4.

1 Frame rods
The ideal rod to use is a cold worked high yield (CWHY) rod to British Standard (B.S) 4461
although both plain bars and deformed bars may be used. The latter may be more difficult to
use when welded by inexperienced people.

The requirement of steel grade and minimum yield point will depend on the construction method
employed, but will have sufficient tensile and yield strength and ductility and other properties
essential for good construction.

All reinforcement should be free from contamination, grease and millscale. While not objected
to, light corrosion should be wire brushed to remove the rust.

4.2 Rod reinforcement

For use in the hull shell, deck floors, bulkheads and stiffening webs or girders; ideally should be
a semi-bright hard-drawn (SBHD) rod of 6 and 8 mm diameter for concrete reinforcement to BS
4482. Mild steel rod to BS 15 may also be used but in practice will require closer frame spacing
or support to prevent being bent out of shape during construction and/or distortion by welding.

4.3 Mesh reinforcement

The ideal mesh is a 13 x 13 mm x 19 gauge (1 mm) welded mesh to BS 4482. Although meshes
of 18-22 gauge can be used, 19 gauge will prove to be the best from a practical point of view. In
colder, less humid climates, it may be used ungalvanised; in semi-tropical/tropical it will need to
be galvanised.

A specification for welded mesh: Initially rod used in the manufacture of welded wire mesh is a
low carbon content (0.15% max by weight) rimming steel with the carbon concentrated in the
centre. The rod used in the manufacture of the wire mesh is hard-drawn from 'X' size down to
19 gauge (1 mm), hot rolled (perhaps copper washed) passed through stearate soap and then
welded. It is then passed through the galvanising process. (The rod has a very low silicon
value.)

A cautionary note with reference to using galvanised materials in the construction before casting
is applicable at this stage. The reason for care is that it may be possible to build in a fault into
the hull through the interaction of the zinc on the mesh and the remaining steel, in the moisture
of the setting mortar, causing hydrogen bubbles between the mortar and the steel, and reducing
bond between the mortar and steel.

Galvanised mesh which has been exposed to weather for some time prior to use may have less
effect on the structure.

As a precaution, by adding 300 parts per million by weight added to the casting water, of
chromium trioxide (chromic oxide) the problem can be negated. Chromium trioxide must be
handled with caution as it is highly toxic to the skin and especially to the eyes. The crystals must
be kept from moisture until they are actually added to the mixing water (approximately 66 g to
200 litres.)
Other mesh types which may be used are hexagonal mesh and, to a lesser extent, woven
square mesh. Classification societies may need evidence of how the alternate meshes are
used, in what direction they lay, and the combination of meshes that can or may be used.

Using expanded mesh in certain forms of construction may also be acceptable but is rarely
employed other than in a construction using moulds.

4.4 Staples and lacing wire

Staples and lacing wire are best made from 1.6 mm or 16 gauge plain degreased annealed mild
steel lacing wire. This can be purchased in 25 kg reels and cut on a suitable jig to provide either
30 mm or 40 mm length staples to suit single and double rod construction, with the legs of the
staples set at a width to suit the size of mesh being used.

4.5 Welding rods

The normal gauge of welding rod required will be 10 swg or 3.25 mm, although small quantities
of other gauges will also be used. Welding rods are of general purpose, all angle type, and
should be cared for in compliance with the manufacturers advice and good practice.

4.6 Cement
The cement to use is usually ordinary Portland. However, a rapid hardening Portland cement
may be used in cold climates. Sometimes a sulphate resistant Portland cement is used, either
wholly or in part mixed with ordinary Portland against sulphate attack, although as most vessels
are protected by marine paints and antifouling, its use is hardly necessary. If the cement is used
with admixtures, care should be exercised in compatibility. All cements are to be to BS 12 or
equivalent local standard.

In some underdeveloped countries it may be necessary to obtain a certificate of the materials

composition and date of manufacture, where there is the likelihood of low quality and, perhaps,
adulteration between point of manufacture and delivery. This may mean that the cement has to
be picked up by the yard's transport and a reliable person checks there is no problem in
delivery.

Ideally the cement will be no more than three weeks old and delivery accomplished two to three
days before use.

Other cements may be considered providing they offer adequate strength, density, and uniform
consistency.

4.7 Sand
The importance of good, clean, well graded sand, cannot be over emphasized if one is to make
the high grade impervious mortar required for boatbuilding.

The sand will be of a silicious nature and conform to the grading envelope shown in Fig. No. 6.
The sand is not to contain sulphates, pyrites, or other chemically active substances in such
amounts that the mix is harmed. If sea sand is used, it is to be washed free of any saline
compositions. (It is always preferable to use non-saline river sand.) The sand should not contain
loose clay or clay which adheres or covers the sand grains. The sand is not to contain humic
acid or organic materials in quantities that may be detrimental. Preferably, the sand should be
'sharp' and not contain non-crystalline minerals.

Figure 6. Sand grading chart

The sand should be stored in as dry a place as possible and so that water content is evenly
balanced. The sand should be protected against pollution.

4.8 Admixtures
There is such a wide range of admixtures available today that one cannot make
recommendation without first testing those chosen. If they are to be employed, care and
discretion should be exercised at all times.

Three main criteria should be considered when applying admixtures:

a) Is the strength of the mortar increased or decreased?

b) The effect of the admixture on the steel reinforcement.
c) Practicality of use on site and supervision of exact mixing quantities.

4.9 Jointing compounds

With the advent of new methods for joining concrete, far more jointing compounds are available
for making 'wet' joints in cement structures. It is always best to carry out tests on the potential
system before use.

For joints in hull construction and repair, a two component epoxy polysulphide resin gives an
excellent bond. If this is not obtainable, a cement grout applied judiciously will give better results
than some PVA glues that are commonly available to the building construction industry.

4.10 Water
Mixing water should comply with the requirements of BS 3148. Water should be potable, clean,
and free from harmful salts or foreign materials which may impair the strength and resistance of
the mortar.

BS 3148 gives details of testing water for concrete by comparing the properties of concrete
made with any particular sample of water with those of an otherwise similar concrete made with
distilled water; therefore the tests will usually be performed in a laboratory.

Material testing and practice plays a vital part to the integrity of the material and the satisfaction
of all parties concerned in the production of a sound ferrocement craft. However, there are really
two groups of test. The first are those that fall into the normal requirements of everyday
production and are generally capable of being carried out on site, ref. Section 6.1-6.6. The
second type are the tests far more searching to satisfy the requirements of classification
societies, and any detailed investigation one wants to make into a particular type of construction
prior to undertaking the work, ref Section. 5.7.

For the purposes of this document, we will concentrate on the first group as the requirements of
classification societies vary from one to another. In most cases the type of construction initially
chosen will have sufficient design and material strength data available to satisfy one that the
method and type of construction chosen is suitable for the vessel to be built.

5.1 Compression test

The compression test is carried out on either cube or cylindrical samples taken from a cross
section of mixes during the casting of the ferrocement hull, and any other section of construction
that is cast on a different day. The size of the cubes or cylinders will be laid down by the local
testing authority.

Test cubes

The moulds for test cubes should be made of steel or cast iron, with the inner surfaces parallel
to each other and machine faced. Timber moulds should not be used. Each mould should have
a metal base plate with a true surface to support the mould and prevent leakage. It is essential
to keep the mould and base plate clean and both should be oiled lightly to prevent the mortar
sticking to the sides. No undue strain should be used when the sides are fixed together.

A 100 mm cube should be filled in three layers, from three different mixes. Each layer should be
rammed at least 25 times with a steel bar 600 mm long and having a ramming face of 16 mm
square, the weight of which complies to the local standard. The surface of the cube should be
trowelled smooth.

A variety of institutions, eg universities, civil engineering, etc. will normally have the facilities to
carry out the tests.

It is usual to produce six cubes at a casting and send two 100 mm cubes for testing at seven
days, 28 days, and 96 days, after casting. The minimum results obtained, from experience,
should be in the order of the following:

lb/in2 kg/cm2

7 days 4500 315

28 days 5500 387

 96 days 6000 422

In the UK, over many castings and using 150 mm cubes, the results exceeded:

lb/in2 kg/cm2

7 days 6000 422

28 days 7500 527

96 days 9000 633

Classification societies will have their own procedure and minimum strength requirements to
satisfy their rules.

Test specimens should be cured at not less than 10C and in the same way as the hull is cured,
and for the same period. Specimens should be transferred to the testing station on the seventh
and twenty-eighth day, wrapped in damp hessian/gunny cloth or similar.

A test cube data sheet (ref. Fig. No. 7) should be kept as a record for that craft and as a build-up
of accumulated strength data over successive castings.

Figure 7. Example of test cube data form

Casting date ................... Hull type ...................

Cube Date Age at Weight of Load at Load at Comments on manufacture and

No tested test cube failure failure testing
kg/cm2 lb/in2

/7
 /7

/28

/28

/96

/96

5.2 Slump test

The slump test is a practical means of measuring the consistency of mix. Since changes in the
values of slump obtained indicate material changes in the water content or proportions of the
mix. It is therefore useful in controlling the quality of the mortar produced.

The apparatus consists of a steel mould 100 mm diameter at the top, 200 mm at the bottom and
300 mm high, complete with a 16 mm dia. steel tamping rod 600 mm long and rounded on one
end. (Local standards may vary the size of the equipment.) The inside of the mould should be
clean before each test, and the mould placed on a hard flat surface. The mould should be filled
in four layers, each layer rodded 25 times with the tamping rod. After the top layer has been
rodded, the surface of the mortar is struck off level. Any leakage is cleaned away from the base
of the mould and the mould is lifted vertically from the mortar.

The slump is the difference between the height of the mix before and after removal of the
mould. If any specimen shears off laterally or collapses, the test should be repeated.

By using the correct mix and water:cement ratio prior to undertaking any casting, as a sample
test(s) the average slump achieved from several tests will give the range of slump acceptable
when the actual casting takes place. Because the mix is a mortar mix, the slump can be
exaggerated by a very little increase in the water:cement ratio. Therefore, it is a handy guide but
should not be an over-riding conclusion when the practicalities of the construction and need for
full impregnation of the reinforcement are of priority during a casting.

5.3 Taking a sample of cement

If there is any doubt as to the quality of the cement purchased, a sample can be sent for test,
providing the facilities are available.

A sample of cement taken for test purposes must be representative of the consignment and be
taken within one week of delivery. It should be a mixture of at least 12 equal sub-samples taken
from 12 separate bags in the consignment. The sample should weigh at least 7 kg and be
sealed in an airtight container, with the relevant particulars clearly marked on the outside.

5.4 Sand testing and practice

Bulking of sand

When mixes are specified by volume, the sand is assumed to be dry. The volume of a given
weight of sand, however, varies according to its moisture content. Equal weights of dry and
inundated sand have practically the same volume but the same weight of sand in a damp
condition can occupy a volume as much as 40% greater. This phenomenon is known as
'bulking'.

It may be demonstrated by filling a gauge box with dry sand. If the sand is flooded with water
the level will sink a little, but not to any great extent. When the box is similarly filled with damp
sand and the surface is flooded the drop in level will be very much greater.

Unless allowance is made for bulking when batching by volume, the mortar may contain too little
sand. This is one of the reasons why measurement by weight is preferable. Bulking occurs far
more with fine sands.

Testing for impurities

Sands are usually washed by the suppliers to remove clay, silt, and other impurities which, if
present in excessive amounts, result in poor quality mortar. A guide to the amount of clay and
silt in sand can be obtained from the field settling test. An excessive amount recorded in this test
will indicate that other more sensitive tests should be made.

The test involves placing about 50 ml of a 1% solution of common salt in water (roughly one
teaspoon per pint/0.57 litre) in a 250 ml measuring cylinder. Sand as received, is then added
gradually until the level of the top of the sand is at the 100 ml mark and more solution is added
to bring the liquid level to the 150 ml mark. The cylinder is shaken vigorously and the contents
allowed to settle for about three hours. The thickness of the silt layer is measured and
expressed as a percentage of the height of the sand below the silt layer.

The amount of clay and silt in the sand may be considered acceptable if it does not exceed
10%.

If a measuring cylinder is not available, a jam jar filled to a depth of 50 mm with sand and to a
depth of 75 mm with the solution, will give a comparable result if the contents are allowed to
settle for three hours. The thickness of the silt layout in this case should not be more than 3 mm.

A simple check for organic impurities is to fill a medicine bottle with sand as delivered, to the 115
ml mark, and then add a 3% solution of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) in water, until the level
of the liquid after shaking is 200 ml. A solution of this strength may be purchased from local
chemists. The bottle is then stoppered, shaken vigorously, and allowed to stand for 24 hours. If
at the end of that time the colour of the solution above the sand is darker than the standard
colour shown in BS 812, or similar local standard, laboratory tests should be undertaken to
determine whether the sand is acceptable.
Sand sieve analysis

The sand sieve analysis is carried out as often as is required to maintain the correct grading of
sand that is to be used. The grading of a sand aggregate for ferrocement is found by passing a
representative sample of dry sand through a series of BS sieves Nos. 7, 14, 25, 52, 100 (or
local equivalent standard), starting with the largest sieve. A record should be maintained (see
Fig. No. 8) of the result and be compared to the required acceptable envelope (Fig. No. 6). The
envelope may vary slightly from the one shown depending on working rules, but is one used by
the author for many years.

Figure 8. Example of sand sieve test form

Sample No ......... Sample obtained from .................

Total weight of sample .......... grammes

Sieve Weight retained on each sieve Total weight passing sieve % Passing each Ideal
No. grammes grammes sieve %

7 100

14 68-96

25 35-65

52 10-36

100 2-10

Tray

Comments on test:-
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Date of test:- ............. Signed:- ..............

If the sieving is done manually, each sieve is shaken separately over a clean tray for not less
than two minutes. If machine sieving is applied, a nest of sieves should be shaken for at least
15 minutes. The material retained on each sieve, together with any material cleaned from the
mesh is weighed and recorded. The percentage by weight passing each sieve is then
calculated. Sieving will not be accurate if there is too much material left on any mesh after
shaking.

5.5 Water:cement ratio (weight)

The two essential properties of hardened mortar are durability and strength. Both of these are
closely related to density. In general, the more the mortar is compacted, the stronger and more
durable it is. The mortar must be dense to be impervious to water and to protect the
reinforcement adequately.

The strength and durability of the mortar is governed by the amount of water used for mixing but
the overall grading of the aggregate has an indirect effect. Fine gradings require more water
than coarser grading to obtain the same degree of workability. It follows that in practice the
grading of the aggregate influences the amount of water which must be added.

It has been established that the strength of the mortar depends primarily on the relative
proportions of water and cement. The higher the proportion of water, the weaker is the mortar.
An allowance for the moisture present in the sand should always be taken into account. A typical
list of water:cement ratios are set out below:

Imperial gallons per 112 lb cement litres per 50 kg water:cement ratio by weight

3.5 15.5 0.31

4.0 18.0 0.36

4.5 20.0 0.40

5.0 22.5 0.45

5.5 24.5 0.49

6.0 27.0 0.54

The water:cement ratio for ferrocement construction which gives the required strength and
workability will be in the region of 0.35-0.45, although 0.40 should not be exceeded under
tentative rules set by Det Norske Veritas.

If, due to local conditions, a more workable mix is required then admixtures may have to be
used to enhance the workability subject to their suitability. (Refer item 4.8.)

5.6 Cement:sand ratio (weight)

The cement:sand ratio has been established to fall between 0.4 and 0.6, for dry sand. From
experience the value should be nearer 0.6, although many boats have been constructed using
0.5 as the ratio.

5.7 Additional tests

Further additional tests will almost certainly be required if a boat is built to classification. Indeed,
many of these tests can be used by the builder to enlarge the information on the particular form
of construction that may be undertaken even if the structure is not being built to rules. Out of
necessity one will need to have the use or availability of the correct testing facilities and
specimens will need to be of a size to suit the testing equipment.

Tensile testing and compression testing on reinforced material

Tensile tests can be carried out on the ferrocement in order to establish the relationship
between tensile stress and elongation.

Tensile test on unreinforced specimens

The tensile strength can be determined by a split 'cylinder' test using similar apparatus as in the
compression test. However, the true tensile strength will lie between 50 and 70% of the splitting
'tensile strength'.

Bending tests with reinforced material

Bending tests can be carried out on the ferrocement in order to establish the relationship
between bending moment, tensile bending stresses and elongation.

Bending fatigue tests

Bending fatigue tests can also be carried out on test specimens of the hull construction.

Impact test

An impact test can be performed on representative reinforced panels by using a drop weight.
Failure occurs when the test panel develops a leak

All test specimens should have references to:

a) identification number
b) dimension of the specimen
c) curing history and moisture condition at test
d) defects of specimen, if any, and age
e) ambient conditions at time of test
It should be noted that as a vast array of tests on ferrocement have been carried out, and with
many more still in progress around the world, the preferred method and size of specimen to be
tested may be arrived at by contacting classification societies who are locally available, the
International Ferrocement Information Center, or indeed establishments such as local
universities and colleges who have had experience in this regard, in order to establish a
common method and application of test work to suit the country being worked in.

6.1 Introduction
The construction technique illustrated in this document is based on the method used for FAO in
India, when three different fishing boat designs were built at the Central Institute of Fisheries
Nautical and Engineering Training, Cochin, Kerala.

A well tried and tested technique was employed for the training courses because it offered the
best way of imparting training to those participants who had no previous experience of
ferrocement as a boatbuilding material and to those who were inexperienced in boatbuilding.
However, the Institute had a small team of boatbuilders experienced in timber fishing boat
construction.

The decision to build the hulls in ferrocement, including floors, web, engine beds, and
beamshelf, was not a reflection on the material, but considered justified due to the tight training
and construction schedule. If there had been more time available, at least the decks, bulkheads
and all coamings would also have been constructed in ferrocement with a commensurate saving
in cost and use of timber. The decision to build the remainder of the vessel in timber shows that
ferrocement can be married easily to other materials.

