ALL YOU NEED FOR IGCSE BIOLOGY 2016 REVISION NOTES BUFFET - CHENITY

1) Characteristics and classification of living organisms

1.1) Characteristics of living organisms

Movement: is an action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or place.

Respiration: describes the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules and release
energy for metabolism.
Sensitivity: is the ability to detect or sense stimuli in the internal or external environment and to make
appropriate responses.
Growth: is a permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number or cell size or both.
Reproduction: is the processes that make more of the same kind of organism.
Excretion: is the removal from organisms of the waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in
cells including respiration), toxic materials and substances in excess of requirements.
Nutrition: is the taking in of materials for energy, growth and development. Plant require light, CO2, H2O
and ions. Animals need organic compounds and ions and H2O.

1.2) Concept and use of classification system

Species: is a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring.

Binomial system: is an internationally agreed system in which the scientific name of an
organism is made up of two parts showing the genus and the species.

It is important to classify organisms:

Possible to identify those most at risk of extinction.
Understand evolutionary relationships. (by studying the anatomy of different groups of
vertebrates)

Morphology: the study of the form, or outward appearance, of organisms.

Anatomy: the study of their internal structure, as revealed by dissection.

The use of DNA has revolutionised the process of classification.

Eukaryotic organisms contain chromosomes made up of strings of genes.
DNA is made up of a sequence of bases, coding for amino acids and proteins.
Each species has a distinct number of chromosomes and a unique sequence of bases in it DNA,
making it identifiable and distinguishable from other species.
This helps when different species are very similar morphologically and anatomically.
Cladistics: the process of biological classification.
Organisms which share a more recent ancestor (more closely related) have DNA base
sequences that are more similar than those that share only a distant ancestor.

1.3) Features of organisms

All living organisms have certain features in common, including the presence of cytoplasm, cell
membranes, DNA as genetic material. Also contain ribosomes (in the cytoplasm), floating freely or
attached to membranes called rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are responsible for protein
synthesis and enzymes involved in respiration
The Whittaker five kingdom scheme: Animal, Plant, Fungus, Prokaryote and Protoctist.

The plant kingdom:

Multicellular
Cell wall made up of cellulose
Contains chloroplasts with photosynthetic pigments
Make their own food by photosynthesis

Ferns
Produces gametes but no seeds

Flowering plants
Divided into two subclasses: Monocotyledon and Dicotyledon

Feature Monocotyledon Dicotyledon

Leaf shape Long and narrow broad

Leaf veins parallel branching

cotyledons one two

Grouping of flower threes Fives

parts

The animal kingdom:

Multicellular organisms
No cell wall or chloroplasts
Coelenterates, Flatworms, Nematode worms, Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms,
Vertebrates.

Key features of the four classes of arthropods

Insects Arachnids Crustacea Myriapods

Eg. dragonfly, wasp Eg. spider, mite Eg. card, woodlouse Eg. centipede,
millipede

3 pairs of legs 4 pairs of legs 5 or + pairs of legs 10 or + pairs of legs

Body divided into head, Body divided into Body divided into Body not obviously
thorax and abdomen cephalothorax and cephalothorax and divided into thorax and
abdomen abdomen abdomen

1 pair of antennae 2 pairs of antennae 1 pair of antennae

1 pair of compound Several pairs of simple 1 pair of compound Simple eyes

eyes eyes eyes
 Usually 2 pairs of wings Chelicerae for biting Exoskeleton often
and poisoning prey calcified to form a
carapace (hard)

Key features of the five classes of vertebrates

Vertebrate Fish Amphibia Reptiles Birds Mammals
class

Examples Herring, perch, Frog, toad, Lizard, snake Robin, pigeon Mouse, me
sharks newt

Body covering Scales Moist skin Dry skin, with Feathers, with Fur
scales scales on legs

Movement Fins 4 limbs, back 4 legs (apart 2 wings 2 legs 4 limbs

feet (for from snakes)
swimming)

Reproduction Produce Produce Produce eggs Produce eggs Produce live

jelly-covered jelly-covered with a rubbery, with a hard young
eggs in water eggs in water waterproof shell; laid on
shell; laid on land
land

Sense organs Eyes, no ears, Eyes, ears Eyes, ears Eyes, ears Eyes, ears
lateral line with a pinna
along body for (external flap)
detection
vibrations in
water

Other details Cold blooded, Cold blooded, Cold blooded, Warm Warm
gills for lungs and skin lungs for blooded, lungs blooded, lungs
breathing for breathing breathing for breathing, for breathing,
beak females have
mammary
glands to
produce milk
to feed young,
4 types of
teeth

Vertebrates are animals which have a vertebral column called the spinal column or just the spine
and consists of a chain of cylindrical bones joined end to end.
Poikilothermic (variable temperature) cold blooded.
Homoiothermic (constant temperature) warm blooded.

The fungi kingdom:

Made up of thread-like hyphae, rather than cells.
 Many nuclei distributed throughout the cytoplasm in their hyphae.
Mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, bracket fungi that grow on tree trunks.
Mould fungi which grow on stale bread, cheese, fruit or other food.
The yeasts are single-celled fungi.

The prokaryote kingdom:

Bacteria and blue-green algae.
Consist of single cells.
Different to other single-cell organisms because
their chromosomes are not organised into a
nucleus.
Bacteria are very small organisms.
Cell walls are made, of cellulose, but of a complex
mixture of proteins, sugars and lipids.
Some bacteria have a slime capsule outside their
cell wall.
Cytoplasm may contain granules of glycogen, lipid
and other food reserves .
Each bacterial cell contains a single chromosome, consisting of a circular strand of DNA.
The chromosome is not enclosed in a nuclear membrane but is coiled up to occupy part of the
cell.
Flagella can flick and move the cell about.

The protoctist kingdom:

Single-celled (unicellular) organisms
Their chromosomes enclosed in a nuclear membrane to form a nucleus.
Euglena, possess chloroplasts and make their food by photosynthesis. Often referred to as
unicellular plants or protophyta.
Amoeba and Paramecium, take in and digest solid food. May be called unicellular animals or
protozoa.

Viruses:
Have a central core of RNA or DNA surrounded by a
protein coat.
No nucleus, cytoplasm, cell organelles or cell membrane.
Virus particles therefore are not cells.
Do not feed, respire, excrete or grow.
Do reproduce, but only inside the cells of living
organisms, using materials provided by the host cell.
The nucleic acid core is a coiled single strand of RNA.
The coat is made up of regularly packed protein units
called capsomeres each containing many protein
molecules.
The protein coat is called a capsid.

1.4) Dichotomous keys

 Used to identify unfamiliar organisms.
They simplify the process of identification.
Each key is made up of pairs of contrasting features. (dichotomous means two branches)

2) Organisation and maintenance of the organism

2.1) Cell structure and organisation

The parts of a cell

Name of Description Where found Function
part

Animal Cytoplasm Jelly-like, with Enclosed by the cell Contains the cell organelles,
and plant particles and membrane eg. mitochondria, nucleus
cells organelles in site of chemical reactions

Cell A partially Around the Prevents cell contents from

membrane permeable layer that cytoplasm escaping
forms a boundary Controls what substances
around the enter and leave the cell
cytoplasm

Nucleus A circular or oval Inside the cytoplasm Controls cell division

structure containing Controls cell development
DNA in the form of Controls cell activities
chromosomes

Plant Cell wall A tough, non-living Around the outside Prevents plant cells from
cells only layer made of of plant cells bursting
cellulose Allows water and slates to
surrounding the cell pass through (freely
membrane permeable)

Vacuole A fluid-filled space Inside the cytoplasm Contains salts and sugars
surrounded by a of plant cells Helps to keep plant cells firm
membrane

Chloroplast An organelle Inside the cytoplasm Traps light energy for

containing of some plant cells photosynthesis
chlorophyll

Cytoplasm contains ribosomes on rough endoplasmic reticulum and vesicles.

Almost all cells, except prokaryotes, have mitochondria and rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Mitochondria are responsible for producing energy from food substances through the process of aerobic
respiration.
Cells with high rates of metabolism require large numbers of
mitochondria to provide sufficient energy.
2.2) Levels of organisation
Most cells, when they have finished dividing and growing, become specialised.
They do one particular job
They develop a distinct shape
Special kinds of chemical change take place in their cytoplasm.
Division of labour- the specialisation of cells to carry out particular functions in an organism.

Palisade mesophyll cells - photosynthesis

Nerve cells - conduction of impulses
Sperm and egg cells - reproduction

Tissue is a group of cells with similar structures, working together to perform a shared function.
Eg. Bone, nerve, muscle, epidermis, xylem
Organ is a structure made up of a group of tissues, working together to perform a specific function.
Eg. Stomach, heart, lungs, intestines, brain, eyes
Organ system is a group of organs with related functions, working together to perform a body function.
Eg. Nervous and circulatory system

2.3) Size of specimens

1000000 micrometres in a metre

10000 micrometres in a centimetre
1000 micrometres in a millimetre

3) Movement in and out of cells

3.1) Diffusion
Diffusion: is the net movement of molecules and ions from a region of their higher concentration to a
region of their lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement.
Diffusion always takes place down a concentration gradient, that means that the particles that diffuse try
to spread evenly in all spaces, so it moves from where its very concentrated to where its not
concentrated.

Substances move into and out of cells by diffusion through the cell membrane.

The importance of diffusion of gases and solutes:

Gases
(Animals) Necessary for gas exchange in all living organisms (O2 in, CO2 out)
(Plants) Necessary for obtaining Carbon Dioxide and releasing oxygen during photosynthesis.

Solutes (liquids)
Dissolved salts diffuse through root hair cell.
Absorption of dissolved food material in many organisms, like amoeba, bacteria and fungi is
carried out through diffusion.
Some digested food material is absorbed by diffusion

Water as a solvent
Plants cannot obtain minerals unless they are dissolved in water
Enzymes and hormones cannot be secreted unless they are dissolved in water
Excretory products cannot be excreted unless they are dissolved in water.

Rates of diffusion
The energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of random movement of molecules and ions.
Factors that influenced the rate of diffusion:
Surface area - The larger the surface area of the exchange membrane the faster particles diffuse.
Temperature - Increasing the temperature will give particles more kinetic energy, making them
move faster, thus increasing the rate of diffusion.
Concentration gradient - The steeper the gradient the faster the particles diffuse.
Distance (Thickness of exchange membrane) - The thinner it is, the easier it will be for particles to
go through it, the faster the diffusion rate.

3.2) Osmosis

Osmosis: is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (a dilute
solution) to a region of lower water potential (a concentration solution) through a partially permeable
membrane.

A dilute solution means it has lots of water molecules, and a high water potential.
A concentrated solution has few water molecules and low water potential.

Water moves in and out of cells by

osmosis through the cell membrane.
It is important that the cells in an
animals body are surrounded by a liquid
 which has the same concentration as the liquid inside the cells.
Tissue fluid: the liquid outside the cells.
Plants are supported by the pressure of water inside the cells pressing outwards on the cell wall.

If a plant cell is placed in distilled water, water molecules will move from the distilled water to the cell, the
cell swells up and becomes turgid but it will never burst because plant cells are surrounded by cell walls,
which are made of cellulose and is elastic, it will stretch but never break. The vacuole is exerting t urgor
pressure on the elastic cell wall.

If we place a plant cell in a concentrated salt solution with low water potential, water will move from the
cell to the solution causing the cell to become plasmolysed.

The importance of osmosis:

Plants gain water through osmosis in their roots from the soil. Without a water potential gradient,water
will be loss from the roots. Plant cells contain vacuoles, which, if not full with water, will cause the cell to
become flaccid. If all the cells in a leaf become flaccid, the whole leaf will become flaccid, hence causing
the plant to wilt. Plant cells therefore need water to remain turgid and keep firm.

If an animal cell surrounded with a high water potential, osmosis will take place, and if the water is not
expelled some way or another, the cell will burst (a process called h aemolysis in red blood cells). This is
because an animal cell doesnt have a cell wall to keep it strong. If an animal cell is surrounded with low
water potential, the water in the cytoplasm will diffuse outwards, causing the cell to shrink (crenated)

3.3) Active transport

Active transport: is the movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration using the energy from respiration.

Examples of active transport include:

uptake of glucose by epithelial cells in the villi of the small intestine (and by kidney tubules)
uptake of ions from soil water by root hair cells in plants

Carrier proteins pick up specific molecules and take them

through the cell membrane against the concentration
gradient.
 1) Substance combines with carrier protein molecule

2) Carrier transports substances across membrane using energy from respiration

3) Substance released into cell

4) Biological molecules

A nutrient is a substance which is needed for growth, repair and metabolism. The three main nutrients
are:
carbohydrates
proteins
lipids (fats and oils)
These nutrients are all examples of organic chemicals. This means that they all contain carbon atoms,
covalently bonded to the atoms of other elements.

Carbohydrates:
May be simple, soluble sugars or complex materials like starch and cellulose
All contains C,H,O only
Glucose - C6H12O6

Monosaccharides - sugars with a single carbon ring, eg. glucose, fructose.

Disaccharide - sugars with two carbon rings, eg. maltose, sucrose.
Polysaccharide - many glucose molecules joined together, eg. glycogen (found in animals), starch
(found in plants).
Cellulose - consists of even longer chains of glucose molecules.
Mono- and disaccharides are readily soluble in water.
Polysaccharides are not readily soluble in water.

Proteins:
Structural proteins: proteins contributing to the structure of the cells, eg. to the cell membranes, the
mitochondria, ribosomes and chromosomes.
Enzymes: control the chemical reactions that keep the cell alive. Present in the membrane systems, in
the mitochondria, in special vacuoles and in the fluid part of the cytoplasm.

Proteins are large molecules made from smaller units of amino acids.

Lipids:
Fats = solid
Lipids = liquid
Lipids are large molecules made from smaller units of fatty acids and g
lycerol.

Food tests:

Test for starch - Starch is detected using I odine solution. This turns blue-black in the presence of
starch.

Test for reducing sugar - Reducing sugars are detected using B enedicts solution. The solution will
change from clear blue to cloudy g
reen, then yellow and finally to a r ed precipitate of copper oxide.

iuret reagent. This turns p

Test for protein - Proteins are detected using B urple colour when mixed with
protein.

mulsion test.
Test for lipids - Lipids are detected using the E
1. the test substance is mixed with 5 cm^3 of ethanol
2. an equal volume of distilled water is added
3. a milky-white emulsion forms if the test substance contains lipids

Test for vitamin C - Vit. C is detected using the DCIP test.

