected electrons move to the anode and the
positive argon nuclei move to the cathode casing, hence completing
the circuit. An amplified electric impulse is created in the anode and
is detected by the digital counter