6.2 Design
All builders and naval architects using ferrocement as the construction material must be aware
that ferrocement has its own characteristics, and therefore a new or modified design should
make best use of these.

The likely increased hull weight particularly for the smaller vessels will need to be taken fully into
account, although the actual amount of increase will reduce considerably the larger the vessel
becomes.

It will be necessary to know the actual weights of scantlings to be used (perhaps requiring some
local test work), to be able to calculate the stability, besides modifying some areas in the design
compared to those normally used.

For example, the stem and transom need well radiused edges. The flat areas in any part of the
design need to be kept to a minimum, to make better use of the strength of the material that is
provided by curves.
Looking further into a design, longitudinal and transverse stiffening, floors, engine beds,
bulkheads, and equipment supports, besides the requirements of the deck and superstructure,
will need to be examined to suit the needs of the material as well as the design as a whole. In
the fitting out, vulnerable areas should be given additional protection to offset likely impact
damage, eg; in way of otter boards, net haulers, and rubbing strakes. Bulwark webs will need
protection in way of the working areas of the deck.

6.3 Supporting the structure

As mentioned earlier (see page 11) on the subject of roof trusses, it is convenient that rolled
steel joists (R.S.J.) of 150 mm x 75 mm (or similar) are located and adequately fixed to the
trusses in a position which aligns to the centre line of the hull in the workshop. This will help to
provide some of the support for the hull that is necessary to keep the completed reinforcement
steady whilst construction, casting and curing takes place, although the keel jig and floor will
take the actual weight of the construction.

At this stage it will be useful to have the FP (forward point), AP (aft point), and all station/frame
centres, clearly marked on the sides of the RSJ. This will be of assistance at the frame setting
up stage described later as well as for locating the keel jig.

As any ferrocement structure requires to be immobile during casting, prior thought should go
into the needs of support at all stages of construction. The degree of support required obviously
varies as to the size of craft being built and the additional cost which may be incurred.

Keel

The keel is in effect a long reinforced beam-like structure and requires a suitable jig sized for the
width of the keel and supported by stands that are of an adequate strength, to take not only the
completed weight of the boat (if it is to be kept on the jig for fitting out), but also allowing a
satisfactory safety margin.

The nominal width of the keel for a fishing boat of 12-15 ms will be 150 mm and the keel
declivity and distance from DWL can be taken from the lines plan and offset table. Knowing that
it is better to keep the hull construction within 'working distance' and knowing the overall
distance from the roof truss to the ground, as well as the completed height of the craft if being
fitted out whilst still on the jig, it is possible then to arrive at how high the keel jig should be set
off the ground and hence the necessary height of the keel jig supports.

It can be seen by referring to Fig. No. 9 that the jig is made up from an inverted 150 x 75 x 6 m/s
channel and that the keel stands are made from 50 x 50 x 6 m/s angle with 40 x 40 x 3
stiffeners.

Fig. No. 9 also shows that removable sections have been allowed for in the construction of the
jig for subsequent moving of the hull and for final removal of the keel jig.

Figure 9. Example of keel jig assembly

4. Keel jig assembly

Frames

Each frame will require adequate transverse, vertical and diagonal bracing which, if placed in a
desirable manner, will not only give support to the frames and the hull as a whole, but will
provide a platform for the men whilst construction and casting takes place. By reference to the
reinforcement details, (Fig. No. 10) it can be seen that 20 mm inside dia. ordinary black water
pipe has been indicated for the bracing.

Figure 10. Typical frame and hull rod reinforcement

Adjustable tie bars are located between the roof RSJ and frame's top bracing to provide support
whilst the hull construction takes place and to give fine tuning for location (ref. Fig. No. 11). This
is why it is important that the member from which the tie bars are hung should not subsequently
distort during hull construction.

Figure 11. Adjustable tie bar assembly

It is, therefore, necessary to know the height of the roof truss in relationship to the bracing of
each frame so that the length of the adjustable tie bars can be calculated.

It will be noted from Fig. No. 11 that square hollow section has been chosen, with the smaller
size outside measurement to match the inside measurements of the larger section. The tie bars
are predrilled to facilitate adjustment (and therefore may be used for other craft) as well as
being fitted with threaded rod lower ends for the fine tuning.

Stem and stern

The stem and transom, because of their natural overhang, require sufficient support to hold
them in place whilst the setting up process continues and to help as extra support during the
casting process. However, they should be so placed that they interfere as little as possible
during casting.

The support is usually provided by means of an 'A' bracket made from mild steel angle iron. The
size will be commensurate with the height of the bracket - usually 50 x 50 x 6 for the longer
brackets and 40 x 40 x 3 for the shorter brackets.

6.4 Keel, backbone and stem construction

During construction, mild steel water pipe or similar pipe is not used in any part of the structure
apart from for bracing.

In the past, pipe has been used on a wide variety of craft but its use is not to be recommended
unless it is anticipated to grout the internal passage of the pipe.

This operation may not be easy due to availability of the correct equipment and the difficulty to
gain access to all the tubes after or even before casting the hull. Unless the grouting operation
is carried out there will almost certainly be a fairly rapid corrosion to the pipe walls due to the
presence of air and condensation.
As there is a wide diversity of keel and stem types for the array of different fishing boat designs
around the world, one needs to take into account the following before a decision on the rod for
construction can be made:

(i) length and height of hull

(ii) width of keel and stem
(iii) type of stem plan and profile view required
(iv) accessibility, to ensure penetration whilst casting
(v) type of fitting to be attached after casting, eg: stem head
Keel construction

On the average 10-15 m vessel, the choice of rod diameter determined through previous
experience will lay between 12 and 16 mm dependent on vessel type. In the case of a fishing
boat with the operating conditions an uncertain factor, a rod of 16 mm dia. at closely spaced
centres at the base of the keel is used.

With a keel width of 150 mm for example it will be found that with judicious spacing of 5 x 16
mm dia. rods leaving a gap of 14 mm between the rods, (see Fig. No. 12), there will be enough
space for the mortar to penetrate using vibrating equipment whilst casting the keel area.

Figure 12. Typical keel reinforcement

5. Keel reinforcement on keel jig

With the keel jig having been set up in its correct location, levelled and set at the correct keel
angle, the boat's station/frame centres should be clearly marked on each side of the channel
extending through the top of the jig.

Semi temporary ties will be needed to locate the keel reinforcement as well as holding the
reinforcement correctly when the frame setting up is carried out.

The ties can be made from square or rod with 10 mm dia. threaded rod legs, located to pass
between the two outside 16 mm dia. rods in the keel reinforcement and through the top of the
keel jig. These ties should be located adjacent to, but not interfere with, the base of the
keel/frame legs and sufficient gap left for penetration of the mix for those which are left in
position during casting.

After predrilling the keel jig top to suit the position and width of the keel reinforcement ties, the
five 16 mm dia. keel rods can be located by using a simple jig made up to suit (see Fig. No. 13).
The semi temporary ties can be located and tightened up to hold the rods in the correct location.
Work can now proceed on the fabrication of the bottom rod network required in way of the
rudder heel shoe. At the same time, any rod joins must be staggered, correctly prepared, and
welded.

Figure 13. Useful tools

Attention should now be paid to the way the keel rods at the forward end will be connected into
the stem. The centre rod will pick up the stem centre rod and, therefore, can be cut some 150
mm aft of a frame location on the start of the straight part of the keel. The outside pair of keel
rods can be pre-bent to follow the foot of the keel stem and be allowed to fair into the stem at a
point to suit the designed width of the stem. The inner pair of rods will take a line parallel to the
centre line and be bent to suit the curve of the foot of the keel and cut off to suit their
intersection with the outside pair of keel rods.

The 8 mm dia. rod can now be spot welded at mid-frame intervals across the top of the keel
rods to hold them at their permanent location to each other. At this stage, marking the frame
centres accurately across the top of the keel rods will prove useful for later construction. The
temporary threaded ties may now be removed and the keel rods lifted off the keel jig and placed
on appropriate trestles.

The wire mesh to be used on the hull, in this case 13 mm x 13 mm x 19 gauge galvanised
welded mesh, can now be laid out on the workshop floor to the length required. Three layers are
gently stapled together allowing three squares - 40 mm - overlap on the long edge on each
layer.

The length of prepared mesh is now centred on the underside of the keel reinforcing rods and
stapled to them using 16 gauge lacing wire/staples. The staples should be kept clear of the
frame and temporary tie positions but at the same time stapled close enough, approximately
125 mm centres, to ensure the mesh is attached firmly and flat to the keel rod assembly.

On completion, the whole assembly can now be lifted back onto the keel jig, centred, and
positioned accurately to the frame centres on 10 mm hardwood (Teak) or GRP spacers,
positioned to miss the frame and temporary tie location but close enough to the frame location
so as not to interfere with the mortar penetration. These spacers may be bevelled to ensure
their retention in the mortar or removed after casting and the gaps filled with an epoxy filler.

Once the temporary metal ties have been tightened up, the projecting mesh may be gently
eased down the side of the keel stand so as to interfere as little as possible with the ongoing
work.

The keel strength may be further enhanced by the addition of rods placed after the frames are
set up. These may be located at the rabbet line position and/or by the addition of a longitudinal
web on the centre line of the keel. The requirement of either is dictated by the length and depth
of the designed keel structure. It will be seen that after completion of the hull skin structure, a
complete box reinforced girder is the result which will enable the keel to give enormous strength
to the hull.

Backbone construction

At this stage a 16 mm dia. rod is bent to the profile line of the design, using the pattern made
earlier (ref. item 2.10), from the tip of the transom on the centre line down to, and past, the end
point of the ferro keel. Allow for marking in the centre line of the rudder shaft, centre line and
station marks, as well as the temporary bracing that will be required. An allowance of 12 mm for
the hull reinforcement and mortar cover outside the backbone rod should be made in this
particular construction. After the fitting of the sterntube liner tube, the backbone rod will be
reinforced further (see page 78).

Stem construction
The initial stem rod of 16 mm dia. will be bent to the stem pattern prepared previously (ref. 2.10)
making a 12 mm allowance for the skin outside the stem rod. In this case the rabbet line follows
all the way up the stem (as opposed to a ghost line sometimes used by designers). A 16 mm
dia. rod is also bent to the rabbet line marked on the pattern, also allowing 12 mm inside the
rabbet line. The two rods are cut at locations required for the insertion of steel pipe in way of the
stem head fitting, for fixings whose size will normally have been advised by the designer. The
inside diameter of the pipe should ideally be a little greater than the fixing bolt diameter plus
galvanised cover. The stem head will be fixed with 16 mm dia. galvanised bolts, so the inside
diameter of the pipe needs to be 18-20 mm.

Two 16 mm dia. rods are nailed temporarily to the pattern and a 6 mm dia. rod is zigzagged and
welded at points approximately 115 mm apart on the stem and rabbet rod alternately (ref. Fig.
No. 14). Once the assembly has been joined, before removing from the pattern, the top of stem,
deck line, DWL together with the frame locations, are accurately and clearly marked (preferably
painted with white emulsion paint each side of the mark to be made prior to scribing with a
hacksaw blade).

Figure 14. Typical stem construction

The stem components should always be adequately but temporarily braced prior to being
removed from the pattern board and the bracing will remain in position until support from the
floor provided by 'A' frames are attached. This way there is little chance of distortion.

In setting the stem into its correct location a plumbob is used to locate the stem 12 mm aft of the
FP. Working to the DWL position, the stem can be married up to the frame location and the stem
rod cut to suit the end position of the centre rod in the keel.

6. Stem to keel reinforcement

The centre line rabbet rod will be joined at a point midway between frames, to a continuous 16
mm dia. rod located on the centre line 12 mm below the true rabbet line that runs the full length
of the keel and connects to the backbone. It will be fixed into position after the frames are set
up.

Two additional 16 mm dia. rods are bent to the rabbet line allowing the 12 mm allowance for
skin thickness on each side of the stem. These two rods are joined by 6 mm dia. SBHD (semi
bright hard drawn) rods set at 350 mm centres from the top of the stem. After fitting the frames,
the rabbet rods will have 6 mm rods spaced at 50 mm centres welded across them on the inside
face of the stem. The two outside rabbet rods will be terminated on the forward side of a frame
nearest to the end of the straight part of the keel when it has been set up.

Later in the construction, the inside face of the stem will be meshed and stapled after access
holes for vibrating poker ends have been cut through the centre rabbet rod at points to provide
complete 'infill' when the stem is vibrated during casting.

Alternatively, if the rabbet line is designed as a ghost line and additional stem strength is
required, this can be achieved by creating a web down the stem's length or by making an
artificial inner surface to create a triangular reinforced section.
6.5 Frame, web and floor construction
Frame rods

The frames are made directly off the body plan board patterns. As the completed frames are
likely to be fairly heavy and awkward to handle, it is more convenient if the pattern boards are
laid on a suitable flat area and constructed in the workshop adjacent to the hull to be
constructed. The first consideration in making the frames is to decide the best method with
which to bend the frame rods. Mechanical means to create the frame shapes are generally
more of a hindrance than a help because of the varied and non-standard curves required.

In my experience, the best means of obtaining an accurate shape on the frame rod is with
'home made' equipment, by means of positioning a 65-75 mm m/s pipe, set vertically on the
edge of the frame making area, attached to the floor and roof structure.

To this pipe, at an appropriate working height for the operative, are set half sections x 25 mm
long pieces of pipe the inside diameter of which matches the outside diameter of the frame rod.
Pairs of small half pieces of pipe are offset away from each other and from the main pipe and
fixed with sufficient bracing to withstand the frame bending stresses. Exactly the same brackets
are required at or near the base of the vertical pipe so that any double bends that want to be
carried out and if the frame rod is too long, the frame rod can be accommodated.

Each pair of frame rods, in this case 16 mm dia., should be bent parallel to and 12 mm inside
the frame line, and kept straight in a vertical plane, (the 12 mm allows for the skin thickness
outside the frame rod). This can be achieved by starting from the sheer line, allowing 100 mm
excess length and working in a gradual manner, using chalk to mark the amount of additional or
easing of the bend desired, until the complete shape has been achieved. When the bending is
finished, the pair of frame rods are temporarily nailed down on the frame board 12 mm inside
the frame line in question. The base of each frame rod being cut off at its intersection to the keel
leg and the two frame rods are joined with a piece of 16 mm dia. rod set parallel to the keel.

Web and floor construction

Meanwhile, using data gathered from the hull specification and the drawing giving the
reinforcement details (ref. Fig. No. 10 and Drg. No. IND 101 P4 a, b, c) it can be seen that the
floors and webs are to be finished 25 mm thick. To create the necessary edge for plasterers to
work to and the guide to the thickness, reusable 25 x 3 mm flat is used on the inside face of the
webs and reusable 25 x 25 x 3 mm angle is used on the top edge of the floors. Both the flat and
angle are drilled to accept 8 mm hexagonal bolts at 225 mm centres to make the metal edging
removable after completion of casting. To provide a recess on top of the nut on the edge of the
frame, either one or two (two is better) 8 mm spring washers are incorporated. This recess,
when the edging bolts and washers are removed, is filled with an epoxy filler after the hull has
dried out ready for fitting out.

When choosing the 8 mm bolt, it is advisable to allow for setting a lock nut above the metal, so
that none of the bolts slacken off during further construction. This work is needed to provide a
removable edging so that after curing is completed, the metal work is removed and results in a
mortar finished edge to the webs and floors.
For each frame, floor height dimensions, web depth, limber hole requirements, and any other
details affecting the frame construction, may be found on the hull section/frame details drawing
supplied in the designer's package of drawings. Using the information supplied, the floor angle
iron can be located and cut to the required length, the frame flat can be eased or prebent to
follow the inside edge of the web, and both can be temporarily nailed to the board. After
rechecking their position and dimensions, the angle and flat can be joined.

7. Frame rods and webs

An 8 mm dia. SBHD rod (for extra stiffness and control) is eased and prebent where necessary
to run from the top of the web down to the top of the floor reinforcement. This is tack welded to
the centre of the frame rod and to the centre of each nut on the web flat, making sure that the
bolts are not welded at the same time.

If the specification calls for the floors on all the frames to have two layers of 6 mm rod to keep
each side flush for plastering, a 12 mm dia. rod is welded centrally to the angle iron floor edging
nuts. The positioning of the rods in the centre of frame edging and to the frame rods can be
achieved by packing them as required off the frame making board prior to starting the tack
welding work.

The web is then created by zigzagging 6 mm dia. SBHD rods at approximately 115 mm centres
tack welded alternately to the centre of the 8 mm rod on the web edge and the centre of the
frame rod. If a limber hole is required at deck level, then this should be made from a piece of 25
x 3 mm flat bar bent into a channel shape of 50 x 50 mm in size with a retaining 8 mm bolt in the
centre of the top flat. The location and lay of the limber hole will be governed by the deck
camber for that frame. The deck camber can be located by offering the pattern onto the centre
line of the frame and positioning the top of the pattern on each side of the frame to the top of
deck at side mark on the frame pattern.

The floor reinforcement can now be proceeded with, but before placing any reinforcement a
check should be made on the frame section plan to see if any other information such as engine
beds, shaft line, are given. If, for example, the engine bed design is known at this stage, it will
be possible to include 12 mm dia. vertical rods within the floor structure to carry the longitudinal
engine bed reinforcement in a later stage in the work, as well as for any longitudinal hull webs
and stiffeners if required by the design.

Knowing the engine bed, shaft line and relevant information is to hand, the 12 mm vertical rods
can be set in the floors from the centre line of the frame and engine bed making due allowance
for the outside skin thickness of the engine beds. The design may not call for any additional
longitudinal stiffening because the length of engine beds provide it. Note that the aft and forward
end of the engine beds can be tapered and become hull stiffeners, with a consequent reduction
of gap between the pairs of vertical 12 mm dia. rods on the frames involved.