1. Draw up 2 cm^3 of fresh lemon juice into a plastic syringe
2. Add into a test tube with 2 cm^3 of a 0.1% solution of DCPIP (a blue dye). The DCPIP will
suddenly become colourless as the juice is added. Note the amount of juice added

3. Repeat the experiment but with orange juice in the syringe. If it takes more orange juice to
decolourise the DCPIP, the orange juice must contain less vitamin C

Proteins:
There are about 20 different amino acids in animal protein, including alanine, leucine, valine,
glutamine, cysteine, glycine and lysine.
A small protein molecule might be made up from a chain consisting of a hundred or so amino
acids.
Each type of protein has its amino acids arranged in a particular sequence.
 The chain of amino acids in a protein takes up a particular shape as a result of cross-linkage.
Cross-linkage form between amino acids that are not neighbours.

The shape and structure of a protein molecule has a very important effect on its reactions with
substances.
Active site of enzymes
Binding site of Antibodies

Denature - when a protein is heated over 50C, the cross-linkages in its molecules break down; the
protein molecules lose their shape and will not usually regain it even when cooled. Eg. Egg white.

Structure of DNA
Made up of long chains of nucleotides, forming into two strands.
A Nucleotide is a 5-carbon sugar molecule joined to a phosphate group (-PO3) and an organic
base
In DNA the sugar is deoxyribose
The organic base is either adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) or guanine (G).
The nucleotides are joined by their phosphate groups to form long chain, often thousands of nucleotides
long. The phosphate and sugar molecules are the same all the way down the chain but the bases may
be any one of the four listed.
The DNA in a chromosome consist of two strands (chains of nucleotides) held together by chemical
bonds between the bases.
The size of the molecules ensures that A always pairs with T, and C pairs with G.
The double strand is twisted to form a helix.

Water
Most cells contain about 75% water and will die if their water content falls much below this
Water is a good solvent and many substances move about the cells in a watery solution.
In green plants, water combines with CO2 to form sugar
In animals, water helps to break down and digest food molecules.
Blood is made up of cells and a liquid called plasma. Plasma is 92% water and acts as a
transport medium for many dissolved substances. Blood cells are carried around the body in the
plasma.
 Water also acts as a transport medium in plants. Water passes up the plant from the roots to the
leaves in xylem vessels and carries with it dissolved mineral ion. Phloem vessels transport sugars
and amino acids in solution from leaves to their places of use or storage.
Water plays an important role in excretion in animals. It acts as a powerful solvent for excretory
materials.
Water has a diluting effect, reducing the toxicity if the excretory materials.

5) Enzymes

Catalyst: is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction and is not changed by the
reaction.
Enzyme: is a protein that functions as a biological catalyst.

Enzymes, like catalysts, can be used over and over again because they are not used up during the
reaction and only a small amount is needed to speed the reaction up.

The enzymes and

substrate molecules have
complementary shapes
(like adjacent pieces of a
jigsaw) so they fit together.

Substrate: the substance on

which the enzyme acts.
Products: the molecules
produced.
Anabolic reaction: reactions in which large molecules are built up from smaller molecules.
Catabolic reaction: reactions that splits large molecules into smaller ones.
Enzyme-substrate complex: is formed temporarily when the enzyme combines with the substrate.

Enzymes are specific, this means simply that an enzyme which

normally acts on one substance will not act on a different one.
The enzyme has a shape called the a ctive site, which exactly fits the
substances on which it acts.
The shape of the active site of the enzyme molecule and the substrate
molecules are complementary.

Effect of temperature:
The rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction increases as the
temperature increases. However, at high temperatures the rate
decreases again because the enzyme becomes denatured and can no
longer function as a biological catalyst.

As the temperature is increased, the molecules gain more kinetic energy, so they move faster and there
is a greater chance of collisions happening. Therefore the rate of reaction increases.
Above the optimum temperature the reaction slows down. This is because enzyme molecules are
proteins. Proteins molecules start to lose their shape at higher temperatures, so the active site becomes
deformed.
Substrate molecules cannot fit together with the enzyme,
stopping the reaction. (Denaturation)

Effects of pH:
Changes in pH alter the shape of an enzymes active site.
Different enzymes work best at different pH values.
The optimum pH for an enzyme depends on where it
normally works. For example, intestinal enzymes have an
optimum pH of about 7.5, but stomach enzymes have an
optimum pH of about 2.

Each enzyme has an optimum pH, if this pH changes, the shape of the active site of the enzyme is
changed (Denature), thus the substrate will not be able to fit in it, and the enzyme becomes useless.

6) Plant nutrition

6.1) Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis: is the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials using
energy from light.
light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll - a green substance found in chloroplasts in green plant
cells and algae
absorbed light energy is used to convert carbon dioxide (from the air) and water (from the soil)
into a sugar called glucose
oxygen is released as a by-product

The necessity for chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis:
Chlorophyll is required because it help absorbs the light required.
CO2 is important because it is converted into the sugars such as glucose we need.
Light is important because it acts as the fuel or energy to drive the reaction
Stuff that should be kept constant
Temperature
Oxygen Levels

Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis:

Light intensity
Carbon dioxide concentration
Temperature

Light intensity:
Without enough light, a plant cannot photosynthesise very quickly - even if there is plenty of water and
carbon dioxide. Increasing the light intensity will boost the rate of photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide concentration:
Even if there is plenty of light, a plant cannot photosynthesise if there is insufficient carbon dioxide.
Temperature:
If it gets too cold, the rate of photosynthesis will decrease. Plants cannot photosynthesise if it gets too
hot.

The process of

photosynthesis:
In land plants water is absorbed from the soil by the roots and carried in the water vessels of the
veins.
Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the air through the stomata (pores in the leaf).
In the leaf cells, the CO2 and H2O are combined to make sugar.
The energy for this reaction comes from sunlight that has been absorbed by the green pigments
chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll is able to absorb energy from light and use it to split water molecules into hydrogen
and oxygen.
The oxygen escapes from the leaf and the hydrogen molecules are added to carbon dioxide
molecules to form sugar.
In this way the light energy has been transferred into the chemical energy of carbohydrates as
they are synthesised.

The plants use of photosynthetic products:

Glucose > starch > sucrose
Transported out of the cell into the food-carrying cells of the leaf veins.
These veins will distribute the sucrose to all parts of the plant that do not photosynthesis, eg. the
growing buds, the ripening fruits, the roots and the underground storage organs.
The cells in these regions will use the sucrose in a variety of ways.
The sugar can be used to provide energy.
It is oxidised by respiration to CO2 and H2O, and the energy released is used to drive other
chemical reactions such as the building up of proteins.
Sugar that is not needed for respiration is turned into starch and stored.
Different substances are built up (synthesised) from the sugar molecules and other molecules
produced in photosynthesis, eg. cellulose for its cell wall, lipids for its cell membrane, proteins for
its cytoplasm and pigments for its flower petals, etc.

Limiting factors: is something present in the environment in such short supply that it restricts life
processes.
Limiting factors of photosynthesis:
Temperature
Light intensity
Carbon dioxide concentration

Although carbon dioxide concentration limits photosynthesis only directly, artificially high levels of carbon
dioxide in greenhouses do effectively increase yields of crops.

Greenhouses also maintain a higher temperature and so reduce the effect of low temperature as a
limiting factor, and they clearly optimise the light reaching the plants.

Parts of the world such as tropical countries often benefit from optimum temperatures and rainfall for
crop production.

The stomata in a leaf may affect the rate of photosynthesis according to whether they are open or
closed.

Compensation point: no intake or output of carbon dioxide or oxygen.

Effect of gas exchange of an aquatic plant kept in the light and in the dark:
Hydrogen carbonate indicator is used to show carbon dioxide concentration in solution. It is:
yellow in high concentrations of carbon dioxide
red in equilibrium with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
purple in low concentrations of carbon dioxide
Place a leaf from a plant in a stoppered boiling tube containing some hydrogen carbonate indicator. You
can then investigate the effect of light over a period of a few hours.

Plant cells respire in the light and the dark, releasing carbon dioxide. In the
light, photosynthesis can also happen, and carbon dioxide is absorbed
from the air. If the light is bright enough, the rate of absorption becomes
greater than the rate of release.

6.2) Leaf structure

Tip: allows the water to drip off and not block light or damage leaf.
Mid-rib: contains the xylem and phloem.
Vein: contains the xylem and phloem.
Lamina: the site of photosynthesis and production of useful substances.
Petiole: leaf stem.

Cuticle: Made of wax, waterproofing the leaf. It

is secreted by cells of the upper epidermis.
Upper epidermis: These cells are thin and
transparent to allow light to pass through. No
chloroplasts are present. They act as a barrier to disease organisms.
Palisade Mesophyll: a layer of palisade cells which carry out most of photosynthesis
Spongy Mesophyll: a layer of spongy cells beneath the palisade layer, they carry out photosynthesis
and store nutrients.
Vascular Bundle: it is a group of phloem and xylem vessels that transport water and minerals to and
from the leaves. (called translocation)
Lower epidermis: This acts as a protective layer. Stomata are present to regulate the loss of water
vapour (called transpiration). It is the site of gaseous exchange into and out of the leaf.
Stomata: Each stomata is surrounded by a pair of guard cells. These can control whether the stoma is
open or closed. Water vapour passes out during transpiration. Carbon dioxide diffuses in and oxygen
diffuses out during photosynthesis.

Adaptation of leaves for photosynthesis:

Their broad, flat shape offers a large surface area for absorption of sunlight and carbon dioxide.
Most leaves are thin and the carbon dioxide only has to diffuse across short distances to reach
the inner cells.
The large spaces between cells inside the leaf provide an easy passage through which carbon
dioxide can diffuse
There are many stomata in the lower surface of the leaf. These allow the exchange of carbon
dioxide and oxygen with the air outside.
There are more chloroplasts in the upper (palisade) cells than in the lower (spongy) cells. The
palisade cells, being on the upper surface, will receive most sunlight and this will reach the
chloroplast without being absorbed by too many cell walls
The branching network of veins provides a good water supply to the photosynthesising cells. No
cell is very far from a water-conducting vessel on one of these veins.

6.3) Mineral requirements

The plant is also in need for mineral ions to control chemical activities, grow, and produce materials.
Plants need a source of nitrate ions (NO3-) for making amino acids.
 Amino acids are important because they are joined together to make proteins, needed to form
enzymes and cytoplasm of the cell.
Nitrate are absorbed from the soil by the roots.
Magnesium ions (Mg2+) are needed to form chlorophyll.
This metallic element is also obtained in salts from the soil.

Effects of nitrate ion and magnesium ion deficiency on plant growth:

If any mineral element is lacking, or deficient, in the soil then the plant may show visible deficiency
symptoms.
If nitrate ions are in short supply, the plant will show stunted growth.
The stem becomes weak.
The lower leaves become yellow and die.
The upper leaves turn pale green.
If the plant is deficient in magnesium, it will not be able to make chlorophyll.
The leaves turn yellow from the bottom of the stem upwards (a process called c hlorosis).

7) Human nutrition

7.1) Diet

Balance diet: is a diet in which all the components needed to maintain health are present in appropriate
proportions.

Energy requirements:
The amount of energy we need varies. This is due to the following factors:
Age
Activity levels
Gender

Age:
The amount of energy we need tends to increase as we approach adulthood.
The energy needs of adults go down as they age.

Activity level:
People who are active tend to need more energy than sedentary people.

Gender:
Females tend to have lower energy requirements than males.
Females, on average, a lower body mass than males, which has a lower demand on energy intake.

The effects of malnutrition in relation to starvation, coronary heart disease, constipation, and obesity:
Malnutrition: is a condition where certain nutrients of a balanced diet are missing, in excess, or taken in
the wrong proportions.

Starvation:
Occurs when a person has a severe deficiency of energy, nutrient and vitamin intake.
 Prolonged starvation may cause organ damage, and if not treated properly, death.

Coronary heart disease:

Occurs when the diet contains too much fat.
Deposits of a fatty substance buildup in the arteries, which result in blood clots.
Blood supply to the heart can be reduced resulting in a ngina (chest pain when exercising).
And eventually a coronary h eart attack.

Constipation:
Constipation occurs when one finds it difficult to poop :)
Common causes: lack of fibre intake, lack of water intake.

Obesity:
A person is considered obese if his/her body weight is 20%above the standard body weight.
An over-abundance of calorie intake, increased dependence on fast food and sugary foods have
accelerated the number of obese people.
Suffer from high blood pressure, coronary heart disease and diabetes.

Scurvy:
Is caused by the lack of vitamin C in the diet.
Symptoms include bleeding under the skin, swollen and bleeding gums and poor healing of
wounds.

Classes of food:
Nutrient Good food sources Use in the body

Carbohydrate Rice, potato, yam, cassava, Storage; source of energy

bread, millet, sugary foods

Lipids Butter, milk, cheese, Source of energy (twice as much as carbohydrate);

egg-yolk, animal fat, insulation against heat loss; some hormones; cell
groundnuts membranes; insulation of nerve fibre

Protein Meat, fish, eggs, soya, Growth; tissue repair; enzymes; some hormones; cell
groundnuts, milk, quorn, membranes; hair; nails; can be broken down to provide
cowpeas energy

Vitamins:
They are not digested or broken down for energy.
Mostly, they are not build into body structures.
They are essential in small quantities for health.
They are needed for chemical reactions in the cells, working in association with enzymes.
Name and source Important Diseases and symptoms caused by notes
of vitamin of vitamin lack of vitamin

Vit. C (ascorbic Prevents Fibres in connective tissue of skin Possibly acts as a catalyst in
 acid); scurvy and blood vessels do not form cell respiration. Scurvy is only
water-soluble: properly, leading to bleeding under likely to occur when fresh food
oranges, lemons, the skin, particularly at the joints, is not available. Cows milk and
grapefruit, swollen, bleeding gums and poor milk powders contain little
tomatoes, fresh healing of wounds. These are all ascorbic acid so babies may
green symptoms of scurvy. need additional sources.
vegetables, Cannot be stored in the body;
potatoes daily intake needed.

Vit. D (calciferol); Prevents Calcium is not deposited properly Vitamin D helps the absorption
fat-soluble: rickets in the bones, causing r ickets in of calcium from the intestine
butter, milk, young children. The ones remain and the deposition of calcium
cheese, egg-yolk, soft and are deformed by the child's salts in the bones. Natural fats
liver, fish-liver oil weight. Deficiency in adults causes in the skin are converted to a
osteomalacia; fractures are likely. form of vitamin D by sunlight.

Mineral salts:
Mineral ions are only needed in small amounts to maintain a healthy body. A lack of the correct mineral
ions in the diet also leads to deficiency symptoms.
Name of Importance of mineral Diseases and symptoms caused Source of mineral
mineral by the lack of mineral

Calcium Calcium is needed to maintain The symptoms of calcium Cheese, eggs,

healthy bones and teeth, for deficiency include weak bones milk, green
normal blood clotting and to and teeth, poor clotting of the vegetables
control muscle contractions. blood and muscle spasms.

