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Chapter 7: Fatigue and Impact
All machine and structural

designs are problems in fatigue
because the forces of Nature are
always at work and each object
must respond in some fashion.

Carl Osgood, Fatigue Design
Aloha Airlines Flight 243, a Boeing 737-200, taken April

28, 1988. The midight fuselage failure was aNributed to
corrosion-assisted fatigue. (Steven Minkowski/Gamma
Liaison)
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press
Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
On the Bridge!
Figure 7.1: On the Bridge, an illustration from Punch magazine in 1891

warning the populace that death was waiting for them on the next bridge. Note
the cracks in the iron bridge.

2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 7.1: Methods to
Maximize Fatigue Life
1. Minimizing initial aws, especially surface aws. Great care is taken to produce
fatigue-resistant surfaces through processes such as grinding or polishing
that produce exceptionally smooth surfaces. These surfaces are then carefully
protected before a product is placed into service.
2. Maximizing crack initiation time. Compressive surface residual stresses are
imparted (or at least tensile residual stresses are relieved) through
manufacturing processes such as shot peening or burnishing, or by a number
of surface treatments.
3. Maximizing crack propagation time. Substrate properties, especially those that
retard crack growth, are also important. For example, in some materials
fatigue cracks will propagate more quickly along grain boundaries than
through grains. In this case, using a material that has elongated grains
transverse to the direction of fatigue crack growth can extend fatigue life
(e.g., by using cold-worked components instead of castings).
4. Maximizing the critical crack length. Fracture toughness (Section 6.5) is an
essential material property, and materials with higher fracture toughnesses
are generally beNer suited for fatigue applications.
2014 CRC Press
Cyclic Stresses
Mean stress:
max + min
m =
2
Compression Tension
1 cycle
mmax Stress range:
+
ma m
Stress
r
r = max min
mm
0
mmin
Time Stress amplitude:

r max min
a = =
2 2
Stress ratio:
Figure 7.2: Variation in nonzero cyclic min
mean stress. R=
max

2014 CRC Press
Cyclic Properties of Metals
Yield Fracture Fatigue Fatigue Fatigue
strength strength ductility strength ductility
Sy , f, coefFLHQW, exponent, exponent,
Material Conditiona MPa MPa f a _
Steel
1015 Normalized 228 827 0.95 -0.110 -0.64
4340 Tempered 1172 1655 0.73 -0.076 -0.62
1045 Q&T 306$ F 1720 2720 0.07 -0.055 -0.60
1045 Q&T 500$ F 1275 2275 0.25 -0.080 -0.68
1045 Q&T 600$ F 965 1790 0.35 -0.070 -0.69
4142 Q&T 400$ F 1720 2650 0.07 -0.076 -0.76
4142 Q&T 600$ F 1340 2170 0.09 -0.081 -0.66
4142 Q&T 700$ F 1070 2000 0.40 -0.080 -0.73
4142 Q&T 840$ F 900 1550 0.45 -0.080 -0.75
Aluminum
1100 Annealed 97 193 1.80 -0.106 -0.69
2014 T6 462 848 0.42 -0.106 -0.65
2024 T351 379 1103 0.22 -0.124 -0.59
5456 H311 234 724 0.46 -0.110 -0.67
7075 T6 469 1317 0.19 -0.126 -0.52
Titanium
Ti-6Al-4V Solution treated+aged 1185 2030 0.841 -0.104 -0.69
Nickel
Inconel X Annealed 700 2255 1.16 -0.117 -0.75
a Q&T - Quenched and tempered.
Table 7.1: Cyclic properties of some metals. Source: After Shigley and Mitchell
[1983] and Suresh [1998].

2014 CRC Press
Common Stress PaNerns and R.R.
Moore Test Specimen
Four frequently encountered paNerns 3 16
7
__
of constant-amplitude cyclic stress

are:
1. Completely reversed: (m = 0, R =
0.30
-1) 9 78 R
2. Nonzero mean: (as shown in Fig.
7.2)
3. Released tension: (min = 0, R = 0, Figure 7.3: R.R. Moore machine
m = max/2) fatigue test specimen.
Dimensions in inches.
4. Released compression: (max= 0,
R = , m = min/2.