To keep the floor thickness to 25 mm and using two layers of 6 mm rods it will be necessary to
cut the 6 mm dia. rods to be butted up to the 12 mm dia. rods, both vertically and horizontally.
This will keep the reinforcement flush and leave 6.5 mm on each side approximately for the
mesh and mortar cover.
The 6 mm dia. rods as shown on the ferrocement reinforcement drawing in this case, are
spaced at 50 mm. This spacing if agreed to by the designer or classification body may either be
increased to 75 mm on the vertical rods and 50 mm transversely or 75 mm in both directions.

Prior to continuing with the rodding procedure, one can see from the frame drawing on frame 10
for example, refer Annex Drg. No. IND 101 004b, that the floor has a cut-out for the shaft to
pass through and requires bilge pipe run holes as well as limber holes each side of the engine
beds and on the centre line. The shaft cut-out can have a semi circle to the required size
fashioned from 25 x 3 m/s flat, welded to the floor angle after drilling and fitting 8 mm bolts. The
12 mm transverse rod will need to follow this shape and therefore it is more practical to fit the
shaft-cut out reinforcement prior to welding the top transverse 12 mm rod into place, which will
now be in two pieces.

The bilge pipe holes can be created by a galvanised ring slightly larger in diameter than the
outside diameter of the pipe to be used, being inserted into the floor in the correct positions.

The remaining limber holes can be made the same as the deck limber hole, ie 50 x 50 mm from
25 x 3 mm flat bar and located as required and temporarily nailed to the board.

The first 6 mm dia. rod to be spot welded in place should be set parallel to the 12 mm rods
running across the top of the floor and just below to allow space for the subsequent stapling of
the mesh. This will save using lacing wire around the top 12 mm rod as stapling is quicker.

The remaining 6 mm rods can now be tack welded into position. Once this has been achieved,
check that all relevant items required by the design have been included.

Frame bracing

The next stage is to brace the frame. The reusable bracing will be 20 mm inside diameter plain
black m/s water pipe, as shown on Fig. No. 10. The transverse bracing will be set at a height
compatible with as many frames as possible, as this pipe will be used to set scaffolding boards
on for work carried out at a later stage. The position on the 12.8 m hull for example (refer to
Annex Drg. No. IND 101 P2) would be to run parallel to waterline LL1000. On this design all
transverse pipes can be set at this position up to frame 3, when the transverse pipe will need to
be stepped higher on frames 2, 1 and 0 to give the required bracing.

8. Floor construction

A vertical pipe is offset to one side of the centre line to allow free access for aligning the shaft
line and centre line through the hull. It must be remembered to make sure that the pipe is offset
to the side chosen throughout.

The vertical pipe is welded to the horizontal pipe and to the floor angle iron. The horizontal pipe
is tack welded to the inside face of the web flat bar. Two additional pipes, one port and one
starboard, are located from the centre line pipe at the top and run diagonally to a point either on
the web inner face or the floor angle that divides the frame into roughly equal sections.

As there are to be tie bars connected to the transverse pipe at the top of the frame when setting
up, additional bracing will be required near the ends of the pipe each side. This can be provided
by welding short lengths of 12 mm rod diagonally off the top and bottom of the transverse pipe
to the inner face of the web. This will prevent the bracing and frame distorting when it is being
set up and 'fine tuned' into position.

The final work prior to removing the frame from the frame making board is to ensure that the
frame number, sheer line, DWL, beamshelf, deck line, and any other water lines which may be
of use, and the centre line, are clearly marked by hacksaw on white paint.

The frame may now be moved onto trestles ready for applying the mesh. However, any welds
which need to be 'double welded' can be carried out at this stage, making sure that at least the
pipe bracing and frame rod joins as well as all welds to the frame rod, are good.

Web and floor meshing

The frame's floor and web as required by the specification, is to have three layers of 13 mm x
13 mm x 19 gauge mesh on each side of the rods. Stapling should be carried out in an orderly
manner, each staple being spaced at approximately 125 mm to each other, although the
spacing may well be closer on the edges to keep the mesh tied neatly.

9. Frame meshing

The mesh is cut parallel to the edge of the flat and angle iron. Inserting and working a piece of 3
mm flat iron between the edge of the mesh and the flat/angle iron, a gap is provided, so that no
mesh ends are left which will rust when the removable frame edging is taken away after curing
the hull.

An overlap of 40 mm is allowed on the top layer of mesh each side of the frames and is bent
back against the reinforcement to avoid getting in the way whilst work continues. The overlap
will be bent down onto the hull reinforcing rods at a later stage of construction. Again, it may well
be required by the designer and/or classification society that all three layers are overlapped onto
the hull but, in my experience, this has been unnecessary as it will often lead to a build up in
additional mesh layers in this area thus making it much more difficult to obtain the mortar
penetration at casting time.

6.6 Setting up the frames

Master frames

The method used in setting up the frames using the upright hull technique for this form of
ferrocement construction, is virtually the same as would be experienced in timber construction.

It will be a normal requirement for the setting up to have started whilst the frame making
process is going on. It would therefore have been necessary to have taken a decision on which
frames were wanted first.

The preliminary requirement will be to take a look at the hull design in general and decide how
many 'master frames' are to be used for ongoing control in the setting up procedure. For craft of
12-17 ms, two master frames are usually chosen which can give good control over 25-30% of
the aft and forward ends of the hull.
In the meantime, the stem and backbone basic structure will have been made as they can be
made up any time after the patterns were finished.

The master frames are so called because after they are set up they will be temporarily
supported and held in their correct position by 'A' frames and additional bracing to ensure the
frames are held level and vertical as well as being in a straight line across the whole of the
frame from top to bottom.

By this stage the keel, jig, bottom mesh and reinforcement are in place. The RSJ and a
complete set of tie bars, having been fabricated, are in place in the roof of the building, and the
master frames have been completely finished ready for setting up.

In order to set the master frame/s into place, some means of lifting the frame is needed for
location at the approximate height above the keel as well as close to the correct position fore
and aft.

This can be achieved by making a strong enough hook and eye that can be set alongside the tie
rod saddle (ref. Fig. No 11) on top of the RSJ. The hook and eye are so made that the centre of
the eye hangs under and to the centre of the RSJ. To this eye is attached a pulley hoist. These
hoists have four sheave pulleys with 5 mm braided nylon line provided with hooked jaws which
can pass around 10 mm dia. rod easily. The bottom end set of sheaves similarly has these jaws
and a simple hooked 'U' shape can be bent into a piece of 8-10 mm rod for lifting on the top
transverse pipe bracing of the frame each side of the centre line.

For ease of moving the hoist from one position to another on the RSJ, a sufficiently long length
of small diameter pipe is required which picks up a short length of 12 mm rod welded to the
hook and eye assembly which is pointing at a slight angle towards the ground.

The frame could have had keel legs attached at the frame making stage, but it is just as easy to
prebend these to a given radius and adjust the bend to suit the angle of the frame rod coming
into the hull. This method will require great accuracy to avoid any modification at a later stage in
ensuring fairness of shape and line.

On the hull vertical 12 mm rods from the frame to each side of the keel are fitted allowing 12
mm for the skin thickness. Prebent 8 mm rods, radiused to the required shape, are added to the
fore or aft side of the frame rod and keel leg in one operation after the frames have been set up,
and faired to each other.

The master frame is now hoisted up into approximate position for height, and temporarily held
with the centre of the frame on the centre line of the keel. The tie bars are now set and adjusted
so that the lower lug can be welded to the transverse top pipe bracing on the frame. Where
possible the threaded rod should be kept clear of the web to avoid interference when the hull is
plastered, but at the same time keeping the tie rod bracket out from the centre line as far as
possible. The tie rod is adjusted whilst the frame is held level so that the bracket now welded to
the pipe bracing is at the centre of the thread, allowing adjustment to the frame each way.

10. Setting up master frame

Whilst maintaining the frame's position on the centre line, the full weight of the frame is now
allowed to be taken by the tie rods. An initial check is made to satisfy one that the frame is at the
correct height from the top of the keel jig to the DWL.

The DWL and/or water line marks previously marked on each side of the frame and on the
centre line bracing are checked either by level or, more accurately, with a water level.

The water level can be a length of small bore clear PVC pipe with a stopper for each end. Prior
to using the pipe the stoppers and any air bubbles in the pipe are removed, and the pipe topped
up with the required amount of water.

If there is any discrepancy in the level, the frame can be fine tuned on the threaded rod ends of
the tie bars, and by using a lock nut provided on each side of the tie rod angle brackets the
frame is held in place in the level state. The centre line is rechecked for correct position to the
keel with a plumb line.

The frame is checked to make sure it is in a vertical plane and the centre of the frame rod is
centred to the frame mark previously scribed accurately on the keel jig and keel reinforcement.
Temporary bracing can be used to keep the frame in position fore and aft. The vertical 12 mm
dia. keel rods may now be cut to length and inserted. After a final check, the legs are welded to
the underside of the frame rod and to the top of the outside keel rod each side of the keel (ref.
Fig. No. 12).

11. Master frame support

The frame will look square to the keel but probably is not and, therefore, either a long batten
with one pointed end, or string can be used to ensure that the frame is square to the centre line
of the boat. The batten is held on the centre line of the keel at a fixed point (perhaps another
frame mark further forward) and run diagonally to the sheer mark on the frame. The batten is
marked and the same operation carried out on the other side. The difference is noted and
halved and temporary bracing employed to shore the frame into its new position.

The centre line of the frame fore and aft must be maintained whilst this work is done, as well as
the frame being kept 'dead' straight from frame rod to frame rod at the sheer position.

Because of the height of these frames, 'A' frames from 50 x 50 x 6 m/s angle can be made to
suit their location 100 mm below the sheer mark and also positioned at the turn of the bilge. The
'A' frames are not welded directly to the frame but have pegs of steel rod inserted between the
'A' frame and frame rod. These can now be welded together.

A final check is made on the squareness of the frame to the centre line of the boat. Once
satisfied, the base of the 'A' frame can be attached to the workshop floor.

The same work will be carried out on any other master frames.

Before leaving the master frames, it is advisable to recheck them as any error may be
compounded when continuing with setting up the remaining frames.
It is quite easy at this stage to run a line above the frame bracing on the centre line between AP
and FP and check that the line crosses over the centre lines on each frame, thus ensuring
accuracy with regards to the centre line. The distance between the master frame centres can
also be checked for accuracy, not only on the centre line but also parallel to the centre line and
as close as possible to the sheer.

Plumbobs can be set from the sheer line on each side of the frame to check that the frame has
not 'snaked' from top to bottom. This can happen if the frame rod bending has been poorly
carried out. It is much easier to carry out the checks at this point than to find any errors at a later
stage of construction.

Main body frames

Once the master frames have been satisfactorily set up, attention can be paid to the infilling
frames. As is usual on a ferrocement boat design, the frames in the main are set at even
intervals - in many cases this will be 600 mm. It follows then, that to support the additional
frames temporarily to their required spacing a simple rod jig with retaining pegs to match the
outside diameter of the pipe bracing would be advantageous.

The middle body frames can now be lifted into place, correctly levelled both across the frames
as well as fore and aft, using the DWL mark on the centre line bracing of the two master frames
as the working marks. The tie rods and keel legs are attached as before.

A piece of 50 x 6 mm flat bar is used down the centre line above the top transverse bracing and
tack welded to each frame once the vertical centre line of each frame has been centred over the
centre of the keel. The temporary rod spacers are removed when the frames are tied together
by welding 8 mm dia. rod inside the web face on top of the pipe bracing. 8 mm rod is also used
at the turn of the bilge by passing the rod over the top of each frame rod, through the
webs/floors before this rod on each side of the boat is welded. Each frame, by using a plumb
line as before, should be checked for being straight and vertical and the correct dimension, ie
600 mm, maintained from the previous frame.

Ultimately, when the last frame of the group is fixed into place, the gap between the centres of
each frame measured at any point on the frame, must be 600 mm. If this is not the case, a
check should be made to find where the error has occurred, and corrected.

12. Frames and stem erected

Aft end frames

The frames aft of the aft master frame will now need the backbone set into position prior to the
frames being set up. The initial stage of construction of the backbone is purely a 16 mm dia. rod
which has been bent allowing 12 mm for the hull skin, braced and once fitted into place will pass
through the centre line of adjacent frames as well as the transom. Therefore each of these will
require a 16 mm wide cut out, 8 mm each side of the centre line through the frame rods. The
backbone, once located into position, will need two 'A' frames fitted; one under the transom tip
and the second temporary one at mid point. They should be firmly fixed to the floor and the
backbone rod.
The aft end setting up procedure, as before, can be carried out on aft body frames, again
making sure the centre line is true and that the heights, levels, and distance between, check
out.

The transom

The transom may have been made complete with the web stiffening and outside layer of 6 mm
dia. rods in place. This would certainly be the case if one is sure that the expanded shape will
not require any modification. As this is the first hull to be built of this particular design, it pays to
have a simple braced rod frame made to the aft point shape, set up temporarily just aft of the
AP. Lacing wire is used to attach 8 mm dia. rods as fairing rods at 150 mm centres all the way
up and through the aft body of the hull on to the AP frame rod.

The transom frame rods can now be inserted individually against the backbone rod and on the
inside of the fairing rods, checking that location fore and aft is correct and that the sheer line
marks fair in. If there is any alteration to make to the shape of the transom frame rods, it is most
likely to occur on the tight curved shape on the turn of the bilge. Because the frame rods are
loose at this stage, it is easy to rebend the rod port and starboard until the correct shape is
achieved. Once satisfied, the rods can be offered onto the original transom pattern which is
modified to suit the new shape. The amount of change may only be a few millims but the end
result, in fairness of line, will be worth the effort.

With the transom rod shape corrected, they can now be inserted and set into their required
location allowing for skin thickness forward of the aft point.

Before final fixture, the transom will need to be checked for squareness to the centre line. This
is done independently of the other frames by using a batten (as with the master frames) and
checking the sheer mark distance to a point on the centre line either in the keel or more easily
by using the centre line provided on top of the frame bracing which now has a length of 50 x 6
mm m/s flat running all the way through the hull.

13. Aft point pattern and transom construction

Attention can now be focused on the transom webs which will be depicted on the frame section
drawing and the hull construction plan. Vertical 12 mm dia. rods can be inserted in the transom
at the centres of the webs indicated.

If the hull design incorporates a flat area in way of the hull rubbing strake, coinciding with the top
of the deck line and knuckle line, 12 mm dia. rods will follow these two lines across the transom
and to the required camber of the deck at this point. This results in a reduction in width between
the two 12 mm rods to compensate for the later addition of hull reinforcement and mortar to
bring the finished width back to the designed measurement.

These two transverse 12 mm rods are let into the transom frame rod by 6 mm so that the
outside layer of 6 mm rods which will be applied later are flush to the outside of the 6 mm rods.
The 12 mm vertical web rods not only provide the base to form the web from, but also split the
width of the transom into convenient centres when the outside layer of 6 mm rods are welded to
the transom framework.
The AP temporary frame pattern is kept in place until the transom has been further stiffened by
the addition of the sheer line member and tie rods have been connected to the transom corners.

The transom webs are now faced with removable 25 x 25 x 3 mm angle iron which will help to
keep the flat area of the transom in a true line as well as providing the plasterers with the
necessary guide for web thickness. The web reinforcement and edging is temporarily finished
some 100 mm above the inside of the hull, if the webs are to be continued forward onto the
inside of the hull reinforcement, to provide additional strength to the aft end of the hull. The aft
end may now be left to proceed with work forward of the forward master frame.

Stem and forward frames

The stem previously made in its basic form is now offered up into place. It will be remembered
that the aft end of the 16 mm stem rod should meet up exactly with where the centre rod of the
keel had been cut off. At the same time the 16 mm rabbet rod should be in line to pick up the
continuation of the rabbet rod through the keel.

Because the stem has marked on it the DWL, sheer lines, frame marks, and some of the water
lines above DWL, it is fairly easy to set the height by pulling a line through the DWL of the boat
and position fore and aft by frame location marks on the keel jig. Also, by dropping a plumb line
at the FP of the boat and setting the top of the stem rod aft of the AP by 12 mm, location will
then be accurately set.

The main item to check will be the end on view for straightness of the stem from the top down to
the keel, and ensuring the stem is kept on the centre line. Both these items can be helped by
fixing up 'A' frames as was carried out on the master frames, this time attaching one to the top
of the stem and a second adjacent to the DWL point, whilst maintaining a good fixture to the
floor. These 'A' frames, although being temporarily moved to facilitate the application of the hull
reinforcement, will remain in place during the hull casting.

When the stem has been satisfactorily set up, the remaining forward frames can be set into their
correct locations. Because the frames are now getting smaller and higher, the levelling will not
be carried out off DWL but on the higher water lines and sheer line, which is why the stem
requires additional water lines marked on it as mentioned earlier. The 50 x 6 m/s flat running
through the centre line will be continued, and stepped if necessary, all the way to the stem. All
frames will be temporarily tied using 8 mm rod welded on the top pipe bracing as well as
through a mid point position in the frame webs port and starboard.

It is important at this stage to recheck that all frames are correctly spaced, and are vertical and
square to the centre line. Accuracy at this time will save problems when the hull is being fitted
out.

6.7 Sheer or gunwale

The sheer line or gunwale line will, on some designs, run in and be part of the bulwark line. To a
boatbuilder perhaps, this is the one line on the craft which will catch the eye more than any
other and, therefore, due attention should be applied to achieving a well faired line.
By looking at the hull specification it will be seen that the total hull thickness should be 30 mm.
Angle iron of 30 x 30 x 3 mm is prepared on the ground ready for use. As a fairer line will be
achieved by using a long length of angle iron at one time, two sets are prepared to a length
some 600 mm longer than the sheer line and joined as required. The joints should be ground
flush on the face laying on the hull thickness. After drilling, 8 mm x 30 mm hexagonal studs,
nuts, and single coil 8 mm washers are fixed at 225 mm centres with the first and last hole some
75 mm away from the stem and transom.