Iron Iron is needed to produce
haemoglobin, found in red
blood cells.
Iron deficiency causes anaemia. Liver, red meat,
People with anaemia become beans and nuts,
tired and weak because their dried fruits such
blood does not transport enough as apricot
oxygen.

Dietary fibre (roughage):

Dietary fibre consists of material in food that cannot be digested, in particular cellulose from plant cell
walls.
Sources of fibre include:
fruit
vegetables
Cereals

Dietary fibre is important because it provides bulk, which helps the walls of the intestine move food and
onstipation.
faeces along the gut. Lack of dietary fibre can lead to c

Water:
About two-thirds of the human body is water. It is found in the cytoplasm of our cells and in body fluids
like blood.
Sources of water include:
food
drinks
metabolic processes - such as aerobic respiration

Water acts as a solvent and as a transport medium.

Causes and effects of protein-energy malnutrition:

Kwashiorkor is caused by a lack of protein in the diet.

Infection, plant toxins, digestive failure can also cause kwashiorkor.
Symptoms include dry skin, pot-belly, changes to hair colour, weakness and irritability.
Marasmus is caused by a very poor diet with inadequate carbohydrates intake as well as a lack
of protein.
Symptom include reduced fat and muscle tissue, skin is thin and hangs in folds.

7.2) Alimentary canal

Ingestion: is the taking of substances such as food and drink into the body through the mouth.
Mechanical digestion: is the breakdown of food into smaller molecules without chemical change to the
food molecules.
Chemical digestion: is the breakdown of large insoluble molecules into smaller soluble molecules.
Absorption: is the movement of digested food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine into
the blood.
Assimilation: is the movement of digested food molecules into cells of the body where they are used,
becoming part of the cell.
Egestion: is the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as faeces, through the
anus.

Diarrhoea: is the loss of watery faeces.

Treatment of diarrhoea is known as o ral hydration therapy. This involves drinking plenty of fluids -
sipping small amounts of water at a time to rehydrate the body.

Cholera: is a disease caused by the bacterium V ibrio cholera which causes acute diarrhoea.
When the Vibrio cholera bacteria are ingested, they multiply in the small intestine and invade its epithelial
cells. As the bacteria become embedded, they release toxins which irritate the intestinal lining and lead
to the secretion of large amounts of water and salts, including chloride ions. The salt decrease the
osmotic potential of the gut contents, drawing more water from surrounding tissues and blood by
osmosis. This makes the undigested food much more watery, leading to acute diarrhoea, and the loss of
body fluids and salt leads to dehydration and kidney failure.

Functions of main parts of the alimentary canal

Region of alimentary Function
canal
 Mouth Ingestion of food; mechanical digestion by teeth; chemical digestion of
starch by amylase; formation of a bolus for swallowing

Salivary glands hemical digestion of starch in food; also liquid

Saliva contains amylase for c
to lubricate food and make small pieces stick together

Oesophagus (gullet) Transfer food from the mouth to the stomach, by peristalsis

Stomach Produces gastric juice containing pepsin, for c hemical digestion of protein;
also hydrochloric acid to kill bacteria; peristalsis churns food up into a liquid

Duodenum hemical
First part of the small intestine; receives pancreatic juice for c
digestion of proteins, fats and starch as well as neutralising the acid from the
stomach; receives bile to emulsify fats (a form of physical digestion)

Ileum Second part of the small intestine; enzymes in the epithelial lining carry out
chemical digestion of maltose and peptides; very long and has villi to
bsorption of digested food molecules
increase surface area for a

Pancreas hemical
Secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum via pancreatic duct for c
digestion of proteins, fats and starch

Liver Makes bile, containing salts to emulsify fats (physical digestion);

assimilation of digested food such as glucose; deamination of excess
amino acids

Gall bladder Stores bile, made in the liver, to be secreted into the duodenum via the bile
duct

colon bsorption of water from undigested food;

First part of the large intestine; a
absorption of bile salts to pass back to the liver

Rectum Second part of the large intestine; stores faeces

Anus Egestion of faeces

7.3) Mechanical digestion

Types of teeth
and functions:

Incisor - biting off

pieces of food
Canine - holding
and cutting food
Premolar - tearing
and grinding food
Molar - chewing and grinding food

Tooth structure:

Crown: The part of the tooth that is visible above the gum line.
Gum: Is a tissue the overlays the jaws.
Root: The rest of the teeth, embedded in the jaw bone.
Enamel: Covers tooth crown. Enamel is very hard (harder than bone), and
prevents the tooth from decaying.
Dentine: Located under the enamel, this looks quite similar to bone. Not as
hard as enamel.
Pulp: Found at center of tooth, and contains blood vessels, nerves and soft
tissues which delivers nutrients to your tooth.
Cement: The layer of bone-like tissue covering the root. It is not as hard as
enamel.
Nerves: Each tooth and periodontal ligament has a nerve supply and the teeth
are sensitive to a wide variety of stimuli.

Tooth decay:
Tooth decay happens when the hard outer enamel of the tooth is damaged. This can happen when
bacteria in the mouth convert sugars into acids that react with the enamel. Bacteria can then enter the
softer dentine inside.
Tooth decay can be prevented by:
avoiding foods with a high sugar content
using toothpaste and drinking water containing fluoride
regular, effective brushing to prevent the buildup of plaque (a sticky layer on the teeth)

7.4) Chemical digestion

Involves enzymes.
Breaking down large molecules to small molecules.
The large molecules are usually not soluble in water while the smaller ones are.
The small molecules can be absorbed through the epithelium of the alimentary canal, through the
walls of the blood vessels and into the blood.

Amylase breaks down starch to simpler sugars.

Protease breaks down protein to amino acids.
Lipase breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol.

Where enzymes are produced:

Where digestion happens:
Proteases catalyse the breakdown of proteins into amino acids in the stomach and small
intestine.
Lipases catalyse the breakdown of fats and oils into fatty acids and glycerol in the small intestine.
Amylase catalyses the breakdown of starch into maltose in the mouth and small intestine.
Maltase catalyses the breakdown of maltose into glucose in the small intestine.

Digestion of protein:
Several proteases which break down proteins.
Pepsin is secreted in the stomach.
Pepsin acts on proteins and breaks them down into soluble compounds called peptides.
Trypsin is secreted by the pancreas in an inactive form, which is changed to an active enzyme in
the duodenum.
Breaking down proteins to peptides.

The stomach:
The stomach produces hydrochloric acid.
It kills many harmful microorganisms (bacteria) that might have been swallowed along with the
food.
The enzymes in the stomach work best in acidic conditions at a low pH.

Functions of HCL in gastric juice:

Creates a very acid pH of 2.
This pH is important because it denatures enzymes in harmful organisms in food, such as
bacteria
It provides the optimum pH for the protein-digesting enzyme pepsin to work.

Bile:
After it has been in the stomach, food travels to the small intestine. The enzymes in the small intestine
work best in alkaline conditions - but the food is acidic after being in the stomach. Bile is a substance
produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
The bile emulsify the fat - they break them up into
small droplets with a large surface area, which are
more efficiently digested by lipase.
Bile is slightly alkaline and has the function of
neutralising the acidic mixture of food and gastric
juices as it enters the duodenum.
This is important because enzymes secreted into the
duodenum need alkaline conditions to work at their
optimum rate.

7.5) Absorption
 The small intestine is the region where digested food is absorbed.
Most absorption happens in the ileum. This is the longest part of the small intestine and is
between 2-4 metres long.
The small intestine has a large internal surface area for absorption to happen quickly and
efficiently.
Glucose and amino acids pass into the bloodstream.
Fatty acids and glycerol pass into the l acteals connected to the lymphatic system.
Water is absorbed in both the small intestine and the colon, but the most absorption of water
happens in the small intestine.

The ileum is efficient in the absorption of digested food:

It is fairly long and presents a large absorbing surface to the digested food.
Its internal surface is greatly increased by circular folds bearing thousands of tiny projections
called villi. These villi are about 0.55mm long and may be finger-like or flattened in shape.
The lining epithelium is very thin and the fluids can pass rapidly through it. The outer membrane
of each epithelial cell has microvilli, which increase by 20 times the exposed surface of the cell.
There is a dense network of blood capillaries (tiny blood vessels) in each villus.
Network of blood capillaries - transports glucose and amino acids away from the small intestine in
the blood
Internal structure called a lacteal - transports fatty acids and glycerol away from the small
intestine in the lymph

The hepatic portal vein transports absorbed food from the small intestine to the liver.
Digested and undigested foods have different outcomes once they have passed through the
alimentary canal (gut).

Assimilation:
Assimilation is the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they are used.
Glucose is used in respiration to provide energy.
Amino acids are used to build new proteins.
 Fats are built into cell membranes and other cell structure and is also an important source of
energy for cell metabolism.

Egestion:
The small intestine absorbs most of the water in the contents of the gut. By the time the contents reach
the end of the small intestine, most of the digested food has also been absorbed.
The remaining material consists of:
water
bacteria (living and dead)
cells from the lining of the gut
indigestible substances - such as cellulose from plant cell walls

The colon is the first part of the large intestine. It absorbs most of the remaining water. This leaves
semi-solid waste material called faeces. The faeces are stored in the rectum, the last part of the large
intestine. Egestion happens when these faeces pass out of the body through the anus.

8) Transport in plants

8.1) Transport in plants

Xylem vessels: transport water and dissolved minerals from the root up to all the other parts of the plant.
Phloem Vessels: The function of Phloem Vessels is to transport food nutrients such as glucose from the
leave to other parts of the plant.

8 = xylem
9 = phloem

8.2) Water uptake

Root hair cells:

The root hairs are where most water absorption happens. They are long
and thin so they can penetrate between soil particles, and they have a large
surface area for absorption of water.
Water passes from the soil water to the root hair cells cytoplasm by osmosis. This happens because the
soil water has a higher water potential than the root hair cell cytoplasm:

Osmosis causes water to pass into the root hair cells,

through the root cortex and into the xylem vessels

The large surface area of root hairs increases the

rate of the absorption of water by osmosis and ions
by active transport

The elongated section of the root hair, basically

provides a large surface area for the absorption of water and inorganic ions.
Additionally, the membrane of the root hair cell is semi-permeable. What that means is basically only
minerals and water can go through the membrane, but not necessarily go back out.

Investigate, using a suitable stain, the pathway of water through the aboveground parts of a plant.
Cut the base, non-leafy end, of a fresh stalk of celery underwater.
Place the cut end into a beaker of water stained with red food dye.
Leave the celery stalk in bright light at room temperature in a breeze.
Note the red lines moving up the stalk and then along the veins of the leafy parts.
Cut across the stalk and note the curve of red dots close to the outer edge.
If a thin section is examined under the microscope it is the xylem which has been stained red in
colour.

8.3) Transpiration

Transpiration: is the loss of water vapour from plant leaves by evaporation of water at the surfaces of
the mesophyll cells followed by the diffusion of water vapour through the stomata.

The main force that draws water from the soil and through the plant is caused by this.
Water evaporates from the leaves and causes a kind of suction, which pulls water up the stem.
The water travels up the xylem vessels in the vascular bundles and this flow of water is called the
transpiration stream.
Root Stem Leaf

Factors affecting the rate of transpiration:

Describe how water vapour loss is related to
cell surfaces, air spaces and stomata:
Transpiration is the loss of
water vapour from the leaf;
Water in the mesophyll cells form a thin layer on their surfaces;
The water evaporates into the air spaces in the spongy mesophyll;
This creates a high concentration of water molecules in the air spaces.
Water vapour diffuses out of the leaf into the surrounding air, through the stomata, by
diffusion.
The mechanism of water uptake and movement in terms of transpiration producing a tension (pull) from
above, creating a water potential gradient in the xylem, drawing cohesive water molecules up the plant:
Mechanism of water uptake:
1. Water enters root hair cells by osmosis (as the water potential in the soil surrounding the root is
higher than in the cell);
2. As the water enters the cell, its water potential becomes higher than in the cell next to it, e.g. in
the cortex;
3. So the water moves by osmosis, into the next cell;
4. This process is repeated until water reaches the xylem.

Mechanism of water movement through a plant:

1. Transpiration continuously removes water from the leaf;
2. Thus water is constantly being taken from the top of the xylem vessels, to supply the cells in the
leaves;
3. This reduces the effective pressure at the top of the xylem vessels;
4. This creates a transpiration stream or pull, pulling water up;
5. Water molecules have a strong tendency to stick together. This is called cohesion;
6. When the water is pulled up the xylem vessels, the whole column of water stays together;
7. Roots also produce a root pressure, forcing water up the xylem vessels.

Wilting:
Occurs when the transpiration rate is faster than the rate of water absorption. The amount of water in the
plant keeps on decreasing. The water content of cells decreases and cells turn from turgid to flaccid. The
leaves shrink and the plant will eventually die.

8.4) Translocation

Translocation: is the movement of sucrose and amino acids in the phloem, from regions of production
(the source) to regions of storage or to regions where they are used in respiration or growth (the sink).
This is the movement of sucrose and amino acids in the phloem tubes of the plant.
Glucose is very important as it makes many other important nutrients.
For Example, Glucose is used to make sucrose.
Sucrose then enters the phloem
The phloem then transports the sucrose all across the leaf where it can be made used of.

Some parts of a plant can act as a source and a sink at different times during the life of a plant:
E.g. while a bud containing new leaves is forming it would require nutrients and therefore act as a sink.
However, once the bud has burst and the leaves are photosynthesising, the region would act as a
source, sending newly synthesised sugars and amino acids to other parts of the plant.

9) Transport in animals

9.1) Transport in animals

The blood, pumped by the heart, travels all around the body in blood vessels. It leaves the heart in
arteries and returns in veins. Valves, present in the heart and veins, ensure a one-way flow for the blood,
as blood enters an organ, the arteries divide into smaller arterioles, which supply capillaries. In these
vessels the blood moves much more slowly, allowing the exchange of materials such as oxygen and
glucose, carbon dioxide and other wastes. Blood leaving an organ is collected in venules, which transfer
it onto larger veins.

Single circulation of fish:

Simplest circulatory systems of all vertebrates.
A heart, consisting of one atrium (collecting chamber) and one ventricle (ejection chamber),
sends blood to the gills where it is oxygenated. The blood then flows to all the parts of the body
before returning to the heart.
Known as a single circulation because the blood goes through the heart once for each complete
circulation of the body.
This system is inefficient because blood pressure is lost when the blood passes through
capillaries in the gills

Double circulation of mammals:

The blood passes twice through the heart during one complete circuit.
Once on its way to the lungs (pulmonary circulation) and again on its way to the body
(systemic circulation)
Advantage of maintaining a high blood pressure to all the major organs of the body.

