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Curiosity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Curiosity (from Latin crisits, from crisus "careful, diligent,

curious", akin to cura "care") is a quality related to inquisitive thinking
such as exploration, investigation, and learning, evident by observation
in humans and other animals.[1][2] Curiosity is heavily associated with
all aspects of human development, in which derives the process of
learning and desire to acquire knowledge and skill.[3]

The term curiosity can also be used to denote the behavior or emotion
of being curious, in regard to the desire to gain knowledge or
information. Curiosity as a behavior and emotion is attributed over Curious children gather
millennia as the driving force behind not only human development, but around photographer Toni
developments in science, language, and industry.[4] Frissell, looking at her
camera

Contents
1 Causes
2 Theories
2.1 Curiosity-drive theory
2.2 Optimal-arousal theory
2.3 Integration of the reward pathway into theory
3 Role of neurological aspects and structures
3.1 Motivation and reward
3.1.1 Nucleus accumbens
3.1.2 Caudate nucleus
3.1.3 Anterior cortices
3.1.4 Cortisol
3.2 Attention
3.2.1 Striatum
3.2.2 Precuneus
3.3 Memory and learning
3.3.1 Hippocampus and the parahippocampal gyrus
3.3.2 Amygdala
4 Early development
5 Ethicality
6 Impact from disease
7 Morbid curiosity
8 State and trait curiosity

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9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links

Causes
Curiosity can be seen as an innate quality of many different
species. It is common to human beings at all ages from
infancy[5] through adulthood,[1] and is easy to observe in many
other animal species; these include apes, cats, and rodents.[2]
Early definitions cite curiosity as a motivated desire for
information.[6] This motivational desire has been said to stem
from a passion or an appetite for knowledge, information, and
understanding. Children peer over shoulders to
see what their friends are reading.
These traditional ideas of curiosity have recently expanded to
look at the difference between curiosity as the innate
exploratory behavior that is present in all animals and curiosity as the desire for knowledge that is
specifically attributed to humans.[7]

Theories
Like other desires and need states that take on an appetitive quality (e.g. food), curiosity is linked
with exploratory behavior and experiences of reward. Curiosity can be described as positive
emotions and acquiring knowledge; when ones curiosity has been aroused it is considered
inherently rewarding and pleasurable. Discovering new information may also be rewarding because
it can help reduce undesirable states of uncertainty rather than stimulating interest. Theories have
arisen in attempts to further understand this need to rectify states of uncertainty and the desire to
participate in pleasurable experiences of exploratory behaviors.

Curiosity-drive theory

Curiosity-drive theory relates to the undesirable experiences of "uncertainty". The reduction of

these unpleasant feelings, in turn, is rewarding. This theory suggests that people desire coherence
and understanding in their thought processes. When this coherence is disrupted by something that is
unfamiliar, uncertain, or ambiguous, it is curiosity-drive theory that attempts to gather information
and knowledge of the unfamiliar to restore coherent thought processes once again. Through this
theory, general concept dictates that curiosity is developed strictly out of the desire to make sense
of unfamiliar aspects of ones environment through interaction of exploratory behaviors. Once
understanding of unfamiliar has been achieved and coherence has been restored, these behaviors

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and desires will subside.

Subsets of curiosity-drive theory differ on whether curiosity is a primary or secondary drive and if
this curiosity-drive is originated due to one's need to make sense of and regulate their environment
or if it is caused by an external stimulus.[8] Causes can range from basic needs that need to be
satisfied (e.g. hunger, thirst) to needs in fear induced situations.[8] Each of these subset theories
state, that whether the need is primary or secondary curiosity is developed from experiences that
create a sensation of uncertainty or perceived unpleasantness. Curiosity then acts as a means in
which to dispel this uncertainty. By exhibiting curious and exploratory behavior, one is able to gain
knowledge of the unfamiliar and thus reduce the state of uncertainty or unpleasantness. This theory,
however, does not address the idea that curiosity can often be displayed even in the absence of new
or unfamiliar situations.[9] This type of exploratory behavior is common in many species. Take the
example of a human toddler who, if bored in his current situation devoid of arousing stimuli, will
walk about until something interesting is found. The observation of curiosity even in the absence of
novel stimuli pinpoints one of the major shortcomings in the curiosity-drive model.