14. Stem, sheer, knuckle and frame fairing rods

To provide a backing to which the angle nuts will be welded, a 25 or 30 x 6 m/s flat bar is used.
The flat bar is set against and to the outside of the frame rods and some 10 mm below the
sheer marks on the frames. (This distance is arrived at from the depth of nut plus two 8 mm dia.
single coil spring washers.)

The flat bar is temporarily held in place by vice grips (mole grips) and the line represented by
the top of the flat bar is checked for fairness. Any change needed is carried out and the flat is
then double welded to each frame rod. The tops of all the frame rods are cur off flush with the
top of the flat bar.

The 30 x 30 x 3 m/s angle can now be offered up to the top edge of the flat bar. By using a
simple home made tool, the required pressure and leverage to hold the angle in the correct
position over the flat to centre the angle to the centre of the skin thickness whilst tack welding
the nuts only to the top of the flat bar, can be employed. Sufficient labour and support must be
given to holding and easing the angle, starting from the stem, around the sheer whilst the tack
welding is carried out.

The angle iron should be kept square to the vertical hull line at any point along the sheer.

At the aft end the transom angle iron will have been fitted and cut back to allow the fitting of the
side angle irons. On completion, the side angles can be cut back in line with the outside point of
the transom angle iron. The welds on the transom corners being ground back to provide a clean
edge when plastering.

6.8 Knuckle line

The function of a knuckle line is to provide a flat section in way of and to make it easier for fitting
the rubbing strakes, as well as keeping them at the angle that any impact is most likely to be
received.

This normally means that a knuckle line will be required from the stem to mid body running
parallel to the sheer or deck line, as well as parallel to the deck line aft particularly adjacent to
the transom where there is very often a quick change to the hull shape. On some designs a
knuckle line will also be needed across the transom.

15. Sheer and forward knuckle line

The forward knuckle line is provided by fitting and welding a 12 mm rod set 6 mm into each
frame rod up to where the shape of the hull is vertical, parallel to and a set distance below the
sheer to the bottom of the rod. An allowance of 10 mm must be made from the specified width
for the mesh and cement.

The forward 12 "mm dia. knuckle rods in particular will need to be prebent to the half breadth
shape to avoid distortion on being welded into place. These rods should not only be fair in plan
view but also in the horizontal plane.

The aft knuckle line is a line with the top 12 mm dia. rod being set 10 mm below the top of the
deck line from the amidships frame to the transom. The lower 12 mm dia. rod, because of the
frame shape, will start much further aft due to the natural shape of the frames. The 12 mm rods
will be set 10 mm inside the required finished width. Each rod, as for the forward end, is set 6
mm into the frame rods and welded permanently after the shape has been checked for fairness.

To tidy up the reinforcement the 12 mm rod at deck level aft is joined to the 12 mm rod on the
upper forward knuckle amidships.

6.9 Fairing in the frames

As described earlier on checking the fairness of the transom rods, it will now be the turn of the
rest of the frames to be faired.

The 8 mm dia. rods are temporarily attached at 150 mm centres approximately to all the frames
port and starboard. The amount of fairing required will normally be 0-6 mm on a few frames.

The discrepancies will most likely be over a short length of a frame and may be caused by a
combination of factors, namely errors made in frame making, in setting up the frames, or in
lofting.

It is now the objective to ensure that the whole hull shape fairs in properly before any skin
reinforcement is put into place.

It is at this time always better to fair out than fair in to avoid cutting the frame rods, webs or
floors. This can be achieved be easing the fairing rods into a natural hull line curve and prebend
a sufficient length of 8 mm or 6 mm dia. rod to be laid alongside one side of the frame rod in
question. On being satisfied that the new piece of rod provides the correct shape, the rod is
welded to the side of the frame rod. On completion of this exercise the temporary 8 mm fairing
rods are removed.

6.10 Beamshelf construction

Where there is to be a timber deck fitted on a ferrocement hull, due consideration should be
given as to how this will be achieved.

Where a hull has no webs fitted above beamshelf level, this can be accomplished by through
bolting a timber beamshelf to the hull the full length of the boat.

In the case of most fishing boat hulls, (for example ref. Annex Drgs. Nos. IND 101 P4 a, b, c),
the main deck aft will have ferrocement webs running through the deck location and up to the
underside of the upper sheer rubbing strake. It follows that the timber beamshelf will be short
pieces inserted between the frame webs.

This, therefore, will break up the continuity of strength. As a solution the area is given a
ferrocement beamshelf which will provide not only additional hull strength at perhaps one of the
most vulnerable areas on a fishing boat, but also vertical support for the timber beamshelf block
pieces and ends of the deck beams.

The ferrocement beamshelf is a web constructed with its top edge set at the underside of the
timber beam position. The thickness of the ferrocement beamshelf for vessels in the 12-17 m
range will be 30 mm. It will therefore require the inclusion of two layers of 6 mm dia. rod. To help
in providing a flat surface with which to connect the 6 mm rods, as can be seen by reference to
Fig. No. 15, the shelf has two lengths of 12 mm x 12 mm m/s square bar running the full length
of the beamshelf's structure.

Figure 15. Typical beamshelf construction - 30 mm thick

To provide a guide for the plasterers, as before, reusable 30 x 30 x 3 mm m/s angle iron is used
on the inboard edge with 8 mm hexagonal studs, nuts and washers set at 225 mm centres.

16. Beamshelf reinforcement

The beamshelf line and camber for each frame can be picked up from the marks made at the
frame making stage both on the frame rod and on the inside face of the web removable flat.

Before installing any reinforcement, the top of the ferrocement beamshelf can be marked on
each frame and checked for fairness. It pays to take the shelf one frame forward of the end of
the timber beamshelf, to ensure a good line to the ferrocement shelf. The 30 mm angle can be
set at the correct location on the frame web faces and tack welded to the frame web flat. The 8
mm dia. frame web rods will need to be cut accurately to allow the placement of the inner 12
mm square bar prior to welding the bar centrally to the nuts provided on the inside face of the
angle iron. The outer square bar is run inside all the frame rods and through all the webs.

The lower 6 mm dia. rod can now be zigzagged at 115 mm centres through the length of the
shelf and welded in turn to each inside face of the 12 mm square bars. The top two 6 mm dia.
rods are set equidistant between the 12 mm square bars.

The transom corner area is radiused to provide a good line and finish to the join between the
side beamshelf and the transom cambered beamshelf.

After completion of the ferrocement beamshelf steelwork, marking out the location of the deck
beams on the beamshelf angle iron will be an added benefit when fitting out. These marks can
be transferred to the completed beamshelf after curing and before the angle iron on the
beamshelf inner edge is removed for good. At the same time, the timber beams will be bolted
down through the ferrocement beamshelf at approximately centre of beam and centre of shelf. It
is possible to check more easily if there is any rod work in way of the bolt locations, cut out the
offending pieces which will make drilling the shelf for the fitting out work so much easier.

17. Meshing up the beamshelf

The ferrocement beamshelf may now have three layers of 13 x 13 mm x 19 gauge mesh applied
to each side of the steelwork, with the top layer and bottom layer having a 40 mm overlap onto
the hull and frame webs allowed for when trimming the mesh. As for the frame web meshing,
the inboard edge of the mesh should be kept away from the angle iron inner face by
approximately 3 mm. The overlap can be bent down onto the shelf face top and bottom,
temporarily until after the hull rod reinforcement has been fixed into position.

6.11 The hull reinforcement

The hull skin for fishing boats of 12-17 m vessels will be 30 mm thick. This is made up of 2 mm
mortar + 7 mm mesh + 2 x 6 mm dia. rods + 7 mm mesh + 2 mm mortar. (Three layers of 19
gauge mesh, by the time they are stapled and laid together, account for 7 mm thickness within
the skin structure for all practical purposes.)

The placing of the two layers of hull rods may vary according to the construction technique
followed. It is usual to place one 6 mm dia. rod on the outside of the frame rods in a longitudinal
direction. The second 6 mm dia. rod may be set in a vertical transverse direction set inside the
longitudinal 6 mm dia. rods, thus allowing the inside rods to be taken across the top of the keel
as a continuous piece of reinforcement. The frame rods extending above the tops of the frame
webs should be kept within the inside edge of the gunwale 30 mm angle iron.

Alternatively the second layer of rod may be located outside the first layer and run diagonally
from sheer to keel. This will affect the positioning of the sheer removable angle iron and bolt
positions for alignment to the skin, as well as the allowance for the hull skin from the frame rods.

The first method requires a 12 mm skin allowance, the second method 18 mm.

The three layers of mesh on the outside of the hull will be stretched longitudinally onto the
outside hull rods and the three layers of mesh for the inside will be fitted transversely between
the frames. Fitting the mesh this way means that all the rod reinforcement can be finished prior
to any mesh being applied to the skin thus avoiding the galvanising on the mesh being a
nuisance when the rods are welded into position and being able to achieve a good line on the
rods without visual interference.

All these points have a bearing on the ultimate fairing and finish achieved on the reinforcement.

Hull outside rods

The transom is usually the first area to be rodded up if this has not been carried out at an earlier
stage in the construction. The 6 mm dia. rods are spaced at 50 mm applied in a level line across
the transom and terminated on the transom edges.

The 6 mm dia. SBHD rods on the outside of the frame rods are started by temporarily lacing one
rod onto the frames at a location near and parallel to the rabbet line. The forward and aft end
particularly, are laid to give a fair easy line. Once satisfied with the result, the rod can be tack
welded to each frame. The spacing for all the remaining rods has been specified at 50 mm
centres, using hangers and rodding tool ref. Fig. No. 13, the 6 mm rods can be gradually fixed
all the way up the frames.
Where the rods require joining, they will be overlapped by 180-200 mm and spot welded a
minimum of three times. It is permissible to have four consecutive rod joints up a frame.

The overlapping of adjacent reinforcement rods on the same frame should be avoided until
there are eight continuous rods between.

18. First layer of rods and backbone reinforcement

It will be found that the natural curve of the hull will generally stagger the joints required. Care
must be exercised all the time to keep the rods in a fair line. This will come from practice and
the welder having a helper who not only holds the rod spacer in position for welding the rod, but
supports the rod whilst the weld cools to prevent unnecessary distortion.

The rods take up a curve into the sheer line or knuckle line as the rodding up progresses. This
allows the rods forward to be terminated on the rabbet rod and subsequently on the 12 mm dia.
rod at the base of the knuckle line.

At the aft end, the rods will curve in a less accentuated fashion but will be terminated and bent
around the transom frame rod onto the transom face. The remaining rods will terminate on the
12 mm dia. knuckle rods.

In the design where there is no knuckle line, the rods will be taken up to the bottom of the sheer
line or gunwale line flat bar and terminated.

For those hulls with a knuckle line, the outside 6 mm dia. rods between the sheer and knuckle
will be finished after the inside layer of rods are in place.

The stem can be finished off by either continuing the rods already applied to the hull alternately
around the stem and join back onto the rabbet rod, or as in this design where there is a distinct
rabbet and a radius on the main part of the stem, it will be easier to prefabricate a number of
identically radiused pieces of rod and offer them onto the stem weld on the centre line and join
the ends on each side on the rabbet line overlapping the hull rods as required. This can be
achieved between the base of the stem head fitting and the start of the foot of the keel.

19. First layer of rods at stem and knuckle

The stem head area steelwork will be tailored to suit the shape determined by the fitting to be
used.

The temporary 8 mm rods used at the frame setting up stage to space the frames on top of the
frame bracing and in the bilge area may be removed as they become redundant as the outside
hull rodding progresses.

The keel

Proceeding with the keel reinforcement is dictated by how far the work has advanced in
installation of the stern liner tube and completion of the main backbone reinforcement and
plummer blocks. It is usual at least that the keel reinforcement can be completed up to the end
of the flat parallel sided part of the keel, ref. Fig. No. 12 which on most vessels finishes well aft.
If plummer blocks are required the reinforcing will be temporarily terminated in front of the
forward plummer block.

As it is envisaged taking the inner three layers of mesh across the top of the keel, it will be
necessary to provide three layers of mesh on the side of the keel up to the rabbet line prior to
attaching any longitudinal rods to the keel legs.

It can be understood that as the keel area is a boxed in section, one needs to think out the order
of the work to make the application of the reinforcing as easy as possible.

The keel threaded rod ties beside each frame leg may now be reduced by 50% as there is little
likelihood of any movement in the steelwork at this stage of construction.

20. Port side of keel reinforcing and rabbet rods in place

The 16 dia. rod continued down the centre line which will carry the inner 6 dia. rods across the
keel needs to be located into position and welded to the underside transverse rod adjoining
each frame rod. As it will be easier to terminate and overlap the inside layer of rods at the keel
area, short lengths of 6 mm dia. rods are welded to the top of the rabbet rod on the centre line
at 50 mm centres, cut to suit the inside width of the keel.

It can be appreciated that to staple all the mesh together in the keel area will be far more difficult
if both sides of the keel are worked on simultaneously. Therefore, the reinforcement on the keel
is completed up to and including stapling the outside mesh on one side of the keel first.

The three layers of 13 x 13 mm x 19 gauge mesh are stretched and wire tied to the keel legs on
one side of the keel. With reference to the drawing for hull reinforcement details, it can be seen
that a single layer of 8 mm dia. SBHD rods are to be used. These are spaced so that the bottom
rod is positioned to facilitate the use of a staple when applying the outside layers of mesh.

The remaining 8 mm rods, as for the hull rods, are spaced at 50 mm and tack welded through
the inner layers of mesh onto the frame keel legs.

The outside three layers of mesh, are applied to the underside of the keel reinforcement at an
earlier stage. The protruding area of mesh is now gently folded up alongside the keel and will
reach with its overlaps for most of the length of the keel onto the hull. When the mesh is laying
perfectly flat to the side of the keel, it can be stapled over the 8 mm dia. rods and through the
inside keel mesh in one operation. Accessibility is provided because the other side of the keel is
still open at this stage. The mesh will need to be cut and overlaps prepared just forward of the
plummer block.

21. Stapling outside mesh to port side of keel

The opposite side of the keel can now be worked on in exactly the same way. The only
difference being that the mesh will need to be back stapled due to inaccessibility. This can be
achieved by bending the staples into the shape of a question mark and hooking through the
mesh, around the rod, and back through the mesh until both ends of the staple can be twisted
together.
The keel reinforcement is now complete up to the forward plummer block from the stem. If the
sterntube liner tube and plummer blocks have been installed the work can be continued aft in
exactly the same manner as described for the keel, cutting, overlapping and fitting the mesh and
rods as required.

Hull inside rods

If the requirement is to lay the inside 6 mm dia. rods transversely and any hull has a great
change of shape in its length, the rods will need to be prebent to avoid distortion to the outside
layer of rods. It is advisable to check on the number of rods required to complete the work
between frames.

22. Locating the inside hull rods between frames

For a 600 mm frame spacing, it will mean 14 rods being bent per side, per frame spacing. This
allows a rod to be located approximately 25 mm from a frame rod which will help in keeping the
mesh neatly stapled near the frame centres. It will be found in the bow area that the 50 mm
spacing will need to be adjusted due to the different width measured between the frame rods at
the keel and that measured around the hull shape at the knuckle.

The area between the sheer line and knuckle rods can have vertical 6 mm dia. rods fitted and
welded from the inside face of the sheer flat bar to the top of the 12 mm dia. knuckle rod
keeping the inside edges flush all the way from stem to transom, these being short pieces
forward and longer pieces from amidships to the aft end. Once the knuckle area has been
completed the outside 6 mm dia. rods can be located and welded into position. (This is carried
out this way, as particularly at the forward end, the inner layer of vertical rods will control the
curve required on the outer rods.)

When the inner 6 mm dia. rods are bent to the frame shapes, a locating mark viz sheer or deck
line, should be scribed on them which will help to locate the rod accurately when being
positioned inside the hull. The inside rods are now put into place with just sufficient staples used
to hold them to the outer rods as is required. Care should be taken in staggering the holding
staples otherwise distortion to the shape of the hull between the frames will occur.

23. Inside rods in place and outside keel mesh completed

The tops of the rods are cut to suit and welded to the bottom of the knuckle rod and flush to the
inside face. The lower end of each rod is overlapped and tack welded to suit the previously fitted
6 mm rods on the rabbet rod in the top of the keel and stem.

The inside 6 mm dia. rods are located and spaced at 50 mm centres vertically on the transom if
this has not been carried out at an earlier stage.

On completion of the rod reinforcement, 12 mm holes are drilled through the sheer 25/30 x 6
mm flat and spaced at approximately 450 mm centres, keeping the first and last hole adjacent to
the stem and transom. These holes will be used at the fitting out stage for the top layer of fixing
bolts to attach the upper rubbing strake and forward beamshelf.

Scuppers, fairleads and skin fitting holes

After the hull rod reinforcement has been completed, the hull construction drawing can be
inspected to check on the number, location and size of scuppers, fairlead openings and skin
fitting holes required.

For a 13 m hull the designed scupper openings would be 200 mm x 80 mm. The holes are
created by bending a 30 x 3 mm piece of flat bar to the shape and drilled to take six 8 mm bolts,
nuts and washers to make the flat removable after casting. A 6 mm dia. rod is welded to the nuts
to align with the outside hull rods. The bottom of each scupper unit is aligned to the top of the
deck line and all scuppers are located as required fore and aft and faired to each other prior to
final fixing.

The scupper lining can be removed after curing by removing the bolts and cutting through the
flat bar and collapsing the liner inwards.

Fairleads can be provided in two ways. The first by creating a hole to the required size in the
reinforcement and using a blanking pattern and Subsequently bolting a fabricated unit to the
opening, or secondly fabricating a stainless steel flat, rounding the inner edges into a convex
shape and permanently welding the stainless fairlead unit to the hull reinforcement, as well as
providing short retaining lugs welded edge-on at intervals around the outside edge of the
stainless flat bar.

24. Scupper liners in position

Skin fitting openings are required for all craft. A careful check should be made at this stage that
the hull construction drawing shows all the openings required, as well as the correct positions.
As the outside diameter of skin fittings vary from one source of supply to another, it would also
be advantageous to have the selected list of fittings to hand.