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Crack Growth
10-2 Kc
Crack growth rate, dlc/dN (mm/cycle)

Regime A Regime B
Crack growth rate at 50 Hz

6m2 > 6m1 1 mm/min
Crack length, lc
-4
6m1 10
6m2 dlc
= C(6K)m
dN
m 1 mm/hr
dlc
dN 1
10-6
one lattice
1 mm/day
spacing
per cycle Regime C 1 mm/week
-8
Number of cylces, N 10
log 6K
(a) (b)
Figure 7.4: Illustration of fatigue crack growth. (a) Size of a fatigue crack for two
dierent stress ratios as a function of the number of cycles; (b) rate of crack growth,
illustrating three regimes.

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Crack Growth Notes
Strain-life theory (Manson-Con relationship):
f a
= (2N ) + f (2N )
2 E
Regimes of Crack Growth:

1. Regime A is a period of very slow crack growth. Note that the crack
growth rate can be even smaller than an atomic spacing of the
material per cycle.
2. Regime B is a period of moderate crack growth rate, often referred to
as the Paris regime
3. Regime C is a period of high-growth rate, where the maximum stress
intensity factor for the fatigue cycle approaches the fracture
toughness of the material.

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Striations
Smooth B
(burnished)
surface
Microscopic
striations
Striations
(visible)
Rough
(fracture) A
surface
Figure 7.5: Cross section of a fatigued section, showing fatigue striations or

beachmarks originating from a fatigue crack at B. Source: Rimnac, C., et al., in ASTM
STP 918, Case Histories Involving Fatigue and Fracture, copyright 1986, ASTM
International. Reprinted with permission.

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue
High Nominal Stress Low Nominal Stress
No stress Mild stress Severe stress No stress Mild stress Severe stress
concentration concentration concentration concentration concentration concentration
Fracture
or tension-compression
Tension-tension
Surfaces
Unidirectional
bending
Reversed
bending
Figure 7.6: Typical fatigue-fracture

surfaces of smooth and notched cross-
sections under dierent loading
conditions and stress levels. Source:
Rotational
bending
Metals Handbook, American Society for

Metals [1975].
Beachmarks Fracture surface

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Strength Ferrous Alloys
1.0
Ferrous Alloys
0.9
O
Fatigue stress ratio, Sf /Sut
O O
0.8 O
O O O
O O
O O O
O
For steels:
O
O
O O O
0.7 O
O
O O
O
O
O
O
OO O
O
Not broken
O O
O O O O O
Se = 0.5Su
O O OO
0.6 O O
O OO
OO
O O
O OO
OO O O O O O
O
O O O
bending :
O
Se = 0.45Su
O OO
O
O
O
O
O O
O O OO
O
O
OO
axial :
Se = 0.29Su
O O
0.5 O O
O
O
O torsion :
0.4
103 104 105 106 107
Number of cycles to failure, N
(a)
Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of

number of loading cycles. (a) Ferrous alloys,
showing clear endurance limit; Source: Adapted
from Lipson and Juvinall [1963].
2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Strength Nonferrous
Alloys
80
Aluminum Alloys
60
Alternating stress, ma, ksi

40
Wr
30 Pe ou
gh
rm t
an
20 en
tm
old
16 c ast
Sa
12 nd
c ast
10
8
7
6
5
103 104 105 106 107 108 109
(b)
Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of number of loading cycles. (b)

aluminum alloys, with less pronounced knee and no endurance limit. Source:
Adapted from Juvinall and Marshek [1991].

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Strength - Polymers
60
Polymers
8x103
50
Alternating stress, ma, MPa
Alternating stress, ma, psi

40 Phenolic 6
Epoxy
Alkyd
30 Diallyl-
phthalate 4
20
Nylon (dry)
2
10 PTFE
Polycarbonate
0 0
103 104 105 106 107
(c)
Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of number of loading cycles. (c)

selected properties of assorted polymer classes. Source: Adapted from Norton
[1996]

2014 CRC Press
Endurance Limit vs. Ultimate
Strength
160
Carbon steels
Alloy steels ' 0.
6 0.5
V Wrought irons S__ =
e
_
120 Su
0.4
Endurance limit, Se , ksi
80
100 ksi
40
VVVV
V
VV
0
0 60 120 180 240 300
Tensile strength, Sut, ksi
Figure 7.8: Endurance limit as function of ultimate strength for wrought steels.
Source: Adapted from Shigley and Mitchell [1983].

