Electrical breakdown

It is important to point out that when we are describing the conduction properties of
materials we are considering fairly normal operating conditions and we are not talking
about situations involving extreme voltages. Air for instance is an excellent insulator,
however in thunderstorms voltages in the order of a hundred million volts can force a
current through the air in the form of a lightning bolt. It would not take such an
extreme voltage to break down a small piece of silicon and force it to conduct
electricity. There are two stages that occur as a material begins to breakdown due a
large applied voltage. These are zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown.

Zener breakdown
In Zener breakdown the electrostatic attraction between the negative electrons and a
large positive voltage is so great that it pulls electrons out of their covalent bonds and
away from their parent atoms. ie Electrons are transferred from the valence to the
conduction band. In this situation the current can still be limited by the limited
number of free electrons produced by the applied voltage so it is possible to cause
Zener breakdown without damaging the semiconductor.

Avalanche breakdown
Avalanche breakdown occurs when the applied voltage is so large that electrons that
are pulled from their covalent bonds are accelerated to great velocities. These
electrons collide with the silicon atoms and knock off more electrons. These electrons
are then also accelerated and subsequently collide with other atoms. Each collision
produces more electrons which leads to more collisions etc. The current in the
semiconductor rapidly increases and the material can quickly be destroyed.

Break Down Mechanism

If the reverse-bias applied to a p-n junction is increased, a point will reach when the junction breaks

down and reverse current rises sharply to a value limited only by the external resistance connected in

series. This specific value of the reverse bias voltage is called breakdown voltage (v z). After

breakdown, a very small further increase the reverse current. The breakdown voltage depends upon

the with of depletion layer. The width of depletion layer depends upon the doping level. With the help

of this post we have tried to explain the concept of Zener Breakdown and Avalanche Breakdown

Mechanism asBasic Electronics Notes in detail.

The following two processes cause junction breakdown due to the increase in reverse bias voltage.
(i) Zener Breakdown

(ii) Avalanche Breakdown

The Zener Breakdown is observed in the Zener diodes having Vz less than 5V or between 5 to 8
volts. When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener diode, it causes a very intense electric field to
appear across a narrow depletion region. Such an intense electric field is strong enough to pull some
of the valence electrons into the conduction band by breaking their covalent bonds .these electrons
then become free electrons which are available for conduction. A large number of such free electrons
will constitute a large reverse current through the Zener diode and breakdown is said to have occurred
due to the Zener effect.

Characteristics of Zener Breakdown is shown below:

Zener Breakdown Characteristics

A current limiting resistance should be connected in series with the Zener diode to protect it against

the damage due to excessive heating. In Zener breakdown, the breakdown voltage depends on the

temperature of P-N junction.The breakdown voltage decreases with increase in the junction

temperature.

Avalanche Breakdown

The avalanche breakdown is observed in the Zener Diodes having Vz having than 8 V. In the reverse

biased condition, the conduction will take place only due to the minority carriers. As we increase the

reverse voltage applied to the Zener diode, these minority carriers tend to accelerated. Therefore, the

kinetic energy associated with them increases. While travelling, these accelerated minority carriers will

collide with the stationary atoms and impart some of the kinetic energy to the valence electrons

present in the covalent bonds.

Characteristics of Avalanche Breakdown is shown below:

 Avalanche Breakdown Characteristics

Due to this additionally acquired energy, these valence electrons will break their covalent bonds and

jump into the conduction bond to become free conduction. Now these newly generated free electrons

will get accelerated. They will knock out some more valence electrons by means of collision. This

phenomenon is called as carrier multiplication.

Comparison of Zener Breakdown and Avalanche Breakdown

S.No. Zener breakdown Avalanche breakdown

1. This is observed in Zener diodes having This is observed in Zener diodes having

Vz 5 to 8 volts. Vzgreater than 8 volts.

2.
The valence electrons are pulled into The valence electrons are pushed into

conduction due to very intense electric field conduction band due to the energy

appearing across the narrow depletion imparted by colliding accelerated minority

region. carries.

3.
V-I characteristics with Zener the break The V-I characteristics with the avalanche

down is very sharp. breakdown increases gradually. It is not as

sharp as that with the Zener breakdown.

4.
The breakdown voltage decreases with The breakdown voltage increases with

increase in temperature. increase in temperature.

Zener and avalanche breakdown

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Diodes

Zener and avalanche breakdown

o It is very clear from the reverse bias characteristics of diode that the
reverse current increases very rapidly as soon as the voltage is
increased above breakdown voltage. The sudden rise in the current can
be explained with the help of two mechanisms namely Zener
breakdown and Avalanche breakdown.
 o In this article, we discuss the mecahnisms of Zener and avalanche
breakdown.