Short pieces of pipe are cut to 30 mm in length and 3 mm greater in inside diameter than the
outside diameter of the fitting. These are welded to the hull reinforcement after cutting an
accurate hole in the hull rods. Care should be exercised in locating the rings as it is easier to
rectify badly positioned openings before rather than after casting.

Where there is uncertainty over the correct size of a fitting prior to casting, the hole should be
left to be inserted until after casting and curing the hull, even though it will be difficult to cut the
hole at a later stage.

Hull inside mesh

25. Fitting mesh between frames and above the beamshelf

The inside mesh for this technique requires that the mesh is fitted between the frames and on
the inside of the 6 mm dia. rods already located. Relatively short pieces can be prepared for the
area between the sheer and the beamshelf, whilst elsewhere the mesh will travel from sheer to
keel or beamshelf to keel.

The easiest way to prepare the mesh is to offer up one layer on the outside of the hull and chalk
line the shape onto that piece. The single piece of mesh can now be laid on the floor on top of a
further two layers and stapled together. All three layers can then be cut to the correct shape,
overlapped as required, and on completion laid into the hull against the inside rods. It is sensible
to provide the joins to one side of the keel so that the overlaps are easier to staple when the
outside mesh is fitted. The previously prepared overlaps of mesh on the frame webs, floors and
beamshelf, may now be laid down onto the hull reinforcement as work progresses.

All the inside mesh work is completed and the hull rods are given a final check over for fairness
prior to starting work on the outside mesh.

26. Patterning off inside mesh for fitting between frames

Hull outside mesh

The outside mesh is prepared by laying three layers of 13 x 13 mm x 19 gauge mesh out on the
floor, allowing excess length to suit where the mesh is to be applied. The edges of each layer of
mesh are overlapped by 40 mm. The mesh is then temporarily stapled together over the full
length.

The outside mesh is applied to the area from the sheer down and from the keel mesh overlaps
up, leaving the middle section to last, where the mesh will need trimming and the overlaps cut in
to suit the layer of the previous mesh already fitted.

The transom is completely meshed up and stapled with overlaps being cut into the three layers
running parallel to the outside edge of the transom.

The longitudinal mesh can be started at either sheer or keel, or both if there is sufficient labour
available. The mesh is connected on the ends of each three layer strip to the same type of
pulley as was used for setting up the frames. The pulley, in turn, is connected to a rod bent
round a pipe or beam which is set from roof truss to floor clear of each end of the hull and to the
mesh with a preformed hook made from 6 or 8 mm rod.

27. Starting from rabbet, tensioning outside mesh

By judgement, the pulleys are set for height up the posts so that the mesh is pulled as tight as
possible and stretched in a fair line around the location on the hull required, positioning the
mesh to reduce offcuts to a minimum.

The three layer strip of mesh is centred to the middle of the hull fore and aft. Experience has
shown that it is expedient for two pairs of men to work, one pair forward, the other pair aft, away
from the central frame and up and down the width of mesh, keeping the staples set at
approximately 125 mm centres. The mesh must be worked up and down and along to prevent
any unevenness occurring to the mesh inside or outside.

28. Stapling the mesh

The 16 gauge staples are applied from the outside and the person inside twists and cuts off the
ends as close as possible to the inside mesh so that the ends of all the staples are kept under
the surface of the inside mortar thus preventing pinpoint rusting occurring. He must also make
sure that all loose ends, overlaps and flaps of mesh are stapled down, otherwise on casting
these will come to the surface and be a local rusting point.
The person on the outside trims the mesh to the sheer, scupper openings, etc. and other mesh
overlaps as required, keeping one frame ahead of where he has stapled.

The hull mesh at the stern is cut back from the rabbet rod line and 40 mm overlaps are cut into
each layer. A length of three layers of mesh are prepared to run down and around the stem onto
the overlaps prepared.

The edges of the stem mesh are cut back to suit the overlaps provided on the hull mesh and the
mesh is then stapled to the stem reinforcement in a fair true shape.

29. Outside mesh completed at stem

At the aft end the mesh is turned around the transom corners onto the aft face of the transom
and the mesh layers are cut and overlapped 40 mm to suit.

The whole hull is carefully checked over for any areas of 'loose' mesh, or staples that have not
been tightened sufficiently or ends which have been left too long. Particular attention should be
paid to the areas around the webs, floors and mesh overlaps to ensure that there is no loose
mesh whatsoever anywhere on the hull.

6.12 Liner tubes for stern gear and rudder gear

The purpose of the liner tube is to allow free removal of the stern tube and rudder tube for repair
or replacement and to provide a predetermined location for the stern and rudder tube equipment
within the ferrocement construction.

Generally the liner tubes are made from m/s tube with m/s end flanges, or on production craft a
suitable designed fibreglass liner tube and flanged fitting can be installed although the flanges
and outside of the fibreglass tube should be finished with an epoxy resin to stop any reaction of
fresh mortar against polyester resin.

The detailed requirements of the liner tube will have been dictated by the designer who will have
taken due note of the shaft and spigot sizes required for locally supplied equipment.

30. Meshwork near completion at stern

The steel end flanges will equal the dimensions of their manganese bronze counterparts and
the hole size in each flange will suit the spigot size of the inboard and outboard fitting, making
sure that a machine fit is made.

Sufficiently long pegs of m/s rod of a suitable diameter are welded to the appropriate face of
each flange, drilled and tapped to suit the bolt hole sizes, and location in the manganese bronze
units. This provides additional thread length over and above that which would be possible from
the mild steel flange thickness alone (ref. Fig. No. 16).

Figure 16. Typical sterntube liner tube

The overall flange to flange length is taken from the designer's data and connected by a steel
tube with an inside diameter in excess of the spigot diameter of the bronze units. The tube is
welded all round to the m/s flanges and finally set up in a lathe and the flanges faced up to
arrive at parallel faces and correct over-all length. The inside of the tubes should be well
greased prior to casting of the hull or insertion of the rudder and stern gear.

Mild steel tube wall thickness and m/s end flange thickness will be commensurate with the
length and weight of gear to be fitted and this information is usually provided by the designer.

Installation of stern tube liner tube

The fundamental requirement of installing the stern tube liner tube is accuracy of location. This
means that the alignment to the shaft centre line and position of the liner tube fore and aft is
critical if expensive corrections are to be avoided at a later stage.

The stern tube liner is first checked for fit to the stern tube. As some stern tubes have circular
flanges it pays to mark the top centre of the steel liner tube flanges. It has been known that liner
tubes have been set in place with the top being at the side or bottom of the true position, thus
causing great difficulty at a later stage in fitting the grease or water feed, dependent on the type
used, besides making it awkward to get at the gland packer.

The liner tube is offered up into approximate position so that a piano wire or similar may be
stretched taut between two points representing the actual centre of the shaft line. Once the line
has been accurately positioned and checked, the liner tube can be centred to the shaft line and
located fore and aft.

The distance between the aft face of the liner tube and the location of the aft face of the gearbox
half coupling is checked to see that the measurement is correct. This measurement needs to be
accurate particularly if the stern gear has already been received, also to avoid misalignment
between the engine feet and engine bed foundation bolts.

The liner tube will need to be temporarily but firmly held whilst the permanent fixings are made.

31. Stern tube liner in position

If the centre line of the liner tube is allowed to move out of line by 1 mm, it will mean an error
approaching 20 mm at the forward end of the engine beds. One must always be prepared to
recheck the alignment all the way through this phase of the construction.

The aft face of the liner tube can be well supported by means of a frame mounted off the flange
bolting locations, braced transversely as required, and fixed to the floor and to the keel jig if this
provides additional stability.

The forward end of the liner tube is braced and welded to the frame floor, web or keel legs
which are nearest to the aft side of the forward flange. If necessary, temporary bracing can be
attached to frame and workshop floor to prevent any movement. This will need to be moved
once the remainder of the keel reinforcement is ready for completion.

With the aft end of the liner tube held immobile, the backbone reinforcement can be completed.

32. Aft view of stern tube liner and backbone reinforcement

The centre line 16 mm backbone rod will be welded to the centre of the top and bottom of the aft
flange of the liner tube allowing sufficient space from the edges of the flange to the aft face of
the rod for the completion of the reinforcement and application of the mortar.

The backbone, in order to provide turbulence free water flow to the propeller, is radiused and
tapered above the stern tube liner and is radiused and finished to suit the width at heel shoe
below the stern tube liner.

Two additional pairs of 12 mm dia. rods are prebent to suit the shape required in these two
areas. They are welded to the forward face of the liner tube flange and allowed to finish on the
forward side of the frame above the liner tube, and will be used to finish and control the width of
reinforcement in the rudder heel shoe below the liner tube, as well as providing the means to
create a radius to the aft trailing edge of the keel.

In order to provide the radius to the trailing edge of the backbone rods, the areas above and
below the liner tube can be rodded up with 6 mm dia. rods prebent to a diminishing radius.

Installation of rudder liner tube and heel shoe

33. A set of rudder gear

Whilst the rudder liner tube can be set into place and held there by using a dummy shaft made
up to suit, it is much more preferable to have the complete set of rudder gear available (ref. Fig.
No. 17). At this stage the rudder gear set will comprise of:

- heel shoe, complete with lower bearing

- main blade and stock
- upper stock
- stock jointing coupling or sleeve
- mild steel flanged liner tube
- stuffing box assembly including linking tube and lower flange

Figure 17. General arrangement - Rudder gear

The rudder stuffing box, tube and manganese bronze lower flange are temporarily fitted to the
m/s liner tube. This assembly is then offered up through the hull skin after first cutting a hole in
the reinforcing rods in the correct place.

The heel shoe which will lay on top of the keel jig is slid into place and located fore and aft on
the centre line of the rudder position marked on the jig. The reinforcing rods within the heel shoe
are completed and m/s liner tubes are inserted and fixed to coincide with the heel shoe bolting
positions. The heel shoe meshing is tidied up and stapled. All this work will mean offering on
and taking off the heel shoe a few times.

34. Rudder installation and inside hull reinforcement

Once the reinforcing work is complete, the heel shoe is finally positioned after greasing the
inside faces, and gently tack welded to prevent inadvertent movement. The heel shoe sides
must be bevelled slightly to provide an angle so that the shoe if required can be removed.

The upper stock is inserted through the stuffing box assembly and offered through the jointing
sleeve onto the main blade stock, the stocks being properly tightened up on the key way and
sleeve provided. The main blade stock is offered into the heel shoe bearing and the whole
assembly centred up.

The liner tube, if all the measurements are accurate, will be located with the bottom flange
forward edge positioned just clear of the hull reinforcement. Upon checking that the alignment is
good and the rudder turns easily, the backbone rod can be welded to the liner tube. On the
inside a reinforced area as depicted on the hull construction drawing, is installed to create an
open block of reinforcement whose construction will provide the ties to hold the upper liner tube
flange in position.

As an additional aid to keeping the rudder shaft immobile during casting, a temporary sleeve
and bracing may be fixed at the top end of the upper shaft.

35. Rudder assembly installed

The lower rudder tube flange will need, dependent on hull shape, to have additional reinforcing
applied to radius away from the flange to the hull reinforcement, The additional 6 mm dia. rods
will give the means with which to tidy up the hull mesh around this area.

It should be noted that after casting and curing the rudder assembly will be removed from the
hull so that the manganese stuffing box, linking tube and bottom flange are properly jointed and
fastened to the m/s liner tube, prior to installing the rest of the rudder gear finally.

6.13 Plummer block supports

On many designs due to the engine's location, a long shaft is required. To overcome the
problem of shaft distortion due to length, plummer block supports in ferrocement are
incorporated at predetermined centres within the hull structure.

The ferrocement plummer block supports are blocks that will have the metal shaft bearing
plummer block located securely and accurately upon them.
36. A plummer block arrangement

It is, therefore, a requirement to know exactly the type and base dimension of the shaft plummer
block to be used prior to installing the ferrocement element.

The hull construction drawing will show the location of the blocks required.

Twelve mm dia. rod frameworks are built and an allowance is made for the skin thickness on the
block. They are located on the side of the frames indicated and set parallel, and to the
dimension needed, below the shaft line. It pays to allow for a 25 mm thick packer to be fitted
between the underside of the plummer block and the top of the ferrocement plummer support.

Two bolts of the correct size and length are set into the reinforcement of each support and
permanently welded into position using a jig to maintain the correct centres to the shaft line and
to each other, with the threaded portion of the bolt at the top. (The jig may be used subsequently
to ensure a true surface on the mortar on the top of the blocks when casting the hull.)

The 12 mm dia. rod framework is then rodded up with 6 mm dia. rods connected into the face of
the floor, meshed up with three layers of 13 x 13 mm x 19 gauge mesh overlapped onto the face
of the floor leaving access in the top for subsequent filling whilst casting.

Because of the usual difficulty of fitting the blocks in a low position within the hull, it is better if
the plummer block supports are constructed after fitting of the stern liner tube and prior to the
keel reinforcement being completed in the area that they are to be installed.

On completion of the installation of the stern liner tube and plummer blocks the keel inside
mesh, as before, can be fitted one side and completely rodded up to rabbet level. The mesh
also, as before, is fitted, cut, joined, and stapled as required. The other side can then be
completely finished as well.

6.14 Engine bed construction

Ferrocement engine beds are the means not only of attaching and aligning an engine
accurately, but also a means of giving considerable additional longitudinal strength to the hull.

The design will normally provide the information as to the location of the engine within the hull
and, perhaps, indicate the centre line position of the engine feet. This information is insufficient
for setting the holding down bolts in the ferrocement engine bed. As is often the case, the
engine manufacturer's literature is either inaccurate or does not provide sufficient information.

The best solution to this problem if it arises, is to have either the engine to hand some one
month after starting the hull construction, or to be able to see an example of the engine
complete with power take-off (PTO) and check out the dimensions and location of engine feet
from a relevant data point, eg gearbox half coupling (if the gearbox is the same type as the one
to be used).

The importance of having this information early cannot be over stressed, as once the engine
beds are cast with the hull, alteration will be difficult and incur additional cost.
The ideal form of construction for a fishing boat is based on the engine being attached to a steel
plate which, in turn, is attached to the ferrocement engine bed by bolts securely welded into the
bed reinforcement before casting.

An allowance, usually 50 mm thick, is made for a hardwood packer to be inserted between the
top of the ferrocement engine bed and the underside of the steel plate used for fixing the engine
feet (ref. Fig. No. 18). This practice gives two benefits:

a) It will help to reduce vibration transmitted to the hull, although the majority of vibration set up
by an engine will be absorbed by the mass in the engine bed constructed, particularly in
ferrocement fishing boat construction.

b) The timber packing can be adjusted in shape and thickness to make up for a certain amount
of error which may occur between shaft line and top of the ferrocement engine beds, if
alignment is unsatisfactorily carried out.

Figure 18. Typical engine bed arrangement

Accuracy should be paramount particularly as there is little room for error in alignment
sideways, as most engines have minimal clearance between the inboard faces of the beds.

The ferrocement engine bed construction is straight forward provided the following steps are
taken:

i) The stern tube liner tube has been installed and checked for accurate alignment to the shaft
line.

ii) A jig using the steel flat plate, to which the engine will finally be attached, is assembled and
drilled to take the ferrocement engine bed foundation bolts which will be located adjacent to
each side of each foot on the engine, PTO, and gearbox. The jig must be temporarily but
adequately stiffened to keep it straight, flat and parallel to the shaft line.

iii) The length of the foundation bolts are determined by the amount of packer to be fitted, steel
plate thickness, the depth of two 20 mm nuts and 3 mm thick washers plus clearance.

These measurements combined, will add up to a length of 120 mm from the top of the
ferrocement bed. In addition, the length required from the top of the ferro bed to within 12 mm of
the hull skin can be checked and added to give the full length of bolt required. Sufficient thread
on the top portion of each bolt must be allowed to take into account any adjustment required on
the final location of the top of the steel plate in relation to the actual shaft line.

iv) The inclusion of the 12 mm vertical rods within the floors of each frame required to carry the
engine bed longitudinal reinforcement which was carried out during the frame construction,
should be rechecked for accuracy off the shaft line before setting the engine bed framework into
place.

37. Preparation of steel flat and engine bed foundation bolts

38. Installation of engine bed top flat bar

All the above work can be carried out either off the hull or prior to main engine bed construction
work starting.

Once the hull reinforcement has been completed, 25 or 30 x 6 mm flat bar is set on edge 10 mm
below the finished mortar height alongside the vertical 12 mm bars in the floors and parallel to
the shaft line on all four sides of the engine beds. The tapered ends of the beds having flat bar
set in the same manner.

The longitudinal 6 mm or 8 mm dia. SBHD rods are now passed through the frames starting
with the rod nearest to the engine bed flat bar being set some 25 mm below the underside of the
flat, and thence at 50 mm centres. Additional 12 mm vertical rods are set generally midway
between frames on the inside of each of the bed's sides and welded to the hull as well as the
rods and flat in the engine beds.

39. Engine bed reinforcement and foundation bolts located

The engine bed jig complete with 20 mm bolts set for the correct height above the finished
mortar, using a nut welded onto the bolt next to the underside of the jig, is lowered onto the flat
bar already set into the engine beds. The underside of the flat plate is set 10 mm above the
longitudinal flat bars and will be the same measurement below the shaft line as shown on the
hull construction drawing which will be the underside of the engine feet to be used.

The jig is set parallel to the shaft line and the location fore and aft is set by the position of the
gearbox half coupling position, marked on the jig and measured from the nearest frame.

Before finalizing position, an overall length can be checked between the gearbox half coupling
mark on the jig and the aft face of the stern tube liner flange to make sure the measurement
marries up to that required.

Once satisfied with the overall accuracy and position of the foundation bolts, they are welded to
cross ties inserted in the engine bed reinforcement. These ties must be securely welded to the
reinforcement and bolts. If the bolts do not have a head, the lower end of the bolt must have a
short rod welded to it so that in the unlikely event that any welds are broken during and after
casting, the foundation bolt cannot turn or be pulled out of the mortar.