2014 CRC Press
Staircase Approach
475
Design Procedure 7.2: Staircase Approach
Failure
450
Survival
1. A designer must rst estimate the
endurance limit for the material of
Applied stress, MPa
425 interest, either with a strength-based

approach such as in Eq. (7.6), or
400 through preliminary testing.
2. A test interval is then selected, typically
375
around 10% of the estimated endurance
350
limit.
0 5 10 15 20 25 3. An initial test is performed at a stress
Test number
level equal to the expected endurance
limit.
Figure 7.9: Typical results from fatigue
tests using the staircase approach, and
4. If the specimen breaks, it is recorded as
used in Example 7.2. such and the next experiment will be
performed at a stress level reduced by
the stress interval.
2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 7.2 (concluded)
5. At the desired duration (commonly 106 or 107 cycles), the test is stopped. If the
specimen survives, it is recorded as such and the next experiment will be performed
at a stress level increased by the stress interval.
6. A plot of typical results is shown in Fig. 7.9.
7. The mean endurance limit can be obtained from the following steps:
a. Count the number of failures and survivals in the test results. Proceed with the
analysis using the less common test result.
b. The number of events (failures or survivals) is assigned to ni for each stress level
i. In this approach, the lowest stress level is denoted as o, the next highest as
1, etc.
c. Obtain the quantity An from An = ini

A 1
d. The endurance limit is then estimated from Se = o + d n
ni 2
where the plus sign is used if the more common experimental result is survival,
and the minus sign is used if the more common event is failure.
8. It is recommended that at least 15 experiments be performed, although more can be
helpful for more accurate quantication of the endurance limit.

2014 CRC Press
Endurance Limit for Materials
Number
of
Material cycles Relation
Magnesium alloys 10 8 S e = 0 .35S u
Copper alloys 10 8 0.25S u < S e < 0.5S u
Nickel alloys 10 8 0.35S u < S e < 0.5S u
Titanium 10 7 0.45S u < S e < 0.65S u
Aluminum alloys 5 10 8 S e = 0 .40S u (S u < 48 ksi)
S e = 19 ksi (S u 48 ksi)
Table 7.2: Approximate endurance limit for various materials. Source: Adapted
from Juvinall and Marshek [1991].

2014 CRC Press
Finite Life Fatigue
Low cycle (below around High cycle, nite life (between
1000 cycles): around 1000 and 1 million cycles)
bending: Sl = 0.9Su
axial: Sl = 0.75Su log Sf = bs log Nt + C
torsion: Sl = 0.72Su
where

1 Sl
bs = log
3 Se

2
Sl (Sl )
C = 2 log
+ log S
e = log
.
Se Se

2014 CRC Press
Notch Sensitivity
Use these values with bending and axial loads
Use these values with torsion

1.0
180 (1241)
7 9)
(13 )
0 120 (827
20
0.8 (9 65 )
5 2)
0 80 (5
14
4)
9) 60 (41
(68
Fatigue stress
Notch sensitivity, qn
0 2) Steel,
10 (55 Su, ksi (MPa)
80 414)
concentration
0.6 as marked
(
60 45)
0 (3
factor:
5
Aluminum alloy (based on 2024-T6 data)
0.4
Kf = 1 + (Kc 1) qn
0.2
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Notch radius, r, mm
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16

Notch radius, r, in.
Figure 7.10: Notch sensitivity as function of notch radius for several materials
and types of loading. Source: Adapted from Sines and Waisman [1959].

2014 CRC Press
Modied Endurance Limit
The modied endurance limit can be estimated from an R.R. Moore
idealized specimen from:

Se = kf ks kr kt km Se

This is strictly true only for carbon steels.