We saw in the earlier section that the diode in reverse bias configuration
conducts very little amount of current. This current is of the order of nano-
amperes and it does not change significantly with the change in reverse bias
voltage. Let us first have a look at the reverse bias characteristics of diode
and then we shall discuss what is Zener and avalanche breakdown.

It can be seen

from the above graph that the reverse current increases drastically when the
diode voltage reaches breakdown voltage. Two type of effects (mechanisms)
are responsible for such sudden rise in the value of reverse current.

1. Zener effect.

2. Avalanche effect.
Zener and avalanche effects are responsible for such a dramatic increase in
the value of current at the breakdown voltage. Having said that, there arises
an obvious question which effect occurs when? Such a simple question.
And the answer is simple too. The factor determining which effect occurs
is the relative concentration of impurities in the semiconductor. Having
said that, let us understand the effect of impurity concentration and the types
of breakdown mechanisms in detail.

Zener effect :

If the impurity concentration is very high, then the width of depletion region is
very less. Less width of depletion region will cause high intensity of electric
field to develop in the depletion region at low voltages. Confused?? Lets take
an example to understand things clearly. Let say the width of depletion region
is 200 (very small). If a reverse bias voltage of just 4 V is applied to the
diode, then the electric field intensity in the depletion region will be

4 = 2 x 108 V/m
200 x 10-10

Merely a voltage of 4 V is responsible to generate an electric field intensity of

2 x 108 V/m (very high intensity). This electric field is sufficient to rupture the
bonds and separate the valence electrons from their respective nuclei. Large
number of electrons gets separated from their atoms, resulting in sudden
increase in the value of reverse current. This explanation was given by
scientist C. E. Zener. Such diodes are called Zener diodes.

Zener effect predominates in diodes whose breakdown voltage is below

6 V.
Symbol of Zener diode is shown above. Did you notice the z-like appearance
instead of vertical line on the cathode side?

Avalanche effect :

Zener effect predominates on diodes whose breakdown voltage is below 6 V.

The breakdown voltage can be obtained at a large value by reducing the
concentration of impurity atom. We know that very little amount of current
flows in the reverse biased diode. This current is due to the flow of minority
charge carriers i.e., electrons in the p type semiconductor and holes in the n
type semiconductor. Taking this into consideration, let us understand how
avalanche breakdown takes place in a diode.

The width of depletion region is large when the impurity concentration is less.
When a reverse bias voltage is applied across the terminals of the diode, the
electrons from the p type material and holes from the n-type materials
accelerates through the depletion region. This results in collision of intrinsic
particles (electrons and holes) with the bound electrons in the depletion
region.With the increase in reverse bias voltage the acceleration of electrons
and holes also increases. Now the intrinsic particles collides with bound
electrons with enough energy to break its covalent bond and create an
electron-hole pair. This is shown in the figure below.
The collision of electrons with the atom creates an electron-hole pair. This
newly created electron also gets accelerated due to electric field and breaks
many more covalent bond to further create more electron-hole pair. This
process keeps on repeating and it is called carrier multiplication. The newly
created electrons and holes contribute to the rise in reverse current. The
process of carrier multiplication occurs very quickly and in very large numbers
that there is apparently an avalanche of charge carriers. Thus the
breakdown is called avalanche breakdown.

Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown are processes which cause reverse
currents to flow through p-njunctions in diodes when large reverse-bias voltages
are applied.
 Background of Zener Breakdown and
Avalanche Breakdown
The pn Junction Under Equilibrium
A p-n junction consists of a p-type semiconductor in contact with an n-type
semiconductor. When they are put in contact, electrons and holes diffuse from the
side that they are more concentrated to the side that they are less concentrated.
This flow of majority carriers due to a concentration gradient is called a diffusion
current.

The majority carriers on the n side are electrons, and so these diffuse across to
thep side, leaving the n side positively charged. Similarly holes, which are majority
carriers of the p side, diffuse across to the n side, leaving the p side with a negative
charge. These charged regions form the space charge region (or the depletion region).

Eventually, the charged regions give rise to an electric field, which acts as a
potential barrier to the diffusion current. This electric field also sweeps minority
carriers across the space charge regioni.e. electrons from the p side to n side, and
holes from n side to p side. This flow of minority carriers is called the drift current,
and it is in the direction opposite to that of the diffusion current. An equilibrium is
established, where the drift current is equal to the diffusion current, making
the net current flow across the junction zero.
 Figure 1: The p-n junction in equilibrium; Top: The energy bands, Middle: Schematic, Below:
Directions

The pn Junction under Forward Bias

A pn junction is in forward bias when a voltage is applied across the pn junction
externally, with the p side connected to the more positive potential than the n side.
Connecting in forward bias reduces the potential barrier to the diffusion current
and also reduces the space charge width. The diffusion current increases
substantially as a result of the reduced potential barrier. The drift current, however,
remains virtually unchanged. The overall result is a net current that flows
from p side to n side.