The jig may now be removed from the engine beds and the flat bar tops cleaned up and painted
ready for use during the casting stage.

Any limber holes needed through the engine beds can now be fitted as dictated by the design.

The engine bed sides are meshed up using three layers of 13 x 13 mm x 19 gauge mesh on the
inboard and outboard faces of each bed. The mesh is overlapped 40 mm onto the hull and
floors and duly stapled. The edge of the mesh parallel to the top of the beds is trimmed and one
layer is folded down to the first 6 mm rod on the inside of the engine bed and through stapled,
leaving the top of the beds accessible for later filling with mortar.

The width and height of the ferrocement engine beds will be usually determined by the designer.
If the fixing of the engine proves difficult due to lack of information and the depth of beds allows,
the height of the ferrocement element may be reduced so that a steel engine bed cradle may be
fabricated to make up the gap between the underside of the engine feet and the top of the
ferrocement beds.

40. Meshing up the engine beds

This will allow flexibility in design but attention should be paid in providing sufficient strength in
the reduced bed size for the engine installation as well as the additional strength desired
through the hull.

6.15 Bilge keels

Bilge keels may be constructed in various ways. They, like the engine beds, can be so designed
and constructed that increased strength and protection is provided to the hull.

Whilst the system to be described is not the lightest way of producing a bilge keel, it
nevertheless provides a strong durable shape which marries well into the hull.

The shape required may be as depicted on Fig. No. 19, and is a well rounded bilge keel of 100
mm width and 150 mm depth. The length and location will be shown on the hull construction
drawing.

Figure 19. Typical bilge keel mid-ship construction

The first stage is to bend a sufficient number of radiused 12 mm dia. rods to suit the internal
dimension of the bilge keel, minus an allowance for skin thickness. Each 12 mm dia. rod
prepared is welded directly to the outside of the frame rod to the location dictated by the design.
Naturally, these 12 mm radiused legs will have a diminished length towards each end of the
bilge keel to provide a fair shape into the hull.

41. Preliminary steelwork for the bilge keel

Similarly 8 mm dia. rod legs are bent to the bilge keel shape, and will be used to divide the
frame leg spacing by half thus providing additional support to the longitudinal 8 mm rods added
later.

A 12 mm dia. rod is welded to the inside of the radiused leg on the centre line of the bilge keel
and allowed to fade into the hull at the ends, where it passes through the hull skin and is
suitably welded to the local frame or reinforcement.

The bilge keels are rodded up with 8 mm dia. SBHD rods. The first rod is set parallel and 10 mm
away from the outside of the hull reinforcement on both sides of each bilge keel.

42. Bilge keel meshed up

One layer of 13 x 13 mm x 19 gauge mesh is offered up to each keel, chalk marked for shape
and cut as a pattern for the remaining two layers of mesh. The outside layer of mesh on each
keel is cut to allow a 40 mm overlap onto the hull.
Because of the compound curves provided by the shape of the bilge keel, the mesh will need to
be carefully worked and stapled to ease it to the shape required.

Suitably sized and number of holes are cut through from the inside of the hull reinforcement to
provide access into the bilge keels for poker vibrators when the hull is cast.

6.16 Requirements for fitting a nozzle

As many trawlers will benefit from the addition of a nozzle to provide additional thrust, the
requirement will be to provide adequate fixing points for the nozzle to be securely attached to
the ferrocement hull.

The design may call for the rudder heel shoe bolt locations to provide the necessary fixing for
the bottom of the nozzle.

43. Attachment block for the top of a nozzle

At the top it will be necessary to choose between direct bolting to the hull surface or provide a
strong projection down off the backbone so that the nozzle could be bolted through a block
provided and the fixings do not penetrate the hull skin. The latter method is usually chosen.

The nozzle's shape on the forward edge on centre line will be the highest point against the
backbone and then will then tilt aft towards the keel. The backbone shape works in reverse. A
convenient triangular shape is provided to incorporate the stiffened block required for the
nozzle's attachment.

A 12 mm dia. rod framework is made and set onto the hull and backbone, the overall width
being reduced to allow for the skin thickness on both sides. The framework is securely fastened
and tied into the hull reinforcement after aligning accurately to suit the centre line and angle
required to fit parallel to the top of the nozzle.

A pair of plates are cut as templates for the cheeks of the block and drilled to suit the size and
number of fastenings.

Accurate liner tubes to suit the outside diameter of the fixing bolts are prepared and welded into
the reinforcement framework using the templates for location.

After the welding has been completed, 6 mm dia. SBHD rods are welded to the 12 mm dia. rod
framework and connected to the hull reinforcement. Three layers of 13 x 13 mm x 19 gauge
mesh are then cut, stapled and overlapped 40 mm onto the hull mesh.

The templates are replaced after greasing, bolted through the bolt liner tubes, thus giving a
secure guide to width of the block and outline for the plasterers to finish to.

6.17 Preparatory work prior to casting

It is essential to have a well ordered casting period. In order to achieve this, initial preparatory
work needs to be carried out and will include the following, which can easily be omitted or
forgotten, causing problems whilst casting the hull:
a) make absolutely sure that if sub-contract plasterers are to be used that the arrangements,
date and time are settled in good time;

b) check all frame bracing welds, particularly in the areas that will be heavily used whilst moving
mix around the hull during the casting period;

c) check over the hull reinforcement; make sure that staples are tight and cut short; no ends,
flaps or overlaps of mesh are left unstapled;

d) check that there is no debris or miscellaneous pieces of material in the hull, especially in or
under the keel between the keel jig and keel;

e) grease or lightly oil the top of the keel jig, rudder shoe and rudder; cover the rudder gland
assembly with polythene or similar; provide protection for the stern tube liner flanges; set
greased bolts into all flanges; remove, grease and replace stem head fitting or templates;

f) recheck the shaft line to the engine beds and plummer blocks; set the engine bed top plates
and timber packing in a convenient position; tape up exposed bolt threads on the bed and
blocks;

g) recheck location of hull skin fitting holes and total number fitted;

h) check that all small tools for casting are available - viz: buckets, pulleys, trowels, hawks,
wooden floats;

i) check and run up casting equipment - viz: mortar mixer, vibrator motors and poker pencil
ends;

j) check additional floodlights, electric leads, etc. which may be required;

k) check sand supply for quantity, quality and cleanliness, sieve and wash if necessary;

l) make sure that the water tank(s) are perfectly clean prior to filling;

m) check on cement supply and locate adjacent to the mixing position;

n) arrange suitable scaffolding all round and through the top of the craft; arrange two areas on
top of the frame bracing for mortar distribution adjacent to the bucket pulleys;

o) check out method and preparation for curing the hull - viz: water supply, hessian/gunny cloth,
etc;

p) check out building structure to prevent interference by rain, sun or wind;

q) check that admixtures and/or ice are available for the start of casting;

r) clean up all floor areas in and around the hull; damp down the floor area if required.
Prepare alternative arrangements in case of mechanical breakdown to electricity supply, mixer,
vibrators, etc.

The period for carrying out this preparation work is very often limited with the scheduled casting
day approaching. However, this time must be allocated to ensure that everything is ready as far
as is possible prior to the start of casting.

44. A hull ready for casting

6.18 Casting procedure

It must be recognised that the final finish and strength of the vessel lies in the skill and
disciplined approach of the workers and supervisors during the casting stage. Therefore, the
organisation of the workforce prior to the actual casting day/night is of paramount importance.

A general guide as to the strength of the workforce required for plastering a 12-14 m trawler hull
is as follows:

Mixer gang

- 2 men to fill boxes, cement and sand - labourers

- 2 men on mixer - skilled men
Handling gang
- 2 men on wheelbarrow - labourers
- 2 men on hoist - labourers
- 1 man on top of boat for distribution - labourer
Vibrator gang
- 5 men on poker vibrator - skilled men
- 5 men on inspection - skilled men
Inside gang
- 5 men on floats - skilled men
- 5 men to rub down and finish - plasterers
Outside gang
- 14 plasterers
Clean up gang
- 4 men cleaning up and preparing for curing - labourers
Aggregate total:

Labourers 7

Skilled men 17

Plasterers 19
Cleaners 4

47 men

The gang of 47 men listed above was used in India for the casting work on the first 12.8 m hull,
where the casting took 17 hours.

To calculate the suitable number of men required for the casting of any hull will entail a
knowledge of their work rate as well as the complexity of the hull to be cast. Obviously, casting a
similar sized hull where the skin thickness is related to single rod construction and includes
engine beds and small floors, would require considerably less labour.

Despite stating the above, when a first casting is carried out, it will be better to have too much
labour than too little, and after assessment adjust the labour requirements on subsequent
castings.

For the casting to be successful the following guide lines should be followed:

Mixing gang

One trusted man should be given the authority to maintain the quality and material quantities
used in each mix. He should see that the mix remains in the plaster mixer for only the required
time of mixing and to keep an eye on the consumption so that his mix is always fresh when
being put to use.

Handling gang

A handling gang's prime job is to see that the mix is moved to the hull and transferred for use as
quickly as possible. The mix must not be put into buckets and left standing, as the first set on
the mix will have occurred and subsequently the other workers will have difficulty in achieving
penetration with the mortar.

Vibrating gang

The vibrating gang should be aware that only the minimum application of the vibrator to achieve
penetration is desired, and that they should always work with a man inspecting the outside area
which is being vibrated.

Inside gang

The inside gang infill the mesh between the areas vibrated and keep up to but behind the
vibrator gang to achieve a reasonably even surface to the inside of the hull ready for the final
finish by the plasterers.

Outside gang
The outside gang of plasterers keep up to the inside gang but behind them and apply the
outside coat of mortar after penetration of the reinforcement has been achieved by the inside
gang.

It is the responsibility of the outside plasterers to achieve an even cover of mortar and the
desired finish to the craft. A supervisor can check the thickness applied with a simple depth
guide.

45. Checking over equipment prior to casting

Clean up gang

A clean up gang is provided to clean up excess mix from the floors, tools and equipment during
and after completion of the casting, as well as to start applying hessian or gunny cloth ready for
the curing process.

Naturally there should be a person in charge of overall supervision of the casting to ensure that
the role of every person involved is being carried out at the required time.

The following are some additional useful points for the person in charge of the casting:

1. Ice to be on site if used, one hour before commencement of casting: 4 blocks = - ^A tonne.

2. Allow for an average 12 hour session for all men, (this period will vary according to the local
climatic conditions and size of hull). It will be necessary to allow for joints in the hull and decks
on larger craft, as well as casting the bulkheads separately, and is advisable for maintaining
casting quality on hulls over 12 ms in length.

3. Wages for all labour, including subcontract labour, particularly if the work is to be carried out
in antisocial hours, should be agreed before work is begun.

4. Refreshment breaks should be taken in an orderly way, whereby no more than five members
of the gang are away from their work at any one time.

46. Quality mixing is essential

The casting, as mentioned before, should be carried out in an orderly fashion and it is of little
benefit to flood the hull with labour in the initial stages of the work.

It is general practice to stagger the starting time of men so that the work and workers required,
follow a progressive order in the work.

The mortar can be applied from the outside of the hull but, in practice, it is better to start from
the inside, thus being able to see properly all areas for thorough penetration of the
reinforcement.

After checking the start up and first mixes produced from the mixer, the handling gang can move
the mix to the transom area so that the mortar can be applied to the rudder block, transom
frame, and backbone.
These are vibrated at the same time as the area under the stern liner tube is filled and vibrated.
The stern tube area will provide, perhaps, the most difficult to fill and consolidate. Every care
should be taken to make sure this area is without voids. This applies to the heel shoe and keel
area in general.

After each frame, keel section and beamshelf section, is vibrated and checked, the vibrator
gang can move forward into the next bay and the inside gang are set to work.

47. Casting proceeding on the inside of the hull

When each of these gangs have moved forward, the outside plasterers will be able to start the
exterior work, always keeping behind the work being carried out on the inside.

When work has progressed so that the first areas worked on are setting adequately, inside
finishing can be started so that there are four groups of workers following the work through in
the correct manner.

The outside plastering group will also break down into smaller groups as the outside work
progresses, with one group laying mix on, another group rubbing down with wooden floats and a
third group trowelling up the finish.

As the work progresses through the hull, in addition to the hull and skin to work on, there will be
the bilge keels and engine beds to fill and finish. The latter, after filling, will have the timber
packer and steel plates tightened down onto the top of the nuts which are welded on the
foundation bolts to provide a true flat surface on the top of the bed. The timber packer will
provide the guide to the width of the bed for the plasterers.

48. Finishing the transom and laying up on the hull

By the time the stem is reached it is quite likely that the aft end will be finished and a check
should be made on the rudder block and keel dead-wood areas that the mortar is not drying out
too quickly. These areas may need to be damped down at intervals to slow down the hardening
rate, until the general curing starts.

When the stem is reached, invariably the gang is getting tired and it is now when more attention
needs to be paid to prevent voids and a fall off in the standard of finish.

49. The stem area nearing completion

Gradually the number of men working on the hull is reduced as the remaining area to be cast
diminishes. The stem will require expert touches to control the true shape from the stem head
fitting down to the keel jig.

All limber holes, pipe run holes, frame edgings, beamshelf and sheer edgings, can be cleared or
cleaned of excess mortar.

6.19 Curing the hull

Curing is of utmost importance to the final strength of the mortar. The curing may be carried out
by water or steam methods.

Water curing will need to continue for between 14 and 28 days dependent on local conditions,
temperature and the type of cement used. Usually, for ordinary Portland cement, the period will
be 28 days and for rapid hardening Portland cement, 14 days.

During the period of cure, the temperature should remain as constant as possible above 10C.

The whole of the hull inside and out should be clad with hessian or gunny cloth which is kept in
close contact with the ferrocement surface. The cloth is thoroughly soaked with water until
saturated. After the initial soaking the hull will need spraying at regular intervals night and day to
maintain a humid and wet environment.

50. Hull casting completed ready for curing

Alternatively, where a water supply is plentiful, a continuous spray system may be used.

The water temperature should, ideally, also be above 10C.

If steam curing is used, the whole ferrocement structure will need to be covered with a plastic
sheet or similar, to form a tent which will be filled with wet low pressure steam. By ensuring an
even steam supply throughout the period of curing, all parts of the hull will be subjected to the
same curing conditions.

After curing has started, the temperature of the steam will be evenly altered from a starting point
of 10C measured on the surface of the hull and raised and lowered by no more than 10C per
hour, to reach a temperature after six hours of 70C. This temperature should be maintained +/-
5C for a further minimum period of ninety six hours, before a gradual lowering over a period of
six hours back to 10C.

51. Water curing the hull

The hull should not be subjected to external forces for at least 24 hours after completion of the
steam curing process.

It would always be useful to obtain current data for the steam curing application from the
equipment suppliers besides adhering to requirements in this regard from classification
societies, if the boat is built to rules.

6.20 Water testing and finishing off

After curing, the curing material can be removed.

Skin fitting holes and liner tube openings are temporarily sealed off below DWL. The hull should
be shored up under the bilge keels or as necessary. The hull is then filled up with water to the
DWL marked on the frame edging and centre line bracing. The water should be maintained in
the hull for a working day to see if there are any leaks.
It is unusual to get leaks in a well cast hull but if there are any, these will need to be rectified,
refer to Section 7 Repairs and Joints in Ferrocement.

On completion of the water test the water is drained off. The inside of the hull is cleaned whilst
still wet to remove general debris, scum or stains that may have come from the gunny cloth or
hessian.

The removable edgings; limber holes, scuppers, frame web and floor edgings, frame bracing,
sheer and beamshelf angle, may now be removed after releasing the tie bars. These are
cleaned up and stored for use on further construction envisaged. The engine bed tops and
plummer block tops are released to check for any hollows in the surface and the foundation
bolts regreased. The stern tube liner flanges are cleaned up ready for the stern tube installation.

The 8 mm single coil spring washers are removed from all the edges and the recesses filled,
when the hull is dry enough, with a resin based filler. Unless any of these locations are to be
used in the fitting out for attachment purposes, generally, the depth of thread will be insufficient
for such purposes.

52. Hull with frame edging and bracing removed

Any irregularities to the ferrocement surface may be corrected providing the mesh work is not
exposed. If the steelwork has been correctly carried out and the plasterers applied a good finish,
there will be very little remedial work to be done.

The underside of the keel can only be checked over after the keel jig has been removed. When
this is carried out the threaded rod retainers in the keel will need to be sheared off and ground
back and filled. The spacers provided to maintain a 10 mm gap between the keel reinforcement
and the top of the jig, as explained earlier, can either be left in or removed and filled as is
appropriate.

To prevent the keel edge being chipped whilst moving the hull or slipping the craft, the bottom
edges should be bevelled by grinding back some 10 mm.

The rudder gear heel shoe may be removed and the skeg checked over. The heel shoe is
refitted using an appropriate bedding material. The rudder liner tube flanges are cleaned up
ready for final installation of the rudder gear.

7.1 Temporary/minor repairs

A temporary repair is usually carried out when a major repair cannot be done straight away for
reasons of lack of materials and perhaps damage has occurred at sea.

Usually damage sustained to the ferrocement will be where the mortar has been shattered but is
still retained by the reinforcement, so that water may be passing through the damaged area.

A repair kit should always be carried on board the boat which consists of a pointed trowel, a pair
of rubber gloves, a piece of thin plywood and a litre of quick setting solution which can be mixed
with some fresh Portland cement which should be kept hermetically sealed in a container.
By mixing the cement directly with the quick setting liquid to a golf ball size for each mix, it can
be applied on a build up basis to the damaged area whether or not the damaged area is above
or below the water line. The mixture will adhere to the inside surface of the ferrocement if hand
pressure is applied to the mixture for approximately three minutes.

A minor or superficial repair usually will be a hair-line crack or surface impact damage. This
repair can be effected by grinding the crack into a shallow 'V' and filling with an epoxy filler
which, after setting, can be sanded and painted. Or by removing the damaged mortar in way of
the impact and by using a suitable epoxy adhesive, replastering with fresh mortar.