Correction factors can be estimated from empirical relations. Experimental
verication of designs is usually required.

2014 CRC Press
Surface Finish Correction
Mathematical estimate: Manufacturing Factor e

process MPa ksi Exponent f
f Grinding 1.58 1.34 -0.085
kf = eSut
Machining or 4.51 2.70 -0.265
cold drawing
Note: not based on curve t of Hot rolling 57.7 14.4 -0.718
Fig. 7.11.
As forged 272.0 39.9 -0.995
Table 7.3: Surface nish factor. Source:

Shigley and Mitchell [1983].

2014 CRC Press
Surface Finish Correction
1.0 1.0
Fine polishing
1
2
4
0.9 8
0.8
16
Surface finish factor, kf

Machi
ned, c
Surface finish factor, kf
o ld for 32
g ed, c
Ta o ld r 0.8 63
0.6 p olled
wa
ter 125
co Hot
rro rol led 0.7 250
de
0.4 d
500
Hot f 1000
orged 0.6 2000
0.2 Salt w
ater cor
roded
0.5 Surface finish
Ra, +in.
0
60 100 140 180 220 260 0.4
Tensile strength, Sut (ksi) 40 80 120 160 200 240
(a) Ultimate strength in tension, Sut, ksi

(b)
Figure 7.11: Surface nish factors for steel. (a) As function of ultimate strength
in tension for dierent manufacturing processes; Source: (a) Adapted from
Norton [2011] and data from the American Iron and Steel Institute.
(b) As function of ultimate strength and surface roughness as measured with a
stylus prolometer. Source: (b) adapted from Johnson [1967].
2014 CRC Press
Reliability, Size and Temperature Factor
Reliability Factor: Size Factor:
For a standard deviation of 8%
0.869d0.112 0.3 in. < d < 10 in.
of the mean:
0.11 ks = 1 d < 0.3 in. or d 8 mm
1
kr = 0.512 ln + 0.508 1.248d0.112 8 mm < d 250 mm
R
d depends on manufacturing
process, but one approach allows
Probability Reliability estimation from the equivalent area
of survival,
percent
factor,
kr
where the stress is above 95% of the
50 1.00 maximum stress:
90 0.90
95 0.87 A95
99 0.82 d=
99.9 0.75 0.0766
99.99 0.70
Table 7.4: Reliability factors Temperature Factor:

for six probabilities of
survival. Sut
kt =
Sut,ref
2014 CRC Press
Shot Peening Eect
ksi
483 70
Fatigue strength at two million cycles (MPa)
100 200 300

1380 200 Al 7050-T7651
Ti-6Al-4V
Alternating stress, ma, MPa

414 60
1035 150 Shot peened

Peened - smooth 345 50
or notched
ksi
276 40
ksi
690 100
Not peened - smooth
207 30
Machined Polished
345 50
138 20
Not peened - notched

(typical machined surface)
0 0 104 105 106 107 108
690 1380 2170
Ultimate tensile strength, Sut, (MPa) Number of cycles to failure, N'
(a) (b)
Figure 7.12: The use of shot peening to improve fatigue properties. (a) Fatigue strength
at 2 x 106 cycles for high-strength steel as a function of ultimate strength; (b) typical S-N
curves for non-ferrous metals. Source: Courtesy of J.~Champaigne, Electronics, Inc.

2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 7.3:
Determination of Endurance Limit
If an experimental investigation is impractical, the endurance limit can be estimated through
the following procedure:
1. The endurance limit for a specimen (Se) can be estimated for a type of loading from Eq.
(7.6). This requires knowledge of the material's ultimate strength, which can be obtained
from experiments or from tables of mechanical properties; some steel properties are
summarized in Appendix A.
2. Note from Fig. 7.8 that the predicted value should not be assigned a value greater than 690
MPa (100 ksi).
3. The modied endurance limit (Se) is then obtained from Eq. (7.18), where:
a. The surface nish factor, kf, is obtained from Eq. (7.19) using coecients from Table
7.3, or else kf can be estimated from Fig. 7.11.
b. The size factor, ks, can be estimated from Eq. (7.20) for bending or torsion, with ks=1
for tension. If the part is not round, then an equivalent diameter can be obtained from
Eq. (7.21). These equations have high uncertainty, but they do allow size eects to be
considered without overly complicating the mathematics.
c. The reliability factor, kr, can be obtained from Table 7.4.
d. The eects of temperature, kt, are best obtained experimentally, but Eq.~(7.23) gives a
reasonable estimate for this factor.
2014 CRC Press
Examples 7.5 and 7.6
r=0.2 r=2 M
2
2 M
M 41
45
45
M
50
Figure 7.13: Round shaft with a Figure 7.14: Drawn square prole with
retaining ring groove considered in machined groove considered in
Example 7.5. All dimensions are in Example 7.6. All dimensions are in
millimeters. millimeters.