Optimal-arousal theory

Optimal-arousal theory developed out of the need to explain the desire for some to seek out
opportunities to engage in exploratory behaviors without the presence of uncertain or ambiguous
situations. Optimal-arousal theory attempts to explain this aspect of curiosity by suggesting that one
can be motivated to maintain a pleasurable sense of arousal through these exploratory behaviors.

The concept of optimal-arousal of curiosity suggests that the desire is to maintain an optimal level
of arousal. If the stimulus is too intensely arousing, a "back-away" type behavior is engaged. In
contrast, if the environment is boring and lacks excitement, exploratory behavior will be engaged
until something optimally arousing is encountered. In essence, there is an intrinsic motivation to
search for a perfect balance of arousal states.[9] This idea attempts to address the observed
behaviors of curiosity even in the absence of uncertain or unfamiliar situations. While optimal-
arousal theory addresses some discrepancies within curiosity-drive theory, there seems to be a
distinctive counter-intuitiveness about their designs. For example, if there is an ideal state of
curiosity that should be maintained, then gaining new knowledge to eliminate that state of curiosity
would be considered counter-productive.[8][9]

Integration of the reward pathway into theory

Taking into account the shortcomings of both curiosity-drive and optimal-arousal theories, attempts
have been made to integrate neurobiological aspects of reward, wanting, and pleasure into a more
comprehensive theory for curiosity. Research suggests, the act of wanting and desiring new
information directly involves mesolimbic pathways of the brain that directly account for dopamine
activation. The use of these pathways and dopamine activation may account for the assigning of
value to new information and then interpreting as reward.[8][10][11] This aspect of neurobiology can
accompany curiosity-theory in motivating exploratory behavior.

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Role of neurological aspects and structures

Although the phenomenon of curiosity is widely regarded, its root causes are relatively unknown
beyond theory. However, recent studies have provided some insight into the neurological
mechanisms that make up what is known as the reward pathway which may impact characteristics
associated with curiosity, such as learning, memory, and motivation. Due to the complex nature of
curiosity, research that focuses on specific neural processes with these characteristics can help
create a better understanding the phenomenon of curiosity as a whole. The following are
characteristics of curiosity and their links to neural aspects that can be thought of as essential in
creating exploratory behaviors:

Motivation and reward

The drive to learn new information or perform some action is

often initiated by the anticipation of reward. In this way, the
concepts of motivation and reward are naturally tied to the
notion of curiosity.[10]

This idea of reward is defined as the positive reinforcement of

an action that encourages a particular behavior by using the
emotional sensations of relief, pleasure, and satisfaction that
correlate with happiness. Many areas in the brain are used to
Dopamine Pathway in the Brain
process reward and come together form what is called the
reward pathway. In this pathway many neurotransmitters play a
role in the activation of the reward sensation- including dopamine, serotonin and opioid
chemicals.[10]

Dopamine is linked to the process of curiosity, as it is responsible for assigning and retaining
reward values of information gained. Research suggests higher amounts of dopamine is released
when the reward is unknown and the stimulus is unfamiliar, compared to activation of dopamine
when stimulus is familiar.[10]

Nucleus accumbens

The nucleus accumbens is a formation of neurons and is important in reward pathway activation.
As previously mentioned, the reward pathway is an integral part in the induction of curiosity. The
release of dopamine in investigating response to novel or exciting stimuli. The fast dopamine
release observed during childhood and adolescence is important in development, as curiosity and
exploratory behavior are the largest facilitators of learning during early years.

In addition, the sensation pleasure of "liking" can occur when opioids are released by nucleus
accumbens. This helps someone evaluate the unfamiliar situation or environment and attach value
to the novel object. These processes of both wanting and liking play a role in activating the reward

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system of the brain, and perhaps in the stimulation of curious or information-seeking tendencies as
well.[9][11][12]

Caudate nucleus

The caudate nucleus, is a region of the brain that is highly responsive to dopamine. The caudate
nucleus is another component of the reward pathway. Research has suggested the role of the
caudate nucleus anticipates the possibility of and is in anticipation of reward of exploratory
behavior and gathered information, thus contributing to factors of curiosity.[12][13]

Anterior cortices

Regions of the anterior cortices correspond to both conflict and arousal, and as such seem to
reinforce certain exploratory models of curiosity.[14]

Cortisol

Cortisol is a chemical known for its role in stress regulation. However, cortisol may also be
associated with curious or exploratory behavior. Findings in recent studies suggesting the role of
cortisol with curiosity support the idea of optimal arousal theory. It is suggested the release of a
small amount cortisol causing stress encourages curious behavior, while too much stress can initiate
a "back away" response.[13][15]