Unsightly rust stains may be experienced through minor damage, or more commonly from mesh
and in particular the tops of staples being too close to the surface of the mortar.

This type of problem is caused by lack of inspection during the casting period, and checking the
reinforcement over prior to casting. It can only be overcome by tedious inspection and grinding,
taking care not to damage the offending steelwork to any degree, subsequently filling with an
epoxy filler and repainting as required.

Leaks which may be found on water testing the hull will usually be caused by poor penetration
and inspection of the mortar in the reinforcement whilst casting.

The leak will, most likely, appear as a pin hole on the outside surface of the hull. After the hull
has been fully checked over and the water removed, the pin hole can be examined using a nail
to establish the route of the leak and extent of the void present. There is no need to use
excessive treatment in examining the suspected void areas as this will only cause unnecessary
damage to the mesh in the area.

The holes can normally be filled using a quick drying agent with fresh Portland cement or
waiting for the hull to dry and using a resin based filler to effect the repair.

If there are repairs to be carried out, it will be necessary to water test the hull again on
satisfactory completion of the repair.

7.2 Major repairs

A major repair will be necessary where the mortar is severely damaged and the reinforcement is
either sheered or bent out of shape.

The loose mortar must be removed back to where the mortar is sound. By using a lump hammer
against the mortar on the inside and another hammer on the outside, the loose mortar can be
pulverised so that the staples in the mesh are visible. The staples can then be cut and the
outside mesh slit to allow the loose mortar to be released. The outside three layers of mesh are
cut back into overlaps around the damaged area so that the inside mesh and rods can be
carefully cleared of any loose mortar remaining and the inside mesh remains undamaged.

Any distorted or sheared rods may be cut out and new rods wired or welded into place. Three
layers of mesh are then cut to suit the size of repair and overlapped to the existing mesh left
protruding from around the damaged area. All the mesh is through stapled and tidied up.
The edge of the old ferrocement is painted with a suitable epoxy adhesive for joining mature
mortar to fresh mortar. The damaged area is then plastered as required.

Suitable curing will need to be carried out following the plastering operation. This can be
achieved for below water line damage by relaunching after 48 hours and keeping the area
immersed, and covered in wet hessian cloth on the inside of the hull. For other areas a suitable
curing membrane may need to be used to enable the vessel to be put back into service as soon
as possible. The longer the period of curing carried out the better.

7.3 Joints in hull or deck

Joints may be required for two main reasons:

1. Because the hull or deck to be cast is too large to cast in one session.

2. There are not enough workers available to carry out the casting in one operation.

Joints are usually prepared transversely across the hull or deck by wire, tying a suitable
diameter rod to the reinforcement approximately 50 mm to one side of a frame, preferably a
bulkhead frame, on the side of the hull being cast so that a scarf like joint is made. Thus the
interior mortar is taken up and around the bulkhead frame rod.

The joint is coated just prior to the start of the next session of casting with either a cement grout
PVA glue or, preferably an epoxy glue suitable for connecting hardened mortar to fresh mortar,
and the casting is then proceeded with on a subsequent day.

8.1 Preparation
Great care should be exercised in the initial surface preparation of the ferrocement. The
ferrocement will be prepared by etching the surface with solutions which will not harm the
ferrocement and/or by wire brushing or hand/mechanical sanding. Whichever method is used to
remove latence and salts from the ferrocement surface, a complete wash down with clean water
and/or suitable thinners before painting, will need to be carried out.

At least one month should be allowed to elapse after the curing before applying any paint.

8.2 Filling
There are various proprietary brands of suitable fillers available which will use either epoxy or
polyester resin combined with an inert material to make up the filler.

When choosing a paint system it is advisable to check which type of filling agent will be
compatible with the paint. Also the procedure to be adopted as to when to use the filler, either
directly on the hull or in between the coats of paint to be applied.

The degree of filling will depend on the standard of finish required. On fishing boats, if the
plastering and the fairness of the hull are up to standard, the filling will be on local areas only.
Any filling applied will need to be sanded down and feathered in to the hull surface and this will
require the necessary variety of grade or grit of sandpaper being available for use.

8.3 Painting
The paint system to be used may well be a choice narrowed down by the constraints of price.
Generally, there are two systems available:

1. An epoxy system
2. A high build chlorinated polymer system
The epoxy system will cost a lot more initially but will serve longer; the chlorinated rubber paint
is softer and, therefore, does not stand up to abrasion very well.

Both systems adhere very well to the surface of the ferrocement and can be used without any
problems. However, the systems should not be mixed.

Painting the hull interior

The inside of the hull will usually require a certain amount of painting, particularly in a fishing
boat. Therefore, it is easier to decide how much is to be done before the fitting out work
advances too far. Normally the engine room, fish hold and generally through the bilges will be
painted, as these areas will be much easier to keep clean from the excess of oil and fish.

As the inside of the fitted out hull is protected from sunlight, two coats of an epoxy primer will be
sufficient. In some cases, it may be felt that to paint the whole of the inside of the hull will give a
more pleasing finish to the eye.

Painting the hull exterior

Most paint manufacturers have both chlorinated rubber and epoxy systems available.

Whilst carrying out the project in India, paints were obtained from two paint manufacturers both
of which supply their paints in many countries, although the paint names indicated may be
differently named by the same manufacturer in a different country.

To give an idea of the systems available, a typical example of each will be shown below:

A. Chlorinated rubber paint system

Hull topsides Spread rate/litre

1. Apply first coat with Interchlor LPL 786 HB light grey primer 5.06 m2
2. Apply second coat with Interchlor LPL 274 HB red primer 5.06 m2

3. Apply third coat with Interchlor LPL 786 HB light grey primer 5.06 m2

4. Apply fourth coat with Interchlor LFB 000 white finish 7.3 m2

5. Apply fifth coat with Interchlor LFB 000 white finish 7.3 m2

Hull bottom (underwater) Spread rate/litre

1. Apply first coat with Interchlor LPL 786 HB light grey primer 5.06 m2

2. Apply second coat with Interchlor LPL 274 HB red primer 5.06 m2

3. Apply third coat with Interchlor LPL 786 HB light grey primer 5.06 m2

4. Apply fourth and fifth coats with Interspeed BLA 200/BLA 002 antifouling red 6.2 m2

International thinners GTA 007 is used as a brush wash for the above paints.

Overcoat time: 1 - 3: 24 hours or longer

Overcoat time: 4 - 5: 12 hours or longer

B. Epoxy paint system

Hull topsides Spread rate/litre

1. Apply first coat with Epilux 4 clear varnish 11.0 m2

2. Apply second coat with Epilux 4 white finish 9.1 m2

3. Apply third coat with Epilux 4 white finish 9.1 m2

4. Apply Berger Marine undercoat green 7.8 m2

5. Apply Berger Marine synthetic enamel green 7.8 m2

Hull bottom (underwater) Spread rate/litre

1. Apply first coat with Epilux 4 clear varnish 11.0 m2

2. Apply second coat with Epilux 4 coal tar epoxy (brown) 45.5 m2

3. Apply third coat with Epilux 4 coal tar epoxy (black) 45.5 m2

4. Apply fourth coat with Protectross Chlororubber HT red antifouling 5.0 m2

5. Apply fifth coat with Protectross Chlororubber HT red antifouling 5.0 m2

Thinners 4/5 is used as a brush wash for the above paints.

The primer coats in the epoxy system should be applied in subsequent coats and an interval of
18-24 hours should be allowed between coats.

The antifouling coats as for system A should be applied just prior to launching the boat.

As can be seen from the epoxy paint specification, the final two coats are conventional marine
paints. This is a good requirement because epoxy paints will, after a time, chalk when subjected
to ultra violet rays produced by sunlight as well as providing a base for subsequent maintenance
painting which may be carried out in a location where epoxy paints are unavailable.

The application of the paints to the outside of the hull in the primer stage can be fitted in to suit
the progress of the fitting out and do not require the need for marking off the water line and boot
top line.

It will be usual to apply the means of striking the water line prior to applying the hull topside
undercoat and top coat. In the case of a fishing boat, very often there is no requirement for a
boot top line, but a water line is provided to make the break between the hull topside paint and
the antifouling paint applied at a later stage.

Because a ferrocement hull cannot have a batten nailed to it the line needs to be applied using
masking tape or similar. The hull must be in a level state both fore and aft, as well as
transversely before striking the required line.

Prepare level boards at the stem and transom, with the top of the board set at the desired height
in relation to the DWL. Have the boards so that they protrude from the centre line of the hull by
the same measurement as the widest part of the hull at DWL. Wedges can be prepared that will
provide the swing in the line required.

The line on the transom is levelled and marked, and the masking tape applied.

The lines for each side are made by attaching the masking tape at the correct height amidships
and pulling the masking tape out, and keeping off the hull until located at the outside and
smallest end of the wedge.

The masking tape is pulled as tight as possible without breaking and is allowed to be worked up
the wedge easily. Keep the bottom edge of the tape on the top edge of the wedge until the tape
is pulled into the transom or stem depending which end of the boat is being worked on. The
same procedure is carried out for the remainder of the lines to be marked. It will be found that
an even true curved line is the result. The topside is painted down to the masking tape which is
subsequently removed prior to the antifouling paints being applied.

The actual height of the line above DWL will be dictated by the designer's requirements when
the boat is in a fully laden condition and therefore will vary from one design to another.

Polyurethane paints might be suggested as an alternative paint to use on top of the epoxy
primers. However, despite their good durable qualities, the paint is difficult to apply to a good
standard of finish by hand particularly in warm climates. The only means of application is by
using spray equipment and a person who can use the equipment to provide the standard of
finish desired.
Ferrocement, like many other materials, will have barnacles and grasses attach themselves to
the hull. Therefore, it is a requirement to use antifouling paints despite their updating and
improvement. Many of those available contain copper salts which leach out of the paint under
the action of salt water to produce a poison which keeps the underwater areas clean. Copper is
not the best material to apply to a ferrocement hull as it will help set up an electrolytic action.
Although many ferrocement boats have been painted with these types of antifouling, if an
alternative comes onto the market which is compatible to the other paints being used, they
should be preferred.

As a footnote to this section on paints, it will always be desirable to check out carefully what
paint systems are available, to suit their application to a ferrocement surface. When
approached, the paint manufacturers will always be prepared to provide the information at their
disposal.

9.1 Requirements specific to ferrocement boat construction

This section is set out to review and collate the various requirements specific to ferrocement
boat construction. The requirements differ to those usually experienced in working with other
materials, and a reminder on the need for forward planning in some areas of the construction
will ultimately lead on to a more successful fitting out stage.

Note for the designer and builder

The designer will need to be fully aware of the weight involved when designing for various hull
thicknesses and reinforcement that can be used, specific to the boatbuilding yard that the
design is being prepared for.

This may seem unnecessary as it is usual for a designer to prepare the design from standard
information available for any material which has been chosen to construct in. However, in some
cases the designer will not have the degree of control or authority required for a variety of
reasons, to ensure that the construction marries the scantlings and weights used during the
design phase.

It will save a great deal of ill feeling and cost if these matters are resolved in the initial stage of
the proposed work, by both the builder and designer being of one mind.

Ferrocement hull requirement

The designer and builder should be fully aware of the need for information early on in the hull
construction phase in order to produce a ferrocement hull efficiently. Information will include:

- liner tube details and details of stern gear including plummer blocks;

- liner tube details and details of rudder gear;

- engine and engine bed details;

- skin fitting schedule;

- scupper schedule;

- details on all hull webs, floors and stiffeners required;

- bilge and service pipe runs;

- steering pipe runs;

- water and fuel tank seatings and affect on the shape of adjacent floors and webs for
installation;

- details of ferrocement beamshelf (if fitted);

- bulk head details including all necessary openings.

Ferrocement deck requirements

In the case of a ferrocement deck being required, the designer and builder will need salient
information for fixing and providing additional stiffening for:

- wheelhouse connection to ferrocement coamings;

- method of attaching hatches to ferrocement coamings;

- dimension and fixing location for the windlass (and perhaps chain pipe);

- dimension and fixing location for the winch;

- dimension and fixing location for the gantry legs;

- ventilation requirement in the deck, size and location;

- location of tank filler pipes;

- emergency rudder deck hole fitting;

and relevant information on any other pieces of deck equipment that need to be fixed to the
deck, so that the necessary fixing and stiffening arrangements can be suitably incorporated into
the ferrocement deck structure before casting.

Timber fitting out requirements

Where timber is to be used as the main material for fitting out a ferrocement hulled fishing boat,
the designer and builder will need to collate the details required for the following:

- bulkhead details including hull attachment and all necessary openings;

- beamshelf and beam attachment;

- rubbing strake and sheer capping attachment;

- deck edge sealing;

- sole bearer attachment;

- fish hold insulation and lining;

- sealing of fastenings.

Cathodic protection

Correctly selected materials are of prime importance when building ferrocement craft, as for any
other construction material.

Metals should be selected to be as far as possible compatible to each other (close together on
the potential table). Where this is not possible, they should be isolated from each other. In
particular make sure that fastenings used on the hull and underwater fittings (including split
pins) are of the highest specification.

Paints should be correctly selected and applied in accordance with the manufacturers
recommendations. Steelwork on rudders, nozzles, etc, require a good anti-corrosive primer
before the antifouling is applied (antifouling containing metallic particles of copper and bronze is
not recommended).

To reduce the possibility of stray current leakage, the electrics on the boat should be correctly
installed, including the proper supporting of all wires, using correct wire sizes, ensuring all
circuits are correctly fused, keeping all wiring connections and junction boxes away from the
bilge area and areas in the craft likely to be affected by water, ensuring correct polarity on all
connections made.

No method used in marine construction is corrosion free and, therefore, the craft needs to be
protected by the installation of a cathodic protection system.

Cathodic protection is provided by the process of superimposing an electro-chemical cell more

powerful than the corrosion cell. A base metal anode (usually high purity zinc) is connected to all
fittings exposed to the sea water requiring protection when they in turn become cathodes and
do not corrode. In the meantime, the anodes themselves gradually wear away. In a properly
connected system all corrosion then takes place in the (replaceable) anodes.

The ideal situation in regard to the protection of stern gear equipment and other underwater
metal appendages such as rudders, nozzles, etc, is where these items are totally isolated from
the steel reinforcement of the hull structure. If this were the case and the anodes securing studs
were also totally isolated, the installation could be treated as for wood or GRP craft. However, in
practice, it is usually found that some connection with the hull reinforcement exists and this
needs to be taken into consideration.

The service life of sacrificial anodes will depend on various factors, the most important of which
being the impermeability of the structure beneath the water line. Where good underwater
protective paint coatings are applied, the life of the anodes will be greatest, providing the paint
gives an insulative coating to at least 75% of the underwater hull area.

To give one year's protection to a hull of 12-13 m, using a 1200 mm diameter propeller and
fitting separate anodes to the rudder blade and nozzle, will require the installation of two anodes
of approximately 12 kg being located one port, one starboard, a third of the water line length
forward of the transom.

For mild steel rudders and nozzles, etc, the anodes are fitted directly to the steelwork, with the
mild steel being painted to a good standard (red lead primer and metallic copper antifoulings are
not suitable), they can be protected according to their surface area up to 2.8 m2 (30 ft2) using
two 2 kg anodes and pro rata above 2.8 m2 in area.

The anodes are installed (ref. Fig. No. 20) by marking a suitable location on the hull and
selecting a 12 kg anode whose dimension will be approximately 450 x 100 x 65 mm, using 16
mm fixing studs at 230 mm centres.

Figure 20. Typical ferrocement hull cathodic protection

The holes for the studs are drilled over-size in the hull to suit the fitting of a plastic liner, or to
wrap the area of stud passing through the hull with epoxy resin and fibreglass tape to provide
insulation from the hull reinforcement.

Each stud has a generously sized square collar welded to it and located on the inside of the hull
if the anode fitted has a fixing plate embedded in the zinc during manufacture. If not, the collar is
located on the exterior of the hull. The studs are bedded to the hull using an epoxy based filler
or using three laminates of 2 oz. chopped strand mat and epoxy resin extending 75 mm from
the studs.

The anode is fitted to the studs with a neoprene or similar backing sheet inserted between the
anode and hull. The surplus on any studs is cut off and the thread of the stud dot punched to
lock the holding nuts.

The anodes are electrically bonded to the forward face of the stern tube and engine gear box. If
an insulated shaft coupling is used on the propeller shaft, then it will be necessary to bridge the
coupling with a bonding strip. All bonding is effected by using 4 mm single core PVC covered
cable ensuring all connections are clean and securely fastened.

The smaller anodes fitted to the rudder and nozzle are fixed by welding 10 mm studs at the
locations chosen which have been previously welded to a 40 x 8 mm round plate.

Under no circumstances is any part of the anode surface to be painted at any time. Anodes
should be renewed when 80% consumed.

9.2 Ferrocement/timber fitting out

It is likely that timber is still the principle material used in underdeveloped countries for building
small to medium sized fishing boat hulls and for fitting out. This section explores the
requirements for fitting out a ferrocement hull in timber.
Joints and Fastenings

Careful attention must be paid to the sealing of joints between timber and ferrocement faces as
well as careful sealing around the boat holes drilled through the ferrocement skin. Each time a
hole is drilled through a ferrocement structure, the mesh will be cut and the ends exposed to the
atmosphere, causing unsightly rust streaks if the sealing of the fastening is not carried out
properly.

The sealing of a fastening can be achieved successfully by the use of a variety of materials
available today, eg mastic compounds, silicone sealers, polyurethane based one component
sealers, polysulphide two pack sealants. The choice of which to use will be down to local
availability, workshop temperature and pot life; the latter because of the variable length of time
needed to place and secure items such as rubbing strakes.

In some areas the aforementioned products may not be available and a check on what is
currently used locally for sealing fastenings and timber faces will probably provide the answer to
the material choice.