2014 CRC Press
Haigh Diagram
ma
Sut mm
Sut
1.0 R
=
-1 4 ycles
.0 10 c
0.8 0. 5 c yc
les 8
0.
0
8
1.
1 0 l es
=
6 cy c
R
0. 10
0.6 6
mmax/Sut
6 0.
R = 0.0
R=
0.5
- 0.
R=
0.4 0. 4
4
5
0.
0.2 0. 2
2 0.
0.0
-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
mmin/Sut
Figure 7.15: A typical Haigh diagram showing constant life curves for dierent
combinations of mean and alternating stresses.

2014 CRC Press
Nonzero Mean Stress
Syt
Yield line Gerber:
2
Kf ns a ns m
Alternating stress, ma
+ =1
Se
Se Sut
Gerber line
Goodman
Goodman:
line
Kf a m 1
+ =
Se Sut ns
Soderberg line
0
Syt Sut Soderberg:
Mean stress, mm
Kf a m 1
+ =
Se Syt ns
Figure 7.16: Inuence of nonzero mean stress
on fatigue life for tensile loading as estimated
by four empirical relationships.

2014 CRC Press
Modied Goodman Equations
Line Equation Range
Se Se S y < S e /K f
AB max = + m 1< 0) m )
Kf Su K f Se
1<
K f Su
Se
Sy <
Kf
BC max = S y ) m ) S y
Se
1<
K f Su
Se
Sy <
Kf
CD min = 2 m < S y ) m ) S y
Se
1<
K f Su
Se
Sy <
Se Se Kf
DE min = 1+ m < 0) m )
K f Su Kf Se
1<
K f Su
Se Se
EF min = m < < S y ) m ) 0
Kf Kf
Se
FG min = < S y < S y ) m ) < Sy
Kf Table 7.5: Equations and range of
Se
GH max = 2 m + S y < S y ) m )
Kf
< Sy applicability for construction of
HA max = m +
Se Se
< S y ) m ) 0
complete modied Goodman
Kf Kf diagram.

2014 CRC Press
Modied Goodman Diagram
Su Su
+S
Sy B C
Sy Smax
N
Se /Kf L Sm
Smax A
D
45 Smin
H M
Sm 0 Sy Su Sm
Smin
E
Se /Kf
S
45
F
G Sy
a b c d
Figure 7.17: Complete modied Goodman diagram, ploNing stress as ordinate

and mean stress as abscissa.

2014 CRC Press
Modied Goodman Equations
Region in Failure Validity limits
Fig. 7.16 equation of equation
Se
a max < 2 m = S y /n s < S y ) m ) < Sy
Kf
Se Se
b max < m = < S y ) m ) 0
ns K f Kf
Se
Sy <
Se Se Kf
c max + m < 1 = 0 ) m )
K f Su ns K f Se
1<
K f Su
Se
Sy <
Sy Kf
d max = ) m ) S y
ns Se
1<
K f Su
Table 7.6: Failure equations and validity limits of equations for four regions of
complete modied Goodman relationship

2014 CRC Press
Alternating Stress Ratio
1.5
Alternating stress
ratio, ma/Su
1.0
0.5 Se
(0.4)(0.9) = 0.36
Su
0
4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0 1.0
Mean stress ratio, mm/Su
Figure 7.18: Alternating stress ratio as function of mean stress ratio for axially
loaded cast iron.