9.2) Heart

The heart pumps blood through the circulatory system to all

the major organs of the body.

Valves:
In general, blood flows into the heart from a vein, goes into
an atrium, then a ventricle, and out through an artery.
The heart contains valves to prevent the blood flowing
backwards:
the right side has a tricuspid valve (a valve with
three flaps)
the left side has a bicuspid valve (a valve with two flaps)
Both sides have semi-lunar valves (at the entrances to the pulmonary artery and aorta).

The left ventricle has thicker walls than the right because it needs to pump blood to most of the
body while the right ventricle fills only the lungs.
The ventricles of the heart have thicker muscular walls than the atria. This is because blood is
pumped out of the heart at greater pressure from these chambers compared to the atria.
 The septum keeps blood from the right (deoxygenated) and left (oxygenated) sides of the heart
from mixing. This is important because the blood in the left ventricle is loaded with oxygen for the
rest of the body to use.
In pumping the blood, the muscle in the walls of the atria and ventricles contracts and relaxes.
The atria walls contract first and force blood into the ventricles. Then the ventricles contract and
send blood into the arteries.
Valves prevent blood flowing backwards during or after heart contractions.

The activity of the heart may be monitored by:

ECG (electrocardiogram)
Pulse rate
Heart sound using a stethoscope, lub-dub sound caused by the closure of the valves

The effect of physical activity on the pulse rate:

At rest, the heart beats about 70 times a minute, but varies according to age, gender and fitness.
An increase in physical activity increases the pulse rate, up to 200 beats per minute.
After exercise has stopped, the pulse rate gradually drops to its resting state, the rate depends on
the fitness of the person.
During exercise, the muscle cells need more energy than usual. They therefore need to respire
more and, as a consequence, need more oxygen and glucose, and they produce more waste,
carbon dioxide.
If the muscle does not get enough oxygen, it will start to respire anaerobically, producing lactic
acid, which cause muscle fatigue, leading to cramp.

Coronary heart disease:

The coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle. These may become blocked by a buildup
of fatty plaques containing cholesterol, resulting in coronary heart disease.
If a coronary artery is blocked, the blood supply to part of the heart muscle is cut off. That part of
the heart cannot continue to contract, causing a heart attack.

Possible Causes:
Lack of exercise
Diet high in fat and cholesterol
Diabetes
High Blood Pressure
Genetics
Stress
Smoking

Prevention:
Maintaining a healthy, balanced diet will result in less chance of a person becoming obese. Also
be a low intake of saturated fats, so the chances of atheroma and thrombus formation are
reduced.
Exercising increases muscle tone, good heart muscle tone leads to an improved coronary blood
flow and the heart requires less effort to keep pumping.
Treatment:
Regular dose of aspirin (salicylic acid). Aspirin prevents the formation of blood clots in the
arteries, which can lead to a heart attack.
Angioplasty and stent. Angioplasty involves the insertion of a long, thin tube called a c atheter into
the blocked blood vessel. A wire attached to a deflated balloon is then fed through the catheter to
the damaged artery. The balloon is then inflated to widen the artery wall, freeing the blockage.
Stent can be used. This is a wire-mesh tube that can be expanded and left in place.
By-pass surgery. The surgeon removes a section of blood vessel from a different part of the
body, such as the leg. The blood vessel is then attached around the blocked region of artery to
by-pass it, allowing blood to pass freely.

9.3) Blood and lymphatic vessels

Blood vessel Structure Explanation

Artery Thick, tough wall with muscles, Carries blood at high pressure - prevents
elastic fibres and fibrous tissue. bursting and maintains pressure wave.

Lumen quite narrow, but increases This helps to maintain blood pressure.
as a pulse of blood passes through.
High pressure prevents blood flowing
Valves absent backwards.

Vein Thin wall - mainly fibrous tissue, Carries blood at low pressure.
with little muscle or elastic fibres.
To reduce resistance to blood flow.
Lumen large.
To prevent backflow of blood.
Valves present.

Capillary Permeable wall, one cell thick, with This allows diffusion of materials between the
no muscle or elastic tissue. capillary and surrounding tissues.

Lumen approximately one red White blood cells can squeeze between cells of
blood cell wide. the wall. Blood cells pass through slowly to allow
diffusion of materials and tissue fluid.
Valves absent.
Blood is still under pressure.

Arterioles, shunt vessels and venules:

The small arteries and arterioles have proportionately less elastic tissue and more muscle fibres
than the great arteries.
When the muscle fibres of the arterioles contract, they make the vessels narrower and restrict the
blood flow (process called v asoconstriction). In this way, the distribution of blood to different
parts of the body can be regulated.
Shunt vessels, linking the arterioles with venules, dilate to allow the blood to bypass the
capillaries. This helps to reduce further heat loss.

Main blood vessels:

 Pulmonary Veins: This transports oxygenated blood from
the lungs to the left atrium
Aorta: This transports oxygenated blood from the heart to
the rest of the body and the brain.
Vena Cava: This transports deoxygenated blood from the
rest of the body to the heart.
Pulmonary Artery: Transports deoxygenated blood from
body to the heart to the lungs.
Hepatic Artery: This supplies oxygenated blood to the liver
(also pylorus (part of stomach), duodenum and pancreas).
Hepatic Portal Vein: This transports blood from the
gastrointestinal tract and spleen to the liver, rich in nutrients
to be processed by the liver.
Renal Artery: This supplies kidney with oxygenated blood.
Renal Vein: This transports blood away from the kidney, into the inferior Vena Cava.

The lymphatic system:

Not all the tissue fluid returns to the capillaries. Some of it enters blind-ended, thin-walled vessels
called lymphatics.
The lymphatics from all parts of the body join up to make two large vessels, which empty their
contents into the blood system.
The fluid in the lymphatic vessels is called l ymph.
Some of the larger lymphatics can contract, but most of the lymph flow results from the vessels
being compressed from time to time when the body muscles contract in movements such as
walking or breathing.
There are valves in the lymphatics, so that when the lymphatics are squashed, the fluid in them
are forced in one direction only: towards the heart.
At certain points in the lymphatic vessels there are swellings called l ymph nodes.
Lymphocytes are stored in the lymph nodes and released into the lymph to eventually reach the
blood system.
There are also phagocytes in the lymph nodes. If bacteria enter a wound and are not ingested by
the white cells of the blood or lymph, they will be carried in the lymph to a lymph node and white
cells there will ingest them.
The lymph nodes thus form part of the bodys defence system against infection.

9.4) Blood
Component Function(s)

Red blood cells Transporting oxygen

White blood cells Ingesting pathogens and producing antibodies

Platelets Involved in blood clotting

Plasma Transporting blood cells, ions, soluble nutrients, hormones and carbon dioxide
Red blood cells:
they contain haemoglobin - a red protein that combines with oxygen
they have no nucleus so they can contain more haemoglobin
they are small and flexible so that they can fit through narrow blood vessels
they have a biconcave shape (flattened disc shape) to maximise their surface area for oxygen
absorption

White blood cells:

Two most numerous types are phagocytes and lymphocytes.
Phagocytes engulfs (ingest) and digest harmful bacteria and cell debris (process called
phagocytosis).
Lymphocytes produces antibodies.

Clotting:
When tissues are damaged and blood vessels cut, platelets clump together and block the smaller
capillaries.
The platelets and damaged cells at the wound also produce a substance that acts, through a
series of enzymes, on the soluble plasma protein called fibrinogen.
As a result of this action, the fibrinogen is changed into insoluble f ibrin, which forms a network of
fibres across the wound.
Red cells become trapped in this network and so form a blood clot. The clot not only stops further
loss of blood, but also prevents the entry of harmful bacteria into the wound.

The transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid:

The fluid that escapes from capillaries is not blood, nor plasma, but tissue fluid.
Tissue fluid is similar to plasma but contains less protein, because protein molecules are too
large to pass through the walls of the capillaries.
This fluid bathes all the living cells of the body and, since it contains dissolved food and oxygen
from the blood, it supplies the cells with their needs.
Some of the tissue fluid eventually seeps back into the capillaries, having given up its oxygen and
dissolved food to the cells, but it has not received the waste products of the cells, such as carbon
dioxide, which are carried away by the bloodstream.
The tissue fluid that doesnt return to the capillaries joins the lymphatic system.

10) Diseases and immunity

Pathogen: is a disease-causing organism.

Transmissible disease: is a disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one host to another.

Pathogens responsible for transmissible diseases can be spread either through direct contact, eg.
through blood or other body fluids, or indirectly,, eg. from contaminated surfaces or food, from animals,
or from the air.

Defences against disease:

Mechanical barriers - skin and hair in the nose.
Chemical barriers - stomach acid, mucus produced by the lining of the trachea and bronchi, and tears
which contain an enzyme called lysozyme.
Cells - phagocytosis and antibody production by white blood cells.
Vaccination - can enhance the body's defense.

Antibodies and immunity:

On the surface of all cells there are chemical substances called antigens.
Lymphocytes produce proteins called a ntibodies which attack the antigens of bacteria that
invade the body.
The antibodies may attach to the surface of the bacteria to mark them, making it easier for the
phagocytes to find and ingest them.
Each pathogen has its own antigens, which have specific shapes, so specific antibodies which fit
the specific shapes of the antigens are needed.

Active immunity: is the defence against a pathogen by antibody production in the body. This is gained
after an infection by a pathogen, or by vaccination.

Vaccination:
1. Inoculated (vaccinated) by harmless pathogen which has antigens.
2. The antigens trigger an immune response by lymphocytes which produces antibodies.
3. Memory cells are produced that give long-term immunity.

Systemic immunisation can protect whole populations.

Passive immunity:
Is a short-term defence against a pathogen by antibodies acquired from another individual.
This is temporary as no memory cells are formed.
A babys immune responses are not yet fully developed, so when a mother breastfeeds her baby,
the milk which contains the mothers white blood cells produces antibodies and provide the baby
with protection against infection.

Type 1 diabetes:
Also known as juvenile-onset diabetes.
Due to the inability of islet cells in the pancreas to produce sufficient insulin.
A virus infection can cause the bodys immune system to attack the islet cells that produce
utoimmune disease.
insulin. This is classed as an a
The outcome is that the patients blood is deficient in insulin and he/she needs regular injections
of the hormone in order to control blood sugar levels and so lead a normal life.

11) Gas exchange in humans

Characteristics of respiratory surfaces:

The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide across a respiratory
surface, as in the lungs, depends on the diffusion of these two
gases. Diffusion occurs more rapidly if:
There is a large surface area exposed to the gas.
 The distance across which diffusion has to take place is small.
There is a good blood supply.
There is a big difference in the concentrations of the gas at two points brought about by
ventilation.

Lung structure:
The lungs are enclosed in the thorax.
They have a spongy texture and can be expanded and compressed by movements of the thorax
in such a way that air is sucked in and blown out.
The lungs are joined to the back of the mouth by the windpipe or trachea.
The trachea divides into two smaller tubes, called b ronchi, which enters the lungs and divide into
bronchioles.
These small branches end in microscopic air sacs called a lveoli.
The epiglottis and other structures at the top of the trachea stop food and drink from entering the
air passages when we swallow.
The larynx manipulates pitch and volume.
The diaphragm is a sheet of tissue that separates the thorax from the abdomen.
Ribs form a cage to protect the lungs and heart, and to move to ventilate the lungs.
Intercostal muscles are muscles between the ribs which raise the ribcage by contracting and
lower it by relaxing.

Ventilation of the lungs:

The movement of air into and out of the lungs, called ventilation, renews the oxygen supply in the
lungs and removes the surplus carbon dioxide.
Horseshoe-shaped hoops of cartilage are present in the trachea and bronchi to prevent them
collapsing when we breathe in.
The lungs contain no muscle fibres and are made to expand and contract by movements of the
ribs and diaphragm.

Inhaling:
1. the internal intercostal muscles relax and the external intercostal muscles contract, pulling the
ribcage upwards and outwards
2. the diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards
3. the volume in the thorax gets bigger, forcing the lungs to expand, and the air pressure inside
decreases
4. air is pushed into the lungs

Exhaling:
1. the external intercostal muscles relax and the internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling the
ribcage downwards and inwards
2. the diaphragm relaxes, moving back upwards
3. The lungs are elastic and shrink back to their relaxed volume and the air pressure inside
increases
4. air is pushed out of the lungs

Gaseous exchange:
Gaseous exchange refers to the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, which takes place between the
air and the blood vessels in the lungs.
Gas exchange in the lungs happens in the alveoli. Some of the features of alveoli include:
thin walls (just one cell thick)
large surface area
moist surface
many blood capillaries

Composition between inspired and expired air

oxygen carbon dioxide water vapour

inhaled/% 21 0.04 variable

exhaled/% 16 4 saturated

Some of the oxygen is absorbed into the bloodstream when it enters the alveoli, resulting in a
reduction of oxygen.
Cells of the body produce CO2 as a waste product during aerobic respiration. The bloodstream
carries CO2 to the lungs for excretion and diffuses across the walls of the alveoli to be expired,
resulting in a 100% increase of carbon dioxide breathed out.
The lining of the alveoli is coated with a firm of moisture in which oxygen dissolves. Some of this
moisture evaporates into the alveoli and saturates the air with water vapour. The air you breathe
out, therefore, always contains a great deal more water vapour than the air you breathe in.

Limewater turns milky in the presence of carbon dioxide, so it can be used to show the differences between
inhaled (inspired) air and exhaled (expired) air. The lime water immediately turns milky on contact with
exhaled air.

Breathing rate and exercise:

The increased rate and depth of breathing during exercise allows more oxygen to dissolve in the
blood and supply the active muscles.
The extra carbon dioxide that the muscles put into the blood is detected by the brain, which
instructs the intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles to contract and relax more rapidly,
increasing the breathing rate.
Carbon dioxide will be removed by the faster, deeper breathing.
The rate of breathing can be measured by counting the number of breaths in one minute. The
depth of breathing can be measured using a spirometer (a device that measures the volume of air
inhaled and exhaled).
To investigate the effects of exercise on breathing, record the rate of breathing for a few minutes
when the person is at rest. After they do some exercise, record their rate of breathing every
minute until it returns to the normal resting value.

Protection of the gas exchange system from pathogens and particles:

Pathogens are present in the air we breathe in and are potentially dangerous of not actively removed.
There are two types of cells that provide mechanisms to help achieve this.
 Goblet cells are found in the epithelial lining of the trachea, bronchi and some bronchioles of the
respiratory tract. Their role is to secrete mucus. The mucus forms a thin film over the internal
lining. This sticky liquid traps pathogens and small particles, preventing them from entering the
alveoli where they could cause infection or physical damage.
Ciliated cells are also present in the epithelial lining of the respiratory tract. They are in a
continually flicking motion to move the mucus, secreted by the goblet cells, upwards and away
from the lungs. When the mucus reaches the top of the trachea, it passes down the gullet during
normal swallowing.