Attention

Attention is important to the understanding of curiosity because it directly correlates with one's
abilities to selectively focus and concentrate on particular stimuli in the surrounding environment.
As there are limited cognitive and sensory resources to understand and evaluate various stimuli,
attention allows the brain to better focus on what it perceives to be the most important or relevant
of these stimuli. Individuals tend to focus their energies on stimuli that are particularly stimulating
or engaging. Indicating that the more attention a stimulus garners, the more frequent one's energy
and focus will be directed towards that stimulus. This idea suggests an individual will focus their
attention on new or unfamiliar stimuli in an effort to better understand or make sense of the
unknown over the more familiar or repetitive stimuli. Creating the idea that curiosity demands
attention.[16]

Striatum

The striatum, is a part of the brain which coordinates motivation with body movement. It would
seem natural that the striatum plays a role in attention and reward anticipation, both of which are
important in the provocation of curiosity.[14]

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Precuneus

The precuneus is a region of the brain that is involved in attention, episodic memory, and
visuospatial processing. There has been a correlation found between the amount of grey matter in
the precuneus and levels of curious and exploratory behaviors; suggesting that the precuneus
density has an influence on levels of curiosity.[17]

Memory and learning

Memory plays an important role in the understanding of curiosity. If curiosity is the desire to seek
our and understand unfamiliar or novel stimuli, one's memory is important in determining if the
stimuli is indeed unfamiliar.

Memory is the process by which the brain can store and access information. In order to determine if
the stimulus is novel, an individual must remember if the stimulus has been encountered before.
Thus, memory plays an integral role in dictating the level of novelty or unfamiliarity, and the level
of need for curiosity.

It can also be suggested that curiosity can affect memory. As previously mentioned, stimuli that are
novel tend to capture more of our attention. Additionally, novel stimuli usually have a reward value
associated with them, the anticipated reward of what learning that new information may bring. With
stronger associations and more attention devoted to a stimulus, it is probable that the memory
formed from that stimulus will be longer lasting and easier to recall, both of which facilitate better
learning.

Hippocampus and the parahippocampal gyrus

The hippocampus is important in memory formation and recall and therefore instrumental in
determining the novelty of various stimuli.[18] Research suggests the hippocampus is involved in
generating the underlying motivation to explore for the purpose of learning.[2][19][20]

The parahippocampal gyrus (PHG), the area of grey matter surrounding the hippocampus, has
recently been implicated in the process of curiosity. This finding suggests that the PHG may be
involved in the amplification of curiosity more so than the primary induction of curiosity.[12]

Amygdala

The amygdala, often is associated with emotional processing, particularly for the emotion of fear,
as well as memory. It is suggested the amygdala is important in processing emotional reactions
towards novel or unexpected stimuli and the induction of exploratory behavior. This implies a
potential connection between curiosity levels and the amygdala. However, more research is needed
on direct correlation.[21]

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Early development
Piaget is considered to be the most influential child researcher. He argued that babies and children
are constantly trying to make sense of their reality and that it contributed to their intellectual
development. According to Piaget, children develop hypotheses, conduct experiments and then
reassess their hypotheses depending on what they observe. Piaget was the first to closely document
childrens actions and interpret them as consistent, calculated effort to test and learn about their
environment.[22]

There is no universally accepted definition for curiosity in children. Most research on curiosity has
been focused on adults and typically used self-report measures are inappropriate and inapplicable
for studying children. Curiosity is mostly thought of as attributable to a mature person and is
characterized in young children as a fledgling feature of their outlook on the world.[23]

Exploratory behaviour is commonly observed in children and is associated with their curiosity
development. Several studies look at childrens curiosity by simply observing their interaction with
novel and familiar toys.[23]

There has been evidence found of a relationship between the anxiety children might feel and their
curiosity. One study found that object curiosity in 11-year-olds was negatively related to
psychological maladjusted so children who exhibit more anxiety in classroom settings engaged in
less curious behaviour. It has also been suggested that certain aspects of classroom learning is
dependent on curiosity which can be affected by students anxiety .[23]

Other measures of childhood curiosity have used exploratory behaviour as a basis but differing on
how which parts of this behaviour is best to focus on. Some studies have examined childrens
preference for complexity/the unknown as a basis for their curiosity measure; others have relied on
novelty preference as their basis.[23]