As the forward voltage across the diode is increased further, the current increases
exponentially. At very high forward voltages, the forward current saturates, and
heating effects may cause the diode to break.

Figure 2: The p-n junction in forward bias

 The pn Junction under Reverse Bias
The pn junction is in reverse bias when voltage is applied across the junction, with
the n side is connected to the more positive potential. Here, the potential barrier to
the diffusion current and the space charge width are increased. Since the potential
barrier is now large, the diffusion current drops. The drift current does not change
significantly. The overall result is a small net current flowing from n side to p side,
which is called the reverse saturation current ( ). Increasing the reverse

voltage across the junction further causes no change to the current until, at large
reverse voltages, Zener and avalanche breakdown processes cause large reverse
currents to flow.

Figure 3: The p-n junction under reverse bias

For a typical diode, these effects are summarised in the following current vs.
voltage graph:
 Figure 4: Current vs. voltage graph for an ideal diode

Breakdown
Diodes only allow a considerable current to flow when they are connected in
forward bias. Therefore, they can be used to ensure that current in a circuit flows
along a given direction. For instance, diodes can be used to convert alternating
current to direct current. However, as mentioned above, a large reverse voltage can
cause reverse currents to flow. This is referred to as breakdown, and can take place
either as Zener breakdown or as avalanche breakdown. The differences
between the two types of breakdown are outlined below.

Zener Breakdown
In Zener breakdown, electrons tunnel from the valence band of the p side to the
conduction band on the n side. In classical physics, electrons should not have been
able to cross over in this way. Tunnelling is, in fact, a quantum mechanical
phenomenon, which comes about from electrons having wave properties.

The probability for an electron to tunnel across is higher when the space charge
region is narrower, and when the electric field is larger. Typically, Zener breakdown
occurs where materials used to construct the pn junction are heavily doped. In
these junctions, due to heavy doping, the space charge region is quite narrow even
when the junction is under reverse bias.

Figure 5: Zener Breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown
In avalanche breakdown, charge carriers in the space charge region gain so much
kinetic energy from being accelerated electric field that, they can collide with lattice
atoms and tear electrons away from them, creating electron-hole pairs. This is also
known as impact ionisation. These newly-separated electrons and holes, too, are
then accelerated by the electric field, giving them large amounts of kinetic energy.
In the meantime, the original charge carriers, which lost energy during the collision,
are also accelerated. Consequently, both original charge carriers as well as the
recently-separated ones now have the capacity to cause impact ionisation. The
process is called avalanche breakdown because, with each collision, more and
more charge carriers are made available to cause future impact ionisations.

In terms of energy bands, the incoming charge carriers kinetic energy must be
larger than the energy gap between conduction and valence bands for impact
ionisation to take place. Then, once the collision takes place and the electron-hole
pair is formed, this electron and the hole are essentially in the conduction and
valance bands respectively.

Figure 6: Avalanche Breakdown. The diagram only shows highly energetic holes creating
electron-hole pairs. Electrons would also accelerate in the meantime and create yet more
electron-hole pairs through collisions with lattice atoms.

For most diodes, avalanche breakdown is the dominant effect. For a given diode,
the dominant effect is determined by the material used to construct the junction
and also by the level of doping.

Difference Between Zener and Avalanche

Breakdown
Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown are processes by which diodes begin
to conduct significant currents, when they are subject to a high reverse voltage.
Zener breakdown occurs when the doping levels are high, and involves electrons
tunnelling from the valence band of the p side to the conduction band on the n side.
Avalanche breakdown occurs when charge carriers which are accelerated by the
electric field gain enough kinetic energy such that, when they collide with lattice atoms,
they ionise the lattice atoms to produce electron-ion pairs. These pairs, in turn, cause
further ionisations, leading to an avalanche effect.
Q . Give 5 differences differences between avalanche & zerner breakdown?
(Posted by: MBALAJI, Board: TN State Board, Class: Class XII, Subject: Physics, Posted on: 22/02/12 11:14:am)

Ans.

Zener breakdown:

Both sides of PN junction are heavily doped

Depletion layer is narrow

A strong electric field is produced

Large number of holes and electrons are produced

Zener current is independent of applied voltage

Avalanche breakdown

Both sides of PN junction are lightly doped

Depletion layer is large

Electric field is not so strong

Electron hole pairs are generated

Charge carriers acquire energy from the applied potential