12) Respiration

12.1) Respiration

Most of the processes taking place in cells need energy to make them happen. Examples of
energy-consuming processes in living organisms are:
The contraction of muscle cells - to create movement of the organism, or peristalsis to move food
along the alimentary canal, or contraction of the uterus wall during childbirth.
Building up proteins from amino acids.
The process of cell division to create more cells,more replace damaged or worn out cells, or to
make reproductive cells.
The process of active transport, involving the movement of molecules across a cell membrane
against a concentration gradient.
Growth of an organism through the formation of new cells or a permanent increase in cell size.
The conduction of electrical impulses by nerve cells
Maintaining a constant body temperature in homoiothermic (warm-blooded) animals to ensure
that vital chemical reactions continue at a predictable rate and do not slow down or speed up as
the surrounding temperature varies.

Respiration is a chemical process that takes place in cells and involves the action of enzymes.
Can sometimes be called cellular respiration, internal respiration or tissue respiration.

12.2) Aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration: is the term for chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down nutrient
molecules to releases energy.
The word aerobic means that oxygen is needed for this chemical reaction.
The food molecules are combined with oxygen.
The process is called oxidation and the food is said to be o xidised.
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + 2830 kJ energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

12.3) Anaerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration: is the term for the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules
to release energy without using oxygen.
The word anaerobic means in the absence of oxygen.
 Anaerobic respiration happens in muscles during hard exercise
glucose lactic acid
C6H12O6 2C3H6O3
Anaerobic respiration also happens in plant cells and some microorganisms. Anaerobic
respiration in yeast is used during brewing and bread-making
glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Anaerobic respiration is much less efficient than aerobic respiration because it releases much less
energy per
glucose
molecule broken
down (respired).

There is a buildup of lactic acid in the muscles during vigorous exercise.

The lactic acid needs to be oxidised to carbon dioxide and water later.
This causes an oxygen debt, that needs to be repaid after the exercise stops.
Lactic acid is removed in the bloodstream.
The blood needs to move more quickly during and after exercise to maintain this lactic acid
removal process, so the heart rate is rapid.
On reaching the liver, some of the lactic acid is oxidised to CO2 and H2O, using up oxygen in the
process.
After exercise has stopped, a high level of oxygen consumption may persist until the excess of
lactic acid has been oxidised.
This is characterised by deeper breathing.

13) Excretion in humans

Excretion is the removal of the following substances:

toxic materials
waste products of metabolism
excess substances from organisms

rea. The urea is removed from

Excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver to form glycogen and u
the tissues by the blood and expelled by the kidneys.

Excretory organs:
Liver - Breaks down excess amino acids and produces urea.
Lungs - Get rid of CO2 and H2O when breathing out.
Kidneys - Removes urea and other nitrogenous waste from the blood, and expel excess water,
salts. Hormones and drugs.
Skin - Loses water, salt, urea but not an excretory organ.
The liver and its role in producing proteins:
Plays an important role in assimilation (absorbing) amino acids.
Removes amino acids from the plasma of the bloodstream and builds them up into proteins.
Proteins are long chains of amino acids, joined together by peptide bonds.

Deamination: is the removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form urea.

The kidneys:
Urine is taken from the kidneys to the
bladder by the ureters.
Urethra is the tube that carries urine out of
the body.

The need for excretion:

Some of the compounds made in reactions
in the body are potentially toxic if their
concentrations build up.
CO2 dissolves in fluids such as tissue fluid
and blood plasma to form carbonic acid. This
increase in acidity can affect the actions of
enzymes and can be fatal.
Ammonia is made in the liver when excess amino acid
are broken down. However, ammonia is very alkaline and
toxic. It is converted to urea which is much less
poisonous, making it a safe way of excreting excess
nitrogen.

Microscopic structure of the kidneys:

The kidney tissue consists of many capillaries and tiny
tubes, called renal tubules, held together with
connective tissue.
The cortex is the dark, outer region.
The medulla is the lighter, inner zone.
A renal artery carries blood to the kidney and a renal vein
carries it away.
The ureter carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.
Where the ureter joins the kidney there is a space called the pelvis.

The renal artery divides up into a great many arterioles and capillaries, mostly in the cortex.
Each arteriole leads to a glomerulus. This is a capillary repeatedly divided and coiled, making a
knot of vessels.
Each glomerulus is almost entirely surrounded by a cup-shaped organ called a r enal capsule,
which leads to a coiled renal tubule.
ollecting duct, which passes through the
This tubule, after a series of coils and loops, joins a c
medulla to open into the pelvis.
 A nephron is a single glomerulus with its renal capsule, renal tubule and blood capillaries.

Function of the kidneys:

The blood pressure in a glomerulus causes part of the blood plasma to leak through the capillary
walls.
The red blood cells and the plasma proteins are too big to pass out of the capillary, so the fluid
that does filter through is plasma without the protein.
The fluid thus consists mainly of water with dissolved salts, glucose, urea and uric acid.
The process by which the fluid is filtered out of the body by the glomerulus is called
ultrafiltration.
The filtrate from the glomerulus collects in the renal capsule and trickles down the renal tubule.
As it does so, the capillaries that surround the tubule absorb back into the blood these
substances which the body needs.
First, all the glucose is reabsorbed, with much of the water.
Then some of the salts are taken back to keep the correct concentration in the blood.
The process of absorbing back the substances needed by the body is called s elective
reabsorption.
The molecules which are not selectively reabsorbed continue along the nephron tubule as urine .

The dialysis machine (artificial kidney):

Dialysis is a treatment that filters and purifies the blood using a machine
Dialysis fluid contains:
a glucose concentration similar to a normal
level in the blood
a concentration of ions similar to that found in
normal blood plasma
no urea

As the dialysis fluid has no urea in it, there is a large

concentration gradient - meaning that urea moves
across the partially permeable membrane, from the
blood to the dialysis fluid, by diffusion.

As the dialysis fluid contains a glucose concentration

equal to a normal blood sugar level, this prevents the
net movement of glucose across the membrane as no
concentration gradient exists.

As the dialysis fluid contains an ion concentration similar to the ideal blood plasma concentration,
movement of ions across the membrane only occurs where there is an imbalance.

Advantages Disadvantages
Kidney Patients can lead a more Must take immune-suppressant drugs which
transplants normal life without having to increase the risk of infection
 watch what they eat and
drink
Cheaper for the NHS overall
Kidney Available to all kidney
dialysis patients (no shortage)
No need for
immune-suppressant drugs
Require a suitable donor with a good tissue
match
Shortage of organ donors
Kidney only lasts 8-9 years on average
Operation carries risks and is expensive
Patient must limit their salt and protein intake
between dialysis sessions
Expensive for the NHS
Regular dialysis sessions impacts on the
patients lifestyle

14) Co-ordination and response

14.1) Nervous control in humans

Co-ordination is the way all the organs and systems of the body are made to work efficiently together.

A nerve impulse is an electrical signal that passes along nerve cells called neurons.

The human nervous system consists of:

the central nervous system (CNS) the brain and spinal cord
the peripheral nervous system nerve cells that carry information to or from the CNS

Nerves cells:
Nerve cells are also called neurons. They are adapted to carry electrical impulses from one place to
another:
The a xon is an extended
cymiddlelasm thread along which electrical
impulses travel.
Axons are coated by a layer of
myelin called myelin sheath, this is an
electrically insulating layer which is essential
for the proper functioning of the nervous
system.
Dendrites function is to pick up
electrical impulses from other cells.
Motor end plate passes the electrical
impulses from the neurone to the muscle
fibres.

Sensory Neurones: carry electrical impulses in the direction different to that of motor neurones, from the
receptors to the CNS.
Motor Neurone: Transmits electrical impulses from the Central nervous system to the effectors.
Relay Neurone: Relay neurones are located in the CNS. Their job is to pass electrical impulses from the
sensory neurone onto the motor neurone, so it acts like a
diversion.
The reflex arc:
A reflex action is the means of automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating stimuli with the
responses of effectors. (muscles and glands)

A well-known reflex is the knee-jerk reflex.

1. Receptor in the skin
detects a stimulus (the change in
temperature).
2. Sensory neurone sends
impulses to relay neurone.
3. Motor neurone sends
impulses to effector.
4. Effector produces a
response (muscle contracts to
move hand away).

Voluntary and involuntary actions:

The reflex arc is a reflex action. Reflex means it is automatically done without your
choice. This is because when the electrical impulses reach the relay neurone in the CNS from the
receptors, some impulses are carried by other neurons to the brain, and some impulses are passed onto
the motor neurone to the effector muscle and the response takes place. The electrical impulses going to
your brain are much slower that the ones going to the effector muscle directly. This is why the reflex
action takes place before you realise it, it is uncontrollable.
Reflex actions are said to be involuntary actions. Involuntary actions start at the sense organ heading to
the effector. They are extremely quick.
Voluntary actions are the ones that you make the choice to do. Like picking up a bag from the floor for
example. Your brain sends electrical impulses to the effector muscles ordering them to contract so you
could pick the bag up. Voluntary actions are slower than involuntary actions and they start at the brain.

Synapses:
Synapse: is a junction between two neurones.
When an impulse arrives at the synapse, vesicles in the cytoplasm release a tiny amount of the
neurotransmitter substance.
It rapidly diffuses across the gap (aka synaptic cleft) and binds with n
eurotransmitter receptor
molecules in the membrane of the neuron on the other side of the synapse.
This then sets off an impulse in the neurone.
Sometimes several impulses have to arrive at the synapse before enough transmitter substance
is released to cause an impulse to be fired off in the next eurone.
Synapses control the direction of impulses because neurotransmitter substances are only
synthesised on one side of the synapse, while receptor molecules are only present on the other
side.
They slow down the speed of nerve impulses slightly because of the time taken for the chemical
to diffuse across the synaptic gap.
Many drugs produce their effects by interacting with receptor molecules at synapses.
 Heroin, stimulates receptor molecules in synapses in the brain, triggering the release of
dopamine (a neurotransmitter), which gives a short-lived high.

14.2) Sense organs

Sense organs: are groups of sensory cells responding to

specific stimuli, such as light, sound, touch, temperature and
chemicals.

Pupil reflex:
The pupil of the eye is the dark round area in the centre of it.
It is surrounded by a coloured ring structure called the iris.
The pupil and ciliary muscle together play a big role in
protecting the eye from damage by limiting the amount of
light entering the eye. If too much light fall on the retina, the
rods and cones get damaged. The iris and pupil change their
size to smiddle that happening.
The iris contains two sets of muscles; Circular and Radial muscles. Circular muscles run around
the iris and radial muscles run from the centre to the outside.
In bright light circular muscles contract to make the pupil smaller.
In dim light radial muscles contract to stretch the pupil outwards making it wider.
The circular and radial muscle act antagonistically, when one contracts the other relaxes.

Accommodation (focusing):

Retina:
The millions of light-sensitive cells in the retina are of two kinds, the r ods and the cones.
Rods play an important part in night vision.
Thought to be three types of cone cells, each responds best to red, green, or blue.
If all three types are equally stimulated we get the sensation of white.
The central part of the retina is called the f ovea.
14.3) Hormones in humans

Hormone: is a chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried by the blood, which alters the
activity of one or more specific target organs.

The role of adrenaline:

As adrenaline circulates around the body it affects a number of organs.
Examples of situations in which adrenaline secretion increase are stressful and dangerous
situations.

Target organ Effects of Biological advantage Effect or

adrenaline sensation

Heart Beats faster Sends more glucose and oxygen to the Thumping heart
muscles

Breathing centre Faster and Increased oxygenation of the blood, rapid Panting
of the brain deeper removal of carbon dioxide
breathing

Arterioles of the Constricts them Less blood going to the skin means more Person goes paler
skin is available to the muscles

Arterioles of the Constricts them Less blood for the digestive system allows Dry mouth
digestive system more to reach the muscles

Muscles of Relax Peristalsis and digestion slow down, more Hollow feeling in
alimentary canal energy available for action stomach

Muscles of body Tenses them Ready for immediate action Tense feeling;
shivering
 Liver Conversion of More glucose available in blood for energy No sensation
glycogen to production, to allow metabolic activity to
glucose increase

Fat deposits Conversion of Fatty acids available in blood for muscle

fats to fatty contraction
acids

Hormonal and nervous

control compared

14.4) Homeostasis

Homeostasis: is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.

Homeostasis is the control of internal conditions within set limits:

Cells: change composition of blood as they remove nutrients and
O2 and add wastes and CO2.
Heart: keeps blood pressure constant to deliver oxygen and
nutrients around body.
Skin: to maintain heat exchange with external environment.
Kidneys: regulate water and salt levels (osmoregulation) and the removal of wastes like urea
(excretion).
Lungs: regulate gas exchange
Intestines: supply soluble nutrients and
water to blood.
Liver: regulates blood solutes and
removes toxins.

Negative feedback:
Homeostatic control is achieved using negative
feedback mechanisms:
if the level of something rises, control
systems reduce it again
if the level of something falls, control systems raise it again

Regulation of blood sugar:

Blood glucose levels are monitored and controlled by the pancreas
The pancreas produces and releases different hormones depending on the blood glucose level
 Insulin is released when blood glucose levels are high the liver stores excess glucose as
glycogen
Glucagon is released when blood glucose levels are low the liver converts stored glycogen into
glucose and releases it into the blood

Diabetes:
Diabetes is a condition in which the blood glucose levels remain too high.
It can be treated by injecting insulin.
The extra insulin causes the liver to convert glucose into glycogen, which reduces the blood
glucose level. There are two types of diabetes - Type 1 and Type 2.

Type 1 diabetes is caused by the lack of insulin:

Symptoms: feeling tired, thirsty, frequent urination and weight loss.
Treatment: regular exercise, injecting insulin, and monitoring the diet.

Skin structure:
The basal layer and the cells above it
constitute the epidermis.
There a specialised pigment cells in the
basal layer and epidermis. These
produce a black pigment, melanin, which
gives the skin its colour.The more
melanin, the darker the skin.
The dermis contains connective tissue
with hair follicles, sebaceous glands,
sweat glands, blood vessels and nerve
endings.
There is a layer of adipose tissue (fat
deposit) beneath the dermis.