Researchers have also looked at the relationship between a childs reaction to surprise and curiosity.
It has been suggested that children are further motivated to learn when dealing with uncertainty. It
is argued that their reactions to not having their expectations met would fuel their curiosity more
than the introduction of a novel or complex object would.[23]

Ethicality
There is a widely held belief that childrens curiosity becomes discouraged throughout the process
of formal education. "Children are born scientists. From the first ball they send flying to the ant
they watch carry a crumb, children use science's toolsenthusiasm, hypotheses, tests,
conclusionsto uncover the world's mysteries. But somehow students seem to lose what once
came naturally." [23] Sir Ken Robinson discusses a similar phenomenon in his TED Talk "Do
schools kill creativity?" When curiosity in young people leads to knowledge-gathering it is widely
seen as a positive.[24] However curiosity according to some researchers is also at times seen as

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dangerous, for instance when concerns arise around opposite-sex siblings sharing a room.[25]

Impact from disease

Different neurodegenerative diseases or other psychological
disorders can affect various characteristics of curiosity, for
instance Alzheimer's disease's effects on memory or depression
on motivation and reward. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a
neurodegenerative disease that directly affects the capability
and capacity for memory. Depression is a mood disorder that is
Left: normal brain. Right: AD
characterized by a lack of interest in one's environment and
afflicted brain. Severe
feelings of sadness or hopelessness. Curiosity for novel stimuli
degeneration of areas implicated
and the motivation to engage in particular exploratory behaviors
in curiosity
might also be used as a potential predictors or symptoms for
these and other illnesses.[16]

Morbid curiosity
A morbid curiosity exemplifies an aspect of curiosity that can
be seen as focused on objects of death, violence, or any other
event that may cause harm physically or emotionally.

The idea of morbid curiosity typically is described as having an

addictive quality. This addictive aspect of the need to
understand or make sense of topics that surround harm, violence
or death can be attributed to the idea of one's need to relate
unusual and often difficult circumstances to a primary emotion A crowd mills around the site of
or experience of their own, described as meta-emotions.[26] a car accident in Czechoslovakia
in 1980.
Understanding these difficult circumstances dates back to
Aristotle in his Poetics, stating "enjoy contemplating the most
precise images of things whose sight is painful to us".

State and trait curiosity

There are two distinct classifications of types of curiosity: state and trait curiosity. Both of these
types determine whether curiosity comes from within or outside of a person. State curiosity is
external such as wondering why things happen for the sake of just curiousness, for example,
wondering why most stores open at 8 a.m. This type of curiosity tends to be the most relatable for
people on a day-to-day basis since state curiosity relates to high levels of reward. On the other
hand, trait curiosity relates to people who are interested in learning. Generally, it could be trying out
a new sport or food, or traveling to a new unknown place. One can look at curiosity as the urge that

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draws us out of our comfort zones and fears as the agent that keeps us within its boundaries.[27]

See also
Broaden-and-build
Interest (emotion)
Play (activity)

References
1. Berlyne DE. (1954). "A theory of human curiosity.". Br J Psychol. 45 (3): 18091.
doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1954.tb01243.x. PMID 13190171.
2. Berlyne DE. (1955). "The arousal and satiation of perceptual curiosity in the rat.". J Comp Physiol
Psychol. 48 (4): 23846. doi:10.1037/h0042968. PMID 13252149.
3. Zuss, M. (2012) The Practice of Theoretical Curiosity. New York, N.Y.: Springer Publishing.
4. Keller, H., Schneider, K., Henderson, B. (Eds.) (1994). Curiosity and Exploration. New York, N.Y.:
Springer Publishing.
5. Ofer G, Durban J (1999). "Curiosity: reflections on its nature and functions.". Am J Psychother. 53 (1):
3551. PMID 10207585.
6. Loewenstein, G (1994). "The psychology of curiosity: a review and reinterpretation". Psychological
Bulletin. 116 (1): 7598. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.1.75.
7. 6
8. Edleman, S. 1997. Curiosity and Exploration. California State University, Northridge. Retrieved from
http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h/students/explore.htm
9. Litman, Jordan (2005). "Curiosity and the pleasures of learning: Wanting and liking new information".
Cognition & Emotion. 19 (6): 793814. doi:10.1080/02699930541000101. ISSN 0269-9931. See also a
non-paywalled publication (http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic951139.files
/curiosityPleasureOfLearning-litman.pdf)
10. Costa, Vincent D.; Tran, Valery L.; Turchi, Janita; Averbeck, Bruno B. (2014). "Dopamine modulates
novelty seeking behavior during decision making". Behavioral Neuroscience. 128 (4): 111.
doi:10.1037/a0037128. PMID 24911320.
11. Kakade, Sham; Dayan, Peter (2002). "Dopamine: Generalization and bonuses". Neural Networks. 15
(46): 549559. doi:10.1016/s0893-6080(02)00048-5. PMID 12371511.
12. Min Jeong, K.; Ming, H.; Krajbich, I. M.; Loewenstein, G.; McClure, S. M.; Wang, J.; Camerer, C. F.
(2009). "The Wick in the Candle of Learning: Epistemic Curiosity Activates Reward Circuitry and
Enhances Memory". Psychological Science. 20 (8): 963973. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02402.x.
PMID 19619181.
13. LEHRER, JONAH. "The Itch of Curiosity". wired.com. Wired. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
14. Jepma, M., Verdonschot, R., van Steenbergen, H., Rombouts, S., & Nieuwenhuis, S. (2012). Neural
mechanisms underlying the induction and relief of perceptual curiosity. Frontiers In Behavioral
Neuroscience, 6
15. Karen, J.; Kimberly, L.; Christine, L.; Alan, F.; Steven, E.; David, M. (2007). "Early life stress and
novelty seeking behavior in adolescent monkeys". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 327: 85792.
doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.05.008.