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Crack Growth Data
10-1 PVC 10-4
Al 2219-T851 2024-T3 Al
PMMA PSF
Rate of crack growth, dlc/dN (mm/cycle)
Rate of crack growth, dlc/dN (mm/cycle)

10-2 Epoxy 7075-T6 Al Mo
-5
10
PET
10-3
10-6
10-4 Mg
A36 steel
Nylon 66
10-5 PC Nylon 10-7
300M Steel
ST 801
Ti-6Al-4V 4340 steel
10-6
0.2 0.4 0.8 1.0 2 4 8 10 20 40 80 10-8

1 2 5 10 20 50 100
6K (MPa m)
6K (MPa m)
(a) (b)
Figure 7.19: Fatigue crack growth data for a variety of materials. (a) Selected
polymers in comparison to aluminum and steel; (b) selected metal alloys. {\it
Source:} From Bowman [2004].
2014 CRC Press
Paris Law Data
C
mm/cycle in/cycle
Material m
( MPa m)m ksi in
m
Paris law:
Steel
Ferritic-pearlitic 6.89 10 9 3.6 10 10 3.0 dlc m
Martensitic 1.36 10 7 6.6 10 9 2.25 = C (K)
dN
Austenitic 5.61 10 9 3.0 10 10 3.25
Aluminum
6061-T6 5.88 10 8 3.1 10 9 3.17
2024-T3 1.6 10 11 8.4 10 11 3.59
Table 7.6: Paris Law constants for various classes of

steel. Data represents worst-case (fastest) crack growth
rates reported for the material classes. Source: From
Dowling [2007].

2014 CRC Press
Dynamic Mechanical Properties
Ultimate and yield stresses, Su and Sy, ksi

100 100
Sy/Su, percent
80 80
Ratio S y
/S u th S u
str eng
e
60 Ultimat 60
Elongation, percent
Total elongation
40 40
Sy
Yield strength
20 20
0 0
106 10 4
10 2
1 10 2
Average strain rate, s1
Figure 7.20: Mechanical properties of mild steel at room temperature as

function of average strain rate.

2014 CRC Press
Example 7.11
y
V
40 mm
0.6 m M
P
x
1.5 m 450 mm
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 7.21: Diver impacting diving board, used in Example 7.11. (a) Side view;
(b) front view; (c) side view showing forces and coordinates.

2014 CRC Press
D-Check
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.22: (a) Exterior view of Boeing 747-400 during a D check; (b)
inspection of landing gear component for structural integrity. Source: Courtesy
of Lufthansa Technik.

2014 CRC Press

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Chapter 7: Fatigue and Impact

All machine and structural

Aloha Airlines Flight 243, a Boeing 737-200, taken April

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 7.1: On the Bridge, an illustration from Punch magazine in 1891

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

of constant-amplitude cyclic stress

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Crack growth rate, dlc/dN (mm/cycle)

Crack growth rate at 50 Hz

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Regimes of Crack Growth:

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 7.5: Cross section of a fatigued section, showing fatigue striations or

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 7.6: Typical fatigue-fracture

Metals Handbook, American Society for

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of

Alternating stress, ma, ksi

Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of number of loading cycles. (b)

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Alternating stress, ma, MPa

Alternating stress, ma, psi

Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of number of loading cycles. (c)

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

425 interest, either with a strength-based

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Use these values with torsion

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Mathematical estimate: Manufacturing Factor e

Table 7.3: Surface nish factor. Source:

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Surface finish factor, kf

(a) Ultimate strength in tension, Sut, ksi

Table 7.4: Reliability factors Temperature Factor:

100 200 300

Alternating stress, ma, MPa

1035 150 Shot peened

Not peened - notched

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 7.17: Complete modied Goodman diagram, ploNing stress as ordinate

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Rate of crack growth, dlc/dN (mm/cycle)

0.2 0.4 0.8 1.0 2 4 8 10 20 40 80 10-8

Table 7.6: Paris Law constants for various classes of

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Ultimate and yield stresses, Su and Sy, ksi

Average strain rate, s1

Figure 7.20: Mechanical properties of mild steel at room temperature as

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.