Temperature regulation:
The human body is designed to function most efficiently
at 37C. If you become too hot or too cold, there are
ways in which your body temperature can be controlled.
Insulation: provided by fatty tissue retains heat.
Hairs become erect to trap warm air by
contracting erector muscles and vice versa.
Vasodilatation: when it is hot, arterioles, which
supply blood to the skin surface capillaries, dilate
(become wider) to allow more blood near to skin
surface to increase heat loss (face redder)
Vasoconstriction: when it is cold, arterioles,
which supply blood to the skin-surface capillaries, constrict (become smaller) to allow less blood
near to skin surface to decrease heat loss
Sweating: the water evaporates giving a cooling effect
Skin receptors: sense heat and sensory neurons send impulses to the hypothalamus
 Shivering: muscular activity generates heat
Thermoregulatory center: in the hypothalamus, it controls the use of corrective mechanisms
(e.g. sweating and shivering).

14.5) Tropic responses

Plants need light and water for photosynthesis. They have developed responses called tropisms to help
make sure they grow towards sources of light and water.

Gravi(geo)tropism: is a response in which plant grows towards or away from gravity.

Phototropism: is a response in which a plant grows towards or away from the direction from which light
is coming.

There are two main types of tropisms:

positive tropisms the plant grows towards the stimulus
negative tropisms the plant grows away from the stimulus

Seedlings are good material for experiments on sensitivity because their growing roots (radicals) and
shoots respond readily to the stimuli of light and gravity.

Advantages of positive phototropism:

Leaves exposed to more sunlight and are able to do more photosynthesis,
Flowers can be seen by insects for pollination.
The plant gets higher for better seed dispersal.

Advantages of positive geotropism:

By growing deeply into the soil, the root fixes the plant into the ground firmly,
Roots are able to reach more water,
Roots have a larger surface area for more diffusion and osmosis.

Auxin:
Auxins are a family of plant hormones.
They are mostly made in the tips of the growing stems and roots.
Diffuse to other parts of the stems or roots.
Is unequally distributed in response to light and gravity.
Auxins change the rate of elongation in plant cells, controlling how long they become.
Use of plant growth substances:
Chemicals can be manufactured which closely resemble nature growth substances and may be
used to control various aspects of growth and development of crop plants.
The weedkiller, 2,4-D, is very similar to one of the auxis. When sprayed on a lawn, it affects the
broad-leaved weeds but not the grasses. (called selective weedkiller) Among other effects, it
distorts the weeds growth and speeds up their rate of respiration to the extent that they exhaust
their food reserves and die.

15) Drugs

15.1) Drugs

Drug: is any substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body.

15.2) Medicinal drugs

Antibiotics:
Antibiotics attack bacteria in a variety of ways
Disrupt the production of the cell wall and so prevent the bacteria from reproducing, or even
cause them to burst open.
Interfere with protein synthesis and thus arrest bacterial growth.

Animal cells do not have cell walls, and the cell structures involved in protein production are different.
Consequently, antibiotics do no damage human cells although they may produce some side effects such
as allergic reactions.

Development of resistant bacteria:

If a course of antibiotics is not completed, some of the bacteria it is being used to destroy will not
be killed, but will have been exposed to the drug..
Some of the survivors may be drug-resistant mutants. When they reproduce, all their offspring will
have the drug resistance, so the antibiotic will become less effective.
MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus). A type of bacteria that has developed
resistance to a number of widely used antibiotics.
Development of this can be minimised by using antibiotics only when essential and ensuring
treatment is completed.

Antibiotics and viral diseases:

Antibiotics are not effective against viral diseases.
This is because antibiotics work by disrupting structures in bacteria such as cell walls and
membranes, or processes associated with protein synthesis and replication of DNA.
Viruses have totally different characteristics to bacteria, so antibiotics do not affect them.

15.3) Misused drugs

Effects of excessive alcohol consumption and abuse of heroin:

Powerful depressant drugs
 Effect on reaction times and self-control
Addiction and withdrawal symptoms
Negative social implications, eg. crime

How heroin affects the nervous system:

Produces it effects by interacting with receptor molecules at synapse.
Heroin mimics the transmitter substances in synapses in the brain, causing the release of
dopamine (a neurotransmitter), which gives a short lived high.

Injecting heroin can cause infections such as HIV.

Excessive alcohol consumption can cause liver damage.
Tobacco smoking can cause chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer and
coronary heart disease.
Liver is the site of breakdown of alcohol and other toxins.

Evidence for a link between smoking and lung cancer:

There are at least 17 substances in tobacco smoke known to cause cancer in experimental animals, and
it is now thought that 90% of lung cancer is caused by smoking.

Nicotine, the addictive component of tobacco smoke, produces an increase in the rate if the
heartbeat and a rise in blood pressure and can cause an erratic and irregular heart beat.
Tar in cigarette smoke is thought to be the main cause of lung cancer in smokers.
Carbon monoxide permanently binds with haemoglobin in red blood cells, reducing the smokers
ability to provide oxygen to respiring cells. This results in a smoker getting out of breath more
easily and it reduces physical fitness.

The nicotine and carbon monoxide increase the tendency for the blood to clot and so block the coronary
arteries.

Performance-enhancing hormones:
Testosterone
Is made in the testes of males and is responsible for promoting male primary and secondary
sexual characteristics.
Taking testosterone supplements (known as doping) leads to increased muscle and bone mass.
Which can enhance a sports person's performance.
Anabolic steroids
Are synthetic derivatives of testosterone.
They affect protein metabolism, increasing muscle development and reducing body fat.
Athletic performance is thus enhanced.
There are serious long-term effects of taking anabolic steroids: sterility, masculinisation in
women, and liver and kidney malfunction.

16) Reproduction

16.1) Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction: is the process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from
one parent.

Bacteria:
Bacteria are tiny single-celled organisms. They reproduce by a process called binary fission.
In binary fission, one bacterium grows and exact copy of its DNA coil which carries its genetic
information. Then the bacterium completely divides which one DNA coil in the parent and one in
the daughter bacterium.
Each bacterium can undergo binary fission once every 20 minutes making them able to
reproduce massive numbers from one parent in very little time.

Fungi:
Fungi are multicellular organisms that grow long threads called hyphae on pieces of food.
There are two types of hyphae, reproductive and feeding hyphae.
Reproductive hyphae grow vertically above the food material. At the top of the hyphae, there is a
spherical bag in which many spores are grown.
This bag is called sporangium. Spores being produced in the sporangia are reproductive
structures that can grow into another fungus. At some point, the sporangium will burst open
dispersing the spores into the air. If a spore falls on an area of favorable conditions (food water
air) it will germinate and grow into a new identical fungus.

Runners (stolons) and rhizomes:

Some plants naturally produce side branches with plantlets on them.
The spider plant does this. Other plants, such as strawberries, produce runners with plantlets on
them.
Rhizomes grows under the ground
Bulbs:
Many plants naturally develop underground food storage organs that later develop into the
following years plants - potato tubers and daffodil bulbs are examples of this.

Artificial cloning in plants:

Cloning plants has many important commercial implications - it allows a successful variety of a plant to
be produced cheaply in a short space of time and on a massive scale.

Cuttings:
Putting the cut end of a shoot into water or moist
earth.
Roots grow from the base of the stem into the soil
while the shoot continues to grow and produce leaves.

Tissue culture:
It uses tiny pieces from the parent plant, rather than
cuttings.
Sterile agar jelly with plant hormones and lots of nutrients are needed.
Tissue culture is more expensive and more difficult than taking cuttings.
The advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction:
Advantages Disadvantages

No mate is needed. There is little variation created,

No gametes are needed.
All the good characteristics of the parent are passed on to
the offspring.
Where there is no dispersal (eg. with potato tubers),
offspring will grow in the same favourable environment as
the parent.
Plants that reproduce asexually usually store large
amounts of food that allow rapid growth when conditions
are suitable.
So adaptation to a changing
environment (evolution) is unlikely.
If the parent has no resistance to a
particular disease, none of the offspring
will have resistance.
Lack of dispersal (eg. with potato tubers)
can lead to competition for nutrients,
water and light.

16.2) Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction: is a process involving the fusion of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and
the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other.

Fertilisation: is the fusion of gamete nuclei.

Gametes are made in the reproductive organs.

The process of cell division that produces the gametes is called meiosis.
In sexual reproduction, the male and female gametes come together and f use, that is, their cytoplasm
and nuclei join together to form a single cell called a z ygote.
In flowering plants the male gametes are found in pollen grains and the female gametes, called
egg cells are present in ovules.
In animals, male gametes are sperm and female gametes are eggs.
Male gamete is microscopic and mobile. The sperm swim to the ovum; the pollen cell moves
down the pollen tube.
The female gametes are always larger than the male and are not mobile.

Chromosome numbers:
In normal body cells (somatic cells) the chromosomes are present in the nucleus in pairs.
Humans have 46 chromosomes; 23 pairs. This is known as d iploid number.
When the gametes are formed, the number of chromosomes in the nucleus of each sex cell is
halved. This is the haploid number.
During fertilisation, when the nuclei of the sex cells fuse, a zygote is formed.
It gains the chromosomes from both gametes, so it is a diploid cell.

The advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction:

Advantages Disadvantages

There is variation in the offspring, so adaptation to a changing or Two parents are usually
new environment is likely, enabling survival of the species. needed (though not always -
New varieties can be created, which may have resistance to some plants can self-pollinate).
 disease. Growth of a new plant to
In plants, seeds are produced, which allow dispersal away from the maturity from a seed is slow.
parent plant, reducing competition.

Cross-breeding:
It is possible for biologists to use their knowledge of genetics to produce new varieties of plants
and animals.
A long-term disadvantage of selective breeding is the loss of variability, by eliminating all the
offspring who do not bear the desired characteristics, many genes are lost from the population.
At some future date, when new combinations of genes are sought, some of the potentially useful
ones may no longer be available.

16.3) Sexual reproduction in plants

In the flower of most plants there are both stamen (male organs) and c
arpels (female organs),
this is a condition known as bisexual or hermaphrodite.
Some plants have unisexual flowers.

Insect-pollinated flowers:

Wind-pollinated flowers:
Grasses have wind-pollinated flowers.
They have small petals, and their stamens and stigmas hang outside the
flower.

Pollination: is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.

Self-pollination: is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower, or a different flower on the same plant.
No variation.
Not be able to adapt to changing environmental conditions.
No reliance on pollinators.

Cross-pollination: is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on
a different plant of the same species.
Guarantee variation.
Better chance of adapting to changing conditions.
 Reliance on pollinators to carry the pollen to other plants.

Fertilisation:
When a pollen grain lands
on the stigma of a flower of
the correct species, a pollen
tube begins to grow.
It grows down the style and
into the ovary, where it
enters a small hole, the
micropyle, in an ovule.
The nucleus of the pollen
then passes along the pollen
tube and fuses with the
nucleus of the ovule.
This process is called
fertilisation.

Environmental conditions that affect

germination of seeds:
Germination is a process,
controlled by enzymes, in which the
seed begins to develop into a new
young plant. Three main factors are needed for successful germination.

16.4) Sexual reproduction in humans

Male reproductive system:

Testes: It is a male gland which produces sperms and the male sex
hormone testosterone
Scrotum: it is the sac which contains the testicles
Sperm Ducts: They are two muscular tubes, each connected to a
testis. They carry the sperms from the testis to the urethra
Prostate Gland: It secretes a nutritive fluid to the sperms to form a
mixture called semen
Urethra: It is a tube inside the penis which is the pathway of semen
and urine out of the body
Penis: It is the male sex organ which ejaculates semen into the
vagina during sexual intercourse
Epididymis: coiled tubes in which sperms are stored
 Seminal vesicle: it is another gland like the prostate gland. It also
secretes nutritive fluids for sperms to feed from and swim in forming
semen

Female reproductive system:

The Ovaries: They contain follicles where eggs are produced
Oviducts (Fallopian Tube): They are two tubes, one on each side
connected to an ovary. They are where fertilization occurs and they
provide a pathway for the eggs to travel to the uterus by sweeping
them by cilia on its walls
Uterus (Womb) : Where the fetus develops,
Cervix: A muscular tissue which separates the vagina from the
uterus
Vagina: it receives the male penis during sexual intercourse

Fertilisation:
Fertilisation is the fusion of the nucleus of a male gamete with
the nucleus of a female gamete, producing a new cell called a
zygote. This then matures into an embryo.

Gametes differences:
Sperm are much smaller than eggs and are produced
in much larger numbers.
The tip of the cell carries an acrosome, which secretes
enzymes capable of digesting a path into an egg cell,
through the jelly coat, so the sperm nucleus can fuse
with the egg nucleus.
The cytoplasm of the midpiece of the sperm contains many mitochondria. They carry out
respiration, providing energy to make the tail (flagellum) move and propel the sperm forward.
The egg cell is much larger than sperm cell and only one egg is released each month while the
woman is fertile.
It is surrounded by a jelly coat, which protects the contents of the cell and prevents more than
one sperm from entering and fertilising the egg.
The egg contains a large amount of cytoplasm, which is rich in fats and proteins.
The fats act as energy store. Proteins are available for growth if the egg is fertilised.

Pregnancy and development:

After fertilisation, the newly-formed zygote divides repeatedly to form a ball of cells called an embryo.
This becomes implanted in the wall of the uterus.
After eight weeks of development, the embryo is called a fetus. The amniotic sac produces amniotic fluid,
which surrounds and protects the developing embryo.

Placenta:
A placenta, connected by an umbilical cord, develops from the embryo.
The placenta anchors the embryo in the uterus. It also allows:
nutrients and oxygen to move from the mother to the embryo
 waste materials and carbon dioxide to move from the embryo to the mother

There is no physical connection between the circulatory systems of the embryo and its mother, so their
blood doesnt mix. These materials pass from one to the other by diffusion.
The placenta can prevent some harmful substances in the mothers blood from reaching the
embryo. It cannot prevent all of them, however: alcohol and nicotine can pass to the developing
fetus.
Some pathogens such as the rubella virus and HIV can pass across the placenta.
The placenta produces hormones, including oestrogens and progesterone which are essential to
keep the uterus in good condition and stimulate milk-producing tissues in the mother.

Antenatal care:
Antenatal or prenatal refers to the period before birth. Antenatal care is the way a woman should look
after herself during pregnancy, so that the birth will be safe and her baby healthy.
Eat properly, take more iron and folic acid (a vitamin) to prevent anaemia.
Drinking or smoking are more likely to cause babies with low birth weights. These babies are
more likely to be ill than babies of normal birth weights.