In India, a mixture of caulking cotton and a material called 'battery compound' provided the
answer to the sealing required both around fastenings and on the timber to hull joints.

Because timber and ferrocement have different expansion rates it is always advisable to use a
flexible sealant on these joints.

For sealing stern gear and rudder gear units into their respective liner tubes, both being metal to
metal faces, an epoxy or polyester based filler should be used, as is also the case with skin
fitting installation. The fittings should always be checked for fit, clean faces and threads to be
joined before final sealing and installation.

For fishing boat construction the type of fastenings mainly used are bolts (galvanised) and
screws (brass or gun metal). The bolts required will be both coach/cup square and hexagonal
which can be provided in three categories; electroplated, galvanised, or spun galvanised. The
latter are more desirable to use because electroplated fastenings do not provide the adequate
long term protection to the fastening needed. Galvanised bolts invariably need to be rethreaded,
thus destroying the galvanising on the threads, to clean up the excess zinc applied during the
galvanising process, whereas spun galvanised bolts have a good clean thread and a
reasonable life expectancy.

In areas where timber is through bolted to one side of the ferrocement structure, spun
galvanised washers of an adequate size need to be used to spread the load.

A good quality brass screw should be used, if the cost of gun metal is prohibitive, for fitting out
purposes.

The ideal glue to use in the timber joints will be a resorcinol-phenol-formaldehyde adhesive with
suitable hardener.

Timber beamshelf, beam, and lower rubbing strake

The timber beamshelf is a series of block pieces fitting between the ferrocement frames and
located on the ferrocement beamshelf (ref. Fig. No. 21). Each blocking piece is through bolted
at approximately 275 mm centres using 10 mm cup square bolts and 50 x 3 mm spun
galvanised washers, at the same time as fitting the first layer of timber used for the rubbing
strake.

Figure 21. Typical section through bulwark showing fitting out detail
Careful attention is paid to stagger the bolts within the width of the rubbing strake whilst spacing
the bolts so that they miss the beam position in the beamshelf. Each length of inner rubbing
strake is scarf jointed to each other.

Both the inner faces of the rubbing strake and beamshelf packer pieces are sealed to the hull as
well as each bolt hole being sealed on both sides of the hull.

The beams are dovetailed in the conventional manner into the beamshelf and bolted vertically
down through the ferrocement beamshelf using 10 mm dia. cup square both pulled up on a 50
mm x 3 mm galvanised washer, with each bolt hole properly sealed.

53. Beamshelf, beams and carlins

The outer layer of timber is screwed to the inner rubbing strake layer to provide an easy
removable section if the rubbing strake should get damaged in service, without having to disturb
any of the through hull fastenings.

If available, a galvanised convex bar can be screw fastened to the rubbing strake outer layer to
afford considerably greater protection against damage received during normal service
conditions.

Upper rubbing strake and sheer capping

All members are through bolted sandwiching the hull with the bolt holes and successive layers
of timber being adequately sealed as described previously.

The top layer of 10 mm dia. bolts will pick up the 12 mm dia. holes previously drilled in the sheer
25/30 mm flat bar, prepared on completion of the hull rod reinforcement stage. The bottom layer
of bolts will be staggered and all bolts centred at approximately 225 mm centres for fitting the
first layer of the upper rubbing strake.

54. Upper rubbing strake and foredeck beamshelf

The inner sections, as shown on Fig. No. 21 will be scarfed and half lapped jointed as required.
Where the bulwark starts and the foredeck continues, the two inner pieces will be reduced to
one piece to act as a beamshelf for the foredeck.

The capping piece of timber is screwed down into the inner layer of the rubbing strake and
innermost layer on the bulwark. The bolts are finished flush to the inside face of the inner
bulwark layer or let into the covering section of timber when screwed into place.

The covering board on the foredeck is screwed to the inner layer of the upper rubbing strake
and to the foredeck beamshelf, with the covering board's inner edge prepared to receive the
foredeck planks.

Galvanised convex bar, as for the lower rubbing strake, can be utilised to reduce the wear and
tear in this area.
As for the lower rubbing strake, the outer upper rubbing strake is screwed to allow easy removal
for repairs if required.

Bulkheads (timber)

55. Timber planked bulkhead

It is usual in the initial design stage to locate the bulkhead positions in timber to one side of a
ferrocement floor and web. This permits easy alignment and fixing whether the bulkhead is
made from timber planks or plywood. The vertical joints in the planks or plywood will be rebated
and sized to suit the thickness of bulkhead to accept splines glued into the joints provided.

If the bulkheads are located between frame positions, they may be mechanically fastened by
the inclusion of lugs very accurately positioned in the hull reinforcement. Alternatively location
may be achieved by laying up three layers of 1 oz chopped strand mat/resin with staggered
overlaps to hull and bulkhead on properly prepared timber and ferrocement surfaces on each
side of the bulkhead.

Bulkheads (ferrocement)

Ferrocement bulkheads will usually be 25 mm thick, or as specified. The lay up will be either 6
mm or 8 mm semi-bright hard drawn rods at 50-75 mm centres with three layers of 13 x 13 mm
x 19 gauge mesh on each side properly connected into the hull and deck. Webs of minimum
100 mm depth will be located at 600 mm centres set on alternate sides of the bulkhead or as
required.

Openings required in the bulkhead must be known prior to casting and accurately located. Due
to the surface area involved it is normal practice to cast the bulkheads after the hull has been
cast and before the deck is cast.

Sole bearers

The top of the sole bearer in timber is fitted 6 mm proud of the top of the ferrocement floor to
allow for small discrepancies.

The bearer will be bolted so that the bolt holes pass through the reinforcement just beneath the
transverse 12 mm dia. rod set into the top of each floor, which means that the centre of the bolt
line is some 33 mm below the top of the timber sole bearer.

The bolts of 10 mm dia. will be set at approximately 225 mm centres with the bolt hole sealed
on both sides of the ferrocement and a good sized washer used on the ferrocement floor
surface.

Deck

The only area here that will be specific to ferrocement in fitting the timber deck is the sealing of
the outboard plank edge where it lays against the ferrocement hull.
The margin plank edge can be sealed conventionally by using caulking cotton and suitable
bitumen/tar sealer or by using a proprietary cement to timber flexible sealant.

56. Foredeck and wheelhouse

Winch (timber deck)

The mounting of the winch will be in accordance with good boatbuilding practice. However in
some instances it may be necessary to provide additional support from the underside of the
deck down to the hull.

Dependent on the constructional layout of the vessel, this can be achieved by using either a
steel tubular or goal post frame which will require a predetermined foot location provided by an
additional reinforced block/s on the hull, floor, or web.

Winch (ferrocement deck)

The design of a ferrocement deck will normally provide adequate strength so that no additional
vertical support is required.

However it will be usual practice to build a block the depth of the deck webs. The underside of
the block would be finished with a steel plate and incorporate steel tubes to coincide with the
winch bolting down locations, or the winch base framework that may be fitted between the deck
and the winch.

57. Timber deck, winch and gantry

Gantry (timber deck)

The gantry installation may also benefit in some designs from extra support as outlined, for the
winch. However it is more likely that additional support may be provided by fitting steel brackets
from the gantry legs to the bulwark and sheer capping, although this will largely depend on
whether the area between the gantry legs and the bulwark is to be used for otter board stowage.

Gantry (ferrocement deck)

The gantry feet will require the same stiffening as described for the winch. Care must always be
exercised in positioning the fixing bolts accurately, particularly when the deck camber needs to
be taken into account.

Fuel and water tanks (mild steel)

58. Typical tank installation

Mast (timber and ferrocement deck)

Almost certainly due to the local strain imposed on the deck by a mast used for lifting purposes,
the deck will need additional support. A tubular support with an adequate base, in or either side
of the keel, will need to take into account the general layout of the area where the support is
required as well as avoiding the propeller shaft.

Although the design may well offer good support to the mild steel tanks by arranging the hull
webs and floors to suit the tank location and shape, it will be necessary to provide a mild steel
angle framework which is bolted to the floors/webs. The framework will spread the weight
involved, take account of any discrepancies on the ferrocement floors, and give easy retaining
points for fixing the base of the tanks into the correct position.

On larger vessels, ferrocement may be considered for building the tanks. This can be carried
out without any problem on the water tanks given that the size justifies the cost and some
increase in weight.

Fuel tanks on the other hand require far more attention to detail and construction technique, due
to the "searching effects" of diesel. Construction for this purpose is only recommended if the
tanks are large enough for a man to work inside and expert help is available for guidance on the
construction technique.

Engine mounting

Ferrocement engine beds are the means not only of attaching and aligning an engine
accurately, but also a means of giving considerable additional longitudinal strength to the hull.

The design will normally provide the information as to the location of the engine within the hull
and, perhaps, indicate the centre line position of the engine feet. This information is insufficient
for setting the holding down bolts in the ferrocement engine bed. As is often the case, the
engine manufacturer's literature is either inaccurate or does not provide sufficient information.

The best solution to this problem if it arises, is to have either the engine to hand some one
month after starting the hull construction, or to be able to see an example of the engine
complete with power take-off (PTO) and check out the dimensions and location of engine feet
from a relevant data point, eg gearbox half coupling (if the gearbox is the same type as the one
to be used).

The importance of having this information early cannot be over stressed, as once the engine
beds are cast with the hull, alteration will be difficult and incur additional cost.

The ideal form of construction for a fishing boat is based on the engine being attached to a steel
plate.

The steel plate in turn, is attached to the ferrocement engine bed by bolts securely welded into
the bed reinforcement before casting.

An allowance, usually 50 mm thick, is made for a hardwood packer to be inserted between the
top of the ferrocement engine bed and the underside of the steel plate used for fixing the engine
feet, ref. Fig. No. 18. This practice gives two benefits:
a) It will help to reduce vibration transmitted to the hull, although the majority of vibration set up
by an engine will be absorbed by the mass in the engine bed constructed, particularly in
ferrocement fishing boat construction.

b) The timber packing can be adjusted in shape and thickness to make up for a certain amount
of error which may occur between shaft line and top of the ferrocement engine beds, if
alignment is unsatisfactorily carried out.

59. Installation of timber packer and steel flat to the engine beds

Accuracy should be paramount particularly as there is little room for error in alignment
sideways, as most engines have minimal clearance between the inboard faces of the beds.

The ferrocement engine bed construction is straight forward provided the following steps are
taken:

i) The stern tube liner tube has been installed and checked for accurate alignment to the shaft
line.

ii) A jig using the steel flat plate, to which the engine will finally be attached, is assembled and
drilled to take the ferrocement engine bed foundation bolts which will be located adjacent to
each side of each foot on the engine, PTO, and gearbox. The jig must be temporarily but
adequately stiffened to keep it straight, flat and parallel to the shaft line.

iii) The length of the foundation bolts are determined by the amount of packer to be fitted, steel
plate thickness, the depth of two 20 mm nuts and 3 mm thick washers plus clearance.

These measurements combined, will add up to a length of 120 mm from the top of the
ferrocement bed. In addition, the length required from the top of the ferro bed to within 12 mm of
the hull skin can be checked and added to give the full length of bolt required. Sufficient thread
on the top portion of each bolt must be allowed to take into account any adjustment required on
the final location of the top of the steel plate in relation to the actual shaft line.

For installation of the engine the first point to check is the accuracy of the shaft line in relation to
the engine beds, both vertically and horizontally.

Assuming the line is within acceptable tolerances, the actual engine feet locations measured
from the gearbox half coupling, taken from the engine to be installed, are checked against the
engine bed foundation bolt locations.

60. Shaft and plummer blocks installed

The overall length of the shaft is rechecked and measured in the hull from the aft face of the
sterntube liner tube to the forward face of the propeller shaft half coupling position. Any
modification to the shaft length should be advised to the shaft supplier if necessary.

Before receiving the shaft for installation, the hardwood packers on top of the ferrocement beds
can be trimmed to suit the actual shaft line and the steel flat bar bolted down using the
foundation bolts provided.
The engine can be accurately positioned onto the beds, after installation of the sterntube,
plummer blocks, and shaft. After the shaft and gearbox half couplings have been accurately
aligned, the engine feet bolt centre locations are accurately marked onto the steel flat bar.

The engine is then lifted sufficiently to allow removal of the flat bar for accurate drilling and
welding into position of the engine holding down bolts. The hardwood packer is recessed in way
of the bolt heads.

The flat bar is replaced and finally fixed finishing with lock nuts on each of the foundation bolts.
The engine is lowered and located on the feet holding down bolts, aligned accurately to the
shaft half coupling, shimmed and permanently locked into position.

61. The engine being lowered onto the engine beds

Fish hold construction

The fish hold will normally be fitted out with timber, on insulation that has been specified (ref.
Fig. No. 22). The hold will be lined out using either galvanised tin or fibreglass on the smaller
vessels. In larger vessels a ferrocement lining may be considered.

Figure 22. Typical section through fish hold on 12-14 m fishing vessel

If ferrocement is used, access to the bilges and shaft must be given due thought, as well as the
means to get at the hull and deck in the event of sustaining any damage in the fish hold area.
However, ferrocement will give a long-term, low maintenance, well insulated fish hold.

The ferrocement lining can be constructed by leaving 6 mm rod ties protruding from the hull and
deck, gluing the insulation into position and finishing with two layers of mesh on a layer of 6 mm
rods.

The floors will require a former to be able to construct the fish hold sole off. The shaft tunnel
hatches will be easier to form from timber, incorporating the insulation.

10. RULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION

OF FERROCEMENT VESSELS
A number of countries around the world have either their own or international authorities and
organisations which will apply their rules to the classification of a ferrocement vessel. Amongst
those that produce rules are the American Bureau of Shipping, The Australian Transport
Advisory Council, Marine Department of New Zealand, and Det Norske Veritas of Norway. The
latter produced tentative rules for the construction and classification of ferrocement vessels in
1974.

Whilst working in India, the American Bureau of Shipping was approached with a view to
obtaining classification on future vessels built in India. Set out below are the guidelines
produced in June 1986:
"To consider a ferrocement vessel for classification the following plans and data are to be
submitted for our review.

1. Drawings showing the particulars, arrangements and details of the principal parts of the hull
structure, including tanks with information on height of overflow pipes, and a construction
schedule giving details of material specifications, mixes, reinforcements, mortar application and
curing procedures are to be submitted in quadruplicate and approved before work on
construction commences.
"The necessity for testing prior to construction is in order to establish the quality of the material
and the efficiency of the production as any deficiencies in test requirements after the
commencement of construction can be extremely costly and difficult to accommodate.

"For reviewing the structural details of fishing vessels we would obtain required steel scantlings
from our Rule for Steel Vessels Under 61 m in Length and convert these to ferrocement
scantlings using the following relations:

Where

ffc = Allowable tensile stress in ferrocement

SMfc = Section modulus of ferrocement

SMms = Section modulus of ABS mild steel

tfc = Thickness of ferrocement

tms = Thickness of ABS mild steel

M.R. = Modulus of Rupture of test sample (stress psi at which cracks of 1.100" in width appear during
 the flexural test)

"The value of 15,690 pounds per inches squared in the above formula is the presumed
allowable tensile stress for ABS quality mild steel. Depending on the location and orientation of
the particular member it may go up to 20,160 pounds per inches squared.

"These guidelines and conversion methods were designed primarily as an aid to inexperienced
builders and designers. They are simplified and usually result in conservative scantlings. We are
prepared to accept alternative design procedures proposed by a designer provided that
complete documentation of the procedures and subsequent design calculations are submitted in
conjunction with the vessels plans.

"Strength calculations based on the results of the following procedures are to be submitted with
the construction drawings to substantiate the adequacy of the hull strength (see Section 4 of
ABS Guidelines and relevant Standards):

a) Compressive test
b) Tensile test
c) Flexural test
d) Impact test
"Regarding the machinery of the vessel all applicable plans required by the Rules are to be
submitted for our review and approval.

"Upon satisfactory completion of our review of plans, calculations and construction schedule,
material testing and surveys, each vessel will be eligible to be classed * Al Fishing Service
Annual Survey * AMS. The type of construction and description of the vessel will be noted in the
Record."

The full set of ABS guidelines for the construction of ferrocement vessels would be available
through the local ABS surveyor where the boat is to be built, or equivalent organisation which
covers the area involved.

The full set of rules available would be too numerous to mention here; nevertheless, the above
gives a fairly good idea as to what will be required.

The exact requirements of any one classification body may well differ from another, both in
specific requirements and in cost of providing the survey and classification. Therefore, it is
necessary to make contact on deciding whether or not to produce a boat to classification using
the most up to date rules. It should be noted that the cost for building just the ferrocement
element to rules for one vessel may well prove prohibitive.

For a guide to ferrocement fishing boat scantlings refer to Table 2, which indicates from practical
experience the likely scantlings required in the upright method of construction.

Table 1
A Guide to Ferrocement Fishing Boat Scantlings
 Length Hull & deck minimum Welded mesh Reinforcing rods Web Depth
metres thickness reinforcement Thickness

gauge size No of longitudinal transverse

layers

mm mm dia space dia space mm mm

mm mm mm mm

10 30 19 13x13 6 6 50 6 50-75 100 25

12 30 19 13x13 6 6 50 6 50-75 100 25

14 30 19 13x13 6 6 50 6 50-75 100 25

16 30 19 13x13 6 6 50 6 50-75 125 30

18 32 19 13x13 7 8 50 6 50-75 150 30

20 32 19 13x13 7 8 50 6 50-75 150 30

General Notes:-

Frame Spacing: Will be in the range of 600-700 mm for the upright construction technique.

Wire Mesh: Mesh can be of varied type of 22-18 gauge, providing the steel content is maintained
in line with that shown in the table above.

Rod The distribution and diameter of the rods may well vary in other forms of construction
Reinforcement: technique, eg: upside down and moulded methods.
Longitudinal These will always be required in ferrocement deck construction, as well as in hulls
Webs: above 15 metres in length.

NB The above table and notes are derived from practical experience in constructing fishing
boats, and may be subject to change when a vessel is built to classification rules.