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16. Stuart, Z.; Cecelia, M.; Allan, L.; James, L. (2011). "Predicting the onset of Alzheimer's disease with a
behavioral task". Alzheimer's & Dementia. 7: S549. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2011.05.1549.
17. Kimberley, A.; Francys, S.; Chet, C. (2012). "Curious monkeys have increased gray matter density in
the precuneus". Neuroscience Letters. 518: 172175. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2012.05.004.
PMID 22579821.
18. Saab BJ, Georgiou J, Nath A, Lee FJ, Wang M, Michalon A, Liu F, Mansuy IM, Roder JC (2009).
"NCS-1 in the dentate gyrus promotes exploration, synaptic plasticity, and rapid acquisition of spatial
memory.". Neuron. 63 (5): 64356. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.08.014. PMID 19755107.
19. Sahay A, Scobie KN, Hill AS, O'Carroll CM, Kheirbek MA, Burghardt NS, Fenton AA, Dranovsky A,
Hen R (2011). "Increasing adult hippocampal neurogenesis is sufficient to improve pattern separation.".
Nature. 472 (7344): 46670. doi:10.1038/nature09817. PMC 3084370 . PMID 21460835.
20. Leussis MP, Berry-Scott EM, Saito M, Jhuang H, de Haan G, Alkan O, Luce CJ, Madison JM, Sklar P,
Serre T, Root DE, Petryshen TL (2013). "The ANK3 Bipolar Disorder Gene Regulates Psychiatric-
Related Behaviors That Are Modulated by Lithium and Stress.". Biological Psychiatry. 73 (7): 68390.
doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.10.016. PMID 23237312.
21. Montgomery, K (1955). "The Relation Between Fear Induced By Novel Stimulation and Exploratory
Behavior". Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 48 (4): 254260.
doi:10.1037/h0043788.
22. Engel, S. 2011. Childrens need to know: Curiosity in schools. Harvard Educational Review. Retrieved
from http://www.academia.edu/1268822/Children_s_Need_to_Know_Curiosity_in_Schools
23. Jirout, J. & Klahr, D. 2012. Childrens scientific curiosity: In search of an operational definition of an
elusive concept. Developmental Review. Retrieved from http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~klahr
/pdf/curiosity_dr_finalrev.pdf
24. Cohen, Robert (2013). The Development of Spatial Cognition. p. 99.
25. Baughner, Sherene (2010). Archaeology and Preservation of Gendered Landscapes. p. 235.
26. Zuckerman, Marvin; Patrick Litle (1986). "Personality and Curiosity About Morbid and Sexual Events".
Personality and Individual Differences. 7 (1): 4956. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(86)90107-8.
27. How Stuff Works, How Curiosity Works (http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/evolution
/curiosity2.htm)

Further reading
Edelman, Susan (Spring 1997). "Curiosity and Exploration (http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h
/students/explore.htm)". California State University, Northridge
Manguel, Alberto (2015). Curiosity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
ISBN 978-0-300-18478-5.

External links

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