Labour and birth:

The period from fertilization to birth takes about 38 weeks in humans. This is called the g estation
period.
A few weeks before the birth, the fetus has come to lie downwards in the uterus, with its head just
above the cervix.
When birth starts, the uterus begins to contract rhythmically. This is the beginning of what is
called labour.
These regular rhythmic contractions become stronger and more frequent.
The opening of the cervix gradually widens (dilates) enough to let the babys head pass through
and the contractions of the muscles in the uterus wall are assisted by muscular contraction of the
abdomen.
The amniotic sac breaks at some stage in labour and the fluid escapes through the vagina.
Finally, the muscular contractions of the uterus wall and abdomen push the baby head-first
through the widened cervix and vagina.
The umbilical cord, which still connects the child to the placenta, is tied and cut. Later, the
placenta breaks away from the uterus and is pushed out separately as the afterbirth.

Breast-feeding:
The best food for a newborn is breast milk. This is because breast milk contains all essential
nutrients for the baby like proteins, fats, sugars, vitamins and minerals in easily digestible form.
The mothers milk also contains antibodies which are needed by the baby since their immune
system has not developed yet.
Moreover, breastfeeding builds a close bond between the mother and her baby.
There is no risk of an allergic reaction to breast milk.
Breast milk is produced at the correct temperature.
There are no additives or preservatives in breast milk.
Breast milk does not require sterilisation since there are no bacteria present that could cause
intestinal disease.
 There is no cost involved in using breast milk and does not need to be prepared.
Breastfeeding triggers a reduction in the size of the mothers uterus.
If the mother cannot breastfeed for any reason, there is another alternative which is formula milk
powder. Formula milk powder is mixed with boiled water and fed to the babies in bottles.
Formula milk however contains nutrients in harder digestible form which is a disadvantage.
Formula milk also lacks of antibodies which are needed by the baby which makes a bottle feeding
baby in a greater risk of infection than a breastfeeding baby.

16.5) Sex hormones in humans

Puberty:
Puberty is the stage in life when a child's body develops into an adult's body. The changes take place
gradually, usually between the ages of 10 and 16.
Changes occur at puberty because of hormones:
testosterone - produced by the testes - controls the development of male secondary sexual
characteristics
oestrogen - produced by the ovaries - controls the development of female secondary sexual
characteristics

The menstrual cycle:

The ovaries release an ovum about every 4 weeks.
In preparation for this the lining of the uterus wall
thickens, so that an embryo can embed itself if the
release ovum is fertilised.
If no implantation occurs, the uterus lining breaks
down. The cells, along with blood are passed out of
the vagina. This is called a menstrual period.
Several hormones control this cycle:

16.6) Methods of birth control in humans

Birth control is controlling the number of children and the time to have them. A couple may use birth
control if they are not ready to have a baby yet. There are several types and methods of birth control.
Types of birth control are natural, chemical, mechanical and surgical.

Natural:
Abstinence method is simple avoiding sexual inter course, this way there is no chance the
woman will get pregnant.
Rhythm method is based on the woman understanding her menstrual cycle (period). The woman
must be able to sense and predict the time of ovulation when the egg is in the oviduct waiting to
be fertilized, and not have sexual intercourse at that time. The woman can know when it is
ovulation time of the cycle by seeing the type of mucus secreted by the cervix and lining of the
vagina and a slight rise in body temperature

Chemical:
Spermicides is a cream that contains a substance that will kill sperms. The cream has to be
placed in the womans vagina before sexual intercourse so that it kills the sperms that will be
ejaculated.
Contraceptive pill is a pill which contains chemicals that prevent the ovaries releasing an egg to
the oviduct (ovulation); there wont be an egg ready for fertilization. In some cases, the pill has to
be taken every single day, if it is forgotten once there is a chance of pregnancy. The pill is very
effective, but it is not preferred by some women since it could bring other side effects such as
mood swings, weight gain or circulatory diseases like strokes. The pill has to be prescribed by a
doctor who performs a check up on the woman in advance.
Intra-uterine device (IUD) i s a small T-shaped plastic and copper device, inserted by a doctor
into the wall of the uterus, where it probably prevents implantation of a fertilised ovum. There is a
small risk of developing uterine infections.
Intra-uterine system (IUS) is similar to IUD and also releases the hormone progesterone slowly
over a long period of time ( up to 5 years). The hormone prevents ovulation.
Contraceptive implant is a small plastic tube about 4 cm long, which is inserted under the skin
of the upper arm of a woman by a doctor. Once in place it slowly releases the hormone
progesterone, preventing pregnancy. It last for about 3 years.
Contraceptive injection contains progesterone and stays effective for between 8 and 12 weeks.
It works by thickening the mucus in the cervix. Stopping sperm reaching an egg. It also thins the
lining of the uterus, making it unsuitable for implantation of an embryo.

Mechanical:
Condom is simply a layer of cover worn on the penis to keep semen from entering the womans
body. It is made of stretchy, impermeable material that wont allow any substance entering the
womans body from the man or vise versa. The condom also has a great advantage; it also
prevents diseases or bacteria and viruses passing from the man to the woman or vise versa.
Femidom is a female condom that is worn by the woman instead of the man. It acts like a bag in
the vagina in which the penis is inserted and the semen is ejaculated without entering the
womans body.
Diaphragm is a small, circular piece of rubber which is fit over the womans cervix to prevent
sperms from passing through it. It is impermeable and it can be used along with spermicidal
cream to ensure that sperms will not pass through the cervix.
Surgical:
Male sterilisation - vasectomy: the man could have his sperm ducts cut and sealed, in this way
the sperms wont even leave his body.
Female sterilisation - laparotomy: the woman could have an operation to cut and seal her
oviducts to ensure that the egg cant pass down to the uterus.

The use of hormones in fertility and contraception treatments:

Hormones to improve fertility:
Failure to produce ova can be treated with f ertility drugs.
These drugs are similar to hormones and act by increasing the levels of FSH and LH.
Administration of the drug is timed to promote ovulation to coincide with copulation.

Hormones for contraception:

Oestrogen and progesterone control important events in the menstrual cycle.
These hormones can be used, singly or in combination, in a range of contraceptive methods.

Artificial insemination (AI):

If the male is infertile, not enough sperm or sperm not mobile enough, pregnancy may be
achieved by AI.
This involves injecting semen through a tube into the top of the uterus.

In vitro fertilisation:
In vitro means literally in glass (allowed to take place in laboratory glassware).
Multiple ova caused by fertility drugs are collected by laparoscopy (they are sucked up in a fine
tube inserted through the abdominal wall).
The ova are then mixed with the husbands seminal fluid and watched under the microscope to
see if cell division takes place.
One or more of the dividing zygotes are then introduced to the woman's uterus by means of a
tube inserted through the cervix.

Social implications of contraception and fertility treatments:

Some religions are against any artificial forms of contraception and actively discourage the use of
contraceptives such as the sheath and femidom, However, these are important in the prevention of
transmission of STDs in addition to their role as contraceptives.
Fertility treatments such as in vitro fertilization are controversial because of the spare embryos that are
created and not returned to the uterus. Some people believe that since these embryos are potential
human beings, they should not be destroyed or used for research. In some cases the spare embryos
have been frozen and used later of the first transplant did not work.

16.7) Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

Sexually transmitted infection is an infection that is transmitted via body fluids through sexual contact.

AIDS and HIV:

 Acquired immune deficiency syndrome. ( A syndrome is a pattern of symptoms associated
with a particular disease.)
The virus that causes AIDS is the human immunodeficiency virus.
HIV is transmitted by direct infection of the blood.
Drug users who share needles contaminated with infected blood run a high risk of the disease.
It can also be transmitted sexually.
Babies born to HIV carriers may become infected with HIV.
IV positive.
If HIV antibodies are present in the blood, the person is said the be H

Control of the spread of STIs:

The best way to avoid STI is to avoid having sexual intercourse with an infected person.
The risk of catching a STD can be reduced by using condoms or femidoms.
STIs that are caused by a bacterium, such as syphilis and gonorrhoea, can be treated with
antibiotics if the symptoms are recognised early enough. However, HIV is viral so antibiotics are
not effective.

The effects of HIV on the immune system:

HIV attacks certain kinds of lymphocyte, so the number of these cells in the body decreases.
Lymphocytes produce antibodies against infections. If the body cannot respond to infections
through the immune system, it becomes vulnerable to pathogens that might not otherwise by
life-threatening.
As a result, the patient has little or no resistance to a wide range of diseases such a influenza,
pneumonia, blood disorders, skin cancer or damage to the nervous system, which the body
cannot resist.

17) Inheritance

17.1) Inheritance

Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.

The Inheritance of such characteristics is called heredity and the branch of biology that studies how
heredity works is called genetics.

17.2) Chromosomes, genes and proteins

Chromosome is a thread of DNA, made up of a string of genes.

Genes is a length of DNA that codes for a protein.
Allele is a version of a gene.

A human body (somatic) cell nucleus contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.

These are difficult to distinguish when packed inside the nucleus, so scientists separate them and
arranged them according to size and appearance. The outcome is called karyotype.
One of these pairs controls the inheritance of biological gender - whether offspring
are male or female:
males have two different sex chromosomes, X and Y
females have two X chromosomes, XX
The ratio of female to male offspring is 1:1 on average, half of the offspring will be girls and half will be
boys

The genetic code:

Each nucleotide carries one of four bases (A, T, C or G). a string of nucleotides therefore holds a
sequence of bases. This sequence forms a code, which instructs the cell to make particular
proteins.
Proteins are made from amino acids linked together. The type and sequence of the amino acids
joined together will determine the kind of protein formed.
Its is the sequence of bases in the DNA molecule that decides which amino acids are used and in
which order they are joined. Each group of three bases stands for one amino acid.
A gene, then, is a sequence of triplets of the four bases, which specifies an entire protein.
The chemical reactions that take place in a cell determine what sort of a cell it is and what its
functions are. These chemical reactions are, in turn, controlled by enzymes.
Enzymes are proteins. It follows, therefore, that the genetic code of DNA, in determining which
proteins, particularly enzymes, are produced in a cell, also determines the cell's structure and
function. In this way, the genes also determine the structure and function of the whole organism.
Other proteins coded for in DNA include antibodies and the receptors for neurotransmitters.

The manufacture of proteins in cells:

DNA molecules remain in the nucleus, but the proteins they carry the codes for are needed
elsewhere in the cell. A molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA) is used to transfer the
information from the nucleus.
mRNA is much smaller than a DNA molecule and is made up of only one strand. Also it contains
slightly different bases (A,C,G and U). Base U is uracil.
To pass on the protein code, the double helix of DNA unwinds to expose the chains of bases.
One strand acts as template. A messenger RNA molecule is formed along part of this strand,
made up of a chain of nucleotides with complementary bases to a section of the DNA strand.
The mRNA molecule carrying the protein code then passes out of the nucleus, through a nuclear
pore in the membrane. Once in the cytoplasm it attaches itself to a ribosome.
Ribosomes make proteins. The mRNA molecule instructs the ribosomes to put together a chain
of amino acids in a specific sequence, thus making a protein.

Gene expression:
Body cells do not all have the same requirements for proteins. For example, the function of some
cells in the stomach is to make the protein pepsin. Bone marrow cells make the protein
haemoglobin, but do not need digestive enzymes.
Specialised cells all contain the same genes in their nuclei, but only the genes needed to code for
the specific proteins are switched on (expressed). This enables the cell to make only the proteins
it needs to fulfil its function.

Number of chromosomes:
Haploid nucleus: is a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes present, for example, in
sperm and egg cells.
Diploid nucleus: is a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes present, for example, in body cells.
In a diploid cell, there is a pair of each type of chromosome and in a human diploid cell there are 23
pairs.

17.3) Mitosis

Mitosis: is nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells.

Cells have a finite life: they wear out or become damaged, so they need to be replaced
constantly.
The processes of growth, repair and replacement o f cells all rely on mitosis.
Organisms that reproduce asexually also use mitosis to create more cells.

The process of mitosis:

Each chromosome duplicates itself and is seen to be made
up of two parallel strands, called chromatids.
When the nucleus divides into two, one chromatid from each
chromosomes and later they will make copies of themselves
ready for the next cell division.
The process of copying is called r eplication because each
chromosome makes a replica of itself.
Mitosis produces two genetically identical cells in which
the number of chromosomes is the same as in the original
cell.

Stem cells are those cells in the body that have retained their power
of division. Examples are the basal cells of the skin, which keep
dividing to make new skin cells, and cells in the red bone marrow,
which constantly divide to produce the whole range of blood cells.

\
17.4) Meiosis

Meiosis: is nuclear division, which gives rise to cells that are genetically different.
Meiosis takes place in the gonads of animals (eg. the
testes and ovaries of mammals)
The cells formed are gametes (sperm and egg cells
in mammals). Gametes are different from other cells
because they have half the normal number of
chromosomes (they are haploid).

Meiosis produces four genetically different haploid

cells. Unlike mitosis, meiosis is a reduction division
the chromosome number is halved from diploid

As a result of meiosis and fertilisation, the maternal

and paternal chromosomes meet in different
 combinations in the zygotes. Consequently, the offspring will differ from their parents and from
each other in a variety of ways.

Mitosis and meiosis compared:

Mitosis Meiosis

Occurs during cell division of somatic cells Occurs in the final stages of cells division leading to
production of gametes

A full set of chromosomes is passed on to Only half the chromosomes are passed on to the
each daughter cell; this is the diploid number daughter cells, ie. the haploid number of
of chromosomes chromosomes

The chromosomes and genes in each Homologous chromosomes and their genes are
daughter cell are identical randomly assorted between the gametes

If new organisms are produced by mitosis in New organisms produced by meiosis in sexual
asexual reproduction they will all resemble reproduction will show variations from each other
each other and their parents, clones. and from their parents.

2 cells produced 4 cells produced

Used for growth, repair and asexual Used for production of gametes for sexual
reproduction reproduction

17.5) Monohybrid inheritance

Allele: is a version of a gene.

Genotype: is the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the alleles present.
Phenotype: is the observable features of an organism.
Homozygous: is having two identical alleles of a particular gene. Two identical homozygous individuals
that breed together will be pure-breeding.
Heterozygous: is having two different alleles of a particular gene. A heterozygous individual will not be
pure-breeding.
Dominant: is an allele that is expressed if it is present.
Recessive: is an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present.

Pedigree diagrams and inheritance:

Pedigree diagrams are similar to family trees and can be used to demonstrate how genetic diseases can
be inherited.
They include symbols to indicate whether individuals are male or female and what their genotype is for a
particular genetic characteristic.

Genetic diagrams: Punnett squares:

Heterozygous x Heterozygous = 3:1
ratio
Homozygous x Heterozygous = 1:1 ratio

Testcross:
1. the organism with the dominant trait is always crossed with an organism with the recessive trait
2. if ANY offspring show the recessive trait, the unknown genotype is heterozygous
3. if ALL the offspring have the dominant trait, the unknown genotype is homozygous dominant
4. large numbers of offspring are needed for reliable results

Co-dominance:
If both genes of an allelomorphic pair produce their effects in an individual (ie. neither allele is dominant
o-dominant.
to the other) the alleles are said to be c
The inheritance of the human ABO blood groups provides an example of codominance.
The gene controlling human ABO blood groups has three alleles, not just two:
I^A and I^B are not dominant over one another
both are dominant over I^O
The table shows the possible genotypes (alleles present) and phenotypes (blood group).

Since the alleles for groups A and B are dominant to that for group O, a group A person could have the
genotype I^AI^A or I^AI^O. Similarly for group B. There are no alternative genotypes for groups AB and
O.

Sex linkage:
Sex-linked characteristic is one in which the gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome, which
makes it more common in one sex than the other.
Colour blindness is an example:
In the following case, the mother is a carrier of colorblindness (X^CX^c). This means she shows
no symptoms of colour blindness, but the recessive allele causing color blindness is present on
one of her X chromosomes.
The father has normal colour vision (X^CY).
If the gene responsible for a particular condition is present only on the Y chromosome, only males
can suffer from the condition because females do not possess the Y chromosome.
F1 genotypes: X^CX^C X^CX^c X^CY X^cY
F1 phenotypes: 2 females with normal vision; 2 males, one with normal vision, one with colour
blindness.
18) Variation and selection

18.1) Variation

Variation: is the differences between individuals of the same species.

Genetic variation are variations that are determined by genes.

Phenotypic variations may be brought about by genes, but can also be caused by the environment, or
a combination of both genes and the environment.
Acquired characteristic - eg. A tan, you cannot inherit a suntan.
Inherited characteristic - eg. Black skin.

Continuous variation results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes, eg. height in humans.
Discontinuous variation results in a limited number of phenotypes with no intermediates, eg. tongue
rolling.

Discontinuous variation is under the control of a single pair of alleles or a small number of genes.
An example is human blood groups. A person is one of four blood groups: A, B, AB or O.
There are no groups in between.

When recording and presenting results of investigations, use line/histogram for continuous and bar chart
for discontinuous variation.

Mutations:
Mutation is a spontaneous genetic change. Mutation is the way new alleles are formed.
Gene mutation: is a change in the base sequence in DNA.

Causes of mutation:
Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate of mutation.
chemical mutagens - such as tar from cigarette smoke.
ionising radiation - gamma rays, X-rays and ultraviolet rays.
The greater the dose of radiation a cell gets, the greater the chance of a mutation.

Sickle-cell anaemia:
With sickle-cell anaemia, the haemoglobin molecule differs from normal haemoglobin by only
one amino acid (represented by a sequence of three base).
Ie. valine replaces glutamic acid.
This could be the result of faculty
replication at meiosis.
When the relevant parental
chromosome replicated at gamete
formation, the DNA could have
produced the triplet -CAT- (valine)
instead of -CTT- (glutamic acid).
In this case, a change of just one
base (from A to T) makes a
 significant difference to the characteristics of the protein (haemoglobin).
A person with sickle-cell disease has inherited both recessive alleles (Hb^SHb^S) for defective
haemoglobin.
The heterozygous (Hb^AHb^S) have no symptoms of anaemia but are more resistant to malaria
than the homozygotes Hb^AHb^A. It appears that the malaria parasite is unable to invade and
reproduce in the sickle cells.
The selection pressure of malaria, therefore, favours the heterozygotes over the homozygotes
and the potentially harmful Hb^S allele is kept in the population.
When Africans migrate to countries where malaria does not occur, the selective advantage of the
Hb^S allele is lost and the frequency of this allele in the population diminishes.

18.2) Adaptive features

Adaptive feature: is an inherited feature that helps an organism to survive and reproduce in it
environment.
Adaptive features: is the inherited functional features of an organism that increase its fitness.
Fitness: is the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing in the environment in which it is
found.

Adaptations to arid conditions:

In both hot and cold climates plants may suffer from water shortage.
High temperatures accelerate evaporation from leaves.
At very low temperatures the soil water becomes frozen and therefore unavailable to the roots of
plants.
Plants modified to cope with lack of water are called xerophytes.
Loss of leaves removes virtually all evaporating surfaces at a time when water may become
unavailable.
Eg. Pine tree, Cacti and Marram grass.

Adaptations to living in water:

ydrophytes.
Plants adapted to living in water are called h
Eg. Water lily.
The leaves contain large air spaces to make them buoyant, so they float on or near the surface.
This enables them to gain light for photosynthesis.
The lower epidermis lacks stomata to prevent water entering the air spaces, while stomata are
present on the upper epidermis for gas exchange.

18.3) Selection

Natural selection:
Variation within populations.
Production of many offspring.
Competition for resources.
Struggle for survival.
Reproduction by individuals that are better adapted to the environment than others.
Passing on their alleles to the next generation.
 The Variations have to be heritable for natural selection to be effective.
Both genes and the environment can cause variation, but only genetic variation can be passed on
to the next generation.

Selective breeding:
Selection by humans of individuals with desirable features.
Cross-breeding these individuals to produce the next generation.
Offspring with the most desirable features are chosen to continue the breeding programme and
the process is repeated over a number of generations.
Eg. The largest fruit on a tomato plant might be picked and its seeds planted next year. In the
next generation, once again only seeds from the largest tomatoes are planted. Eventually it is
possible to produce a true-breeding variety of tomato plant that forms large fruits.
Similar principles can be applied to farm animals.

Evolution: is the change in adaptive features of a population over time as a result of natural selection.
Adaptation: is the process, resulting from natural selection, by which populations become more suited to
their environment over many generations.

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria:
Over time, bacteria can become resistant due to random mutations in the genes to certain
antibiotics (such as penicillin). This is an example of natural selection.
In a large population of bacteria, there may be some that are not affected by an antibiotic. These
survive and reproduce - producing more bacteria that are not affected by the antibiotic.
The number of strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has increased, partly due to the misuse of
antibiotics.

Comparing natural and artificial selection:

Natural selection occurs in groups of living organisms through the passing on of genes to the
next generation by the best adapted organisms, without human interference.
Those with genes that provide an advantage, to cope with changes in environmental conditions
for example, are more likely to survive, while others die before they can breed and pass on their
genes.
However, variation within the population remains.
Artificial selection is used by humans to produce varieties of animals and plants that have an
increased economic importance.
It is considered a safe way of developing new strains of organisms, compared with genetic
engineering, and is much faster process than natural selection.
However, artificial selection removes variation from a population, leaving it susceptible to disease
and unable to cope with changes in environmental condition.
Potentially, therefore, artificial selection puts a species at risk of extinction.

19) Organisms and their environment

19.1) Energy flow

Nearly all living things depend on the Sun to provide energy. This is harnessed by photosynthesising
plants and the energy is then passed through food chains.

With the exception of atomic energy and tidal power, all the energy released on Earth is derived
from sunlight.
The energy released by animals comes, ultimately, from plants that they or their prey eat and the
plants depend on sunlight for making their food.
Photosynthesis is a process in which light energy is trapped by plants and converted into
chemical energy (stored in molecules such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins).
Since all animals depend, in the end, on plants for their food, they therefore depend indirectly on
sunlight.
Eventually, through one process or another, all the chemical energy in organisms is transferred to
the environment.

19.2) Food chains and food webs

Food chain: shows the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, beginning with a producer.
Food web: is a network of interconnected food chains.
Producer: is an organism that makes it own organic nutrients, usually using energy from sunlight,
through photosynthesis.
Consumer: is an organism that gets its energy from feeding on other organisms.
Herbivore: is an animal that gets its energy by eating plants.
Carnivore: is an animal that gets it energy by eating other animals.
Decomposer: is an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic material.

Interdependence means the way in which living organisms depend on each other in order to remain
alive, grow and reproduce.
Predator is a carnivore that kills and eats other animals.
Scavengers are carnivores that eat the dead remains of animals killed by predators.
Energy is transferred between organisms in a food chain by ingestion.

A food chain shows what eats what in a particular habitat.

It shows the flow of energy and materials from one organism to the
next, beginning with a producer.
The arrows between each organism in the chain always
point in the direction of energy flow from the food to the feeder.

A food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It shows the

energy flow through part of an ecosystem.

Producers are plants that produce food.

Primary consumer are animals that eat the plants.
Secondary consumer are animals that prey on the plant-eaters.
Tertiary consumers are animals that feed on secondary
consumers.
Quaternary consumer is an animal that is at the top of the food chain.

Pyramids of numbers:
A pyramid of numbers shows
the population at each stage in a
food chain.
It is drawn as a bar chart with
the bars stacked on top of each
other. The wider the bar, the more
organisms it represents.
The producer always goes at
the bottom of the pyramid.

Often a pyramid of numbers does not

look like a pyramid at all. This could
happen if the producer is a large
plant, such as a tree, or if one of the
animals is very small. Inverted
pyramid of numbers

Pyramid of biomass:
Biomass is the total dry mass of one animal or plant species in a food chain or food web.
A pyramid of biomass shows the biomass at each trophic level, rather than the population.
Nearly always the correct pyramid shape.
more accurate indication of how much energy is passed on
at each trophic level.

The effect of over-harvesting:

Over-harvesting causes the reduction in numbers of a species to
the point where it is endangered or made extinct. As a result
biodiversity is affected.

Introducing foreign species to a habitat:

An example of this process was the accidental introduction
of rats to the Galapagos Islands.
The rats had no natural predators and food was plentiful:
they fed on the eggs of bird, reptiles and tortoises along with
young animals.
The galapagos Islands provide a habitat for many rare species, which became endangered as a
result of the presence of the rats.
Energy transfer:
Trophic level: is the position of an organism in a food chain, food web or pyramid of numbers or
biomass.
Energy decreases as it moves up trophic levels because energy is lost as metabolic heat when
the organisms from one trophic level are consumed by organisms from the next level.
Energy transfer is inefficient because energy is lost while moving from one trophic level to
another. This is because not the entire organism is consumed or digested.
The transfer of energy from primary to secondary consumers of probably more efficient, since a
greater proportion of the animal food is digested and absorbed that is the case with plant
material.
It is very unusual for food chains to have more than five trophic levels because, on average,
about 90% of the energy is lost at each level.
Short food chains are more efficient than long ones in
providing energy to the top consumer. On the right side are
two food chains and energy values for each level in them.
Both food chains have a human being as the top consumer.
Ten times more energy is available to the human in the
second food chain than in the first.
Some farmers try to maximize meat production by reducing movement of their animals (keeping
them in pens or cages with a food supply) and keeping them warm in winter. This means less
stored energy is wasted by the animals.

19.3) Nutrient cycles

The carbon cycle:

Carbon is an element that occurs in all the compounds which make up living organisms.
Plants get their carbon from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and animals get their carbon from
plants.
The carbon cycle, therefore, is mainly concerned with what happens to carbon dioxide.

Removing CO2 from the atmosphere:

Plants use carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere for photosynthesis.
The carbon becomes part of complex
molecules in the plants, such as proteins,
fats and carbohydrates.

Passing carbon from one organism to the next:

When an animal eats a plant, carbon from
the plant becomes part of the fats and
proteins in the animal.
Microorganisms and some animals feed on
waste material from animals, and the
remains of dead animals and plants.
The carbon then becomes part of these
organisms.
Returning CO2 to the atmosphere:
Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere through respiration by animals, plants and
microorganisms.
ombustion of wood and f ossil fuels (such as coal, oil and natural
It is also released by the c
gas).
The use of fossil fuels is gradually increasing the carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.
Decomposition or decay also releases carbon dioxide.
This process happens faster in warm, moist conditions with plenty of oxygen because it involves
microorganisms.
Decay can be very slow in cold, dry conditions, and when there is a shortage of oxygen.

The effects of the combustion of fossil fuels:

Since the Industrial Revolution, we have been burning the fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum
and releasing extra CO2 into the atmosphere. As a result, the concentration of CO2 has
increased from 0.029% to 0.035% since 1860.
Although it is not possible to prove beyond all reasonable doubt that production of CO2 and other
greenhouse gases is causing a rise in the Earths temperature, ie. global warming, the majority
of scientists and climatologists agree that it is happening now and will get worse unless we take
drastic action to reduce the output of these gases.
Another factor contributing to the increase in atmospheric gaseous CO2 is d eforestation.
Trees are responsible for removing gaseous CO2 and trapping the carbon in organic molecules
(carbohydrates, proteins and fats).
When they are cut down the amount of photosynthesis globally is reduced.
Often deforestation is achieved by a process called slash and burn, where the felled trees are
burned to provide land for agriculture and this releases even more atmospheric CO2.

The water cycle:

The water cycle is also known as the hydrological cycle. It describes how water moves on, above,
or just below the surface of our planet.
Water molecules move between various locations - such as rivers, oceans and the atmosphere -
by specific processes. Water can change state.

Evaporation:
Energy from the Sun heats the Earths
surface and water evaporates from oceans,
rivers and lakes. The warm air rises,
carrying water vapour with it.
Transpiration:
Transpiration from plants releases water
vapour into the air.
Condensation:
The moist air cools down as it rises. Water
vapour condenses back into liquid water,
and this condensation process produces
clouds.
Precipitation:
As the water droplets in the cloud get bigger and heavier, they begin to fall as rain, snow and sleet.
This is called precipitation (it is not the same as precipitation in Chemistry, refer to A Lins notes).

The nitrogen cycle:

Nitrogen compounds
found in cells include
proteins.
Nitrogen from the air is
converted into soluble ions
that plant roots can
absorb. It forms part of
nitrogen compounds in the
plants, and is then passed
from one organism to the
next.
It is returned to the
atmosphere as nitrogen
gas. This is the nitrogen
cycle.
When a plant or animal
dies, it tissues decompose, partly as a result of the action of saprotrophic bacteria
One of the important products of the decay of animal and plant protein is ammonia (NH3, a
compound of nitrogen), which is washed into the soil. It dissolves readily in water to form
ammonium ions (NH4-).
The excretory products of animals contain nitrogenous waste products such as ammonia, urea
and uric acid.
Urea is formed in the liver of humans as a result of d eamination.
The organic matter in animal droppings is also decomposed by soil bacteria.

Processes that add nitrates to soil:

Nitrifying bacteria:
These are bacteria living in the soil, which use the ammonia from excretory products and
decaying organisms as a source of energy.
In the process of getting energy from ammonia called n itrification, the bacteria produce n itrates.
The nitrite bacteria oxidise ammonium compounds to nitrites (NH4- NO2-).
Nitrate bacteria oxidise nitrites to nitrates (NO2- NO3-).
Although plant roots can take up ammonia in the form of its compounds, they take up nitrates
more readily, so the nitrifying bacteria increase the fertility of the soil by making nitrates available
to the plants.

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria:
This is a special group of nitrifying bacteria that can absorb nitrogen as a gas from the air spaces
in the soil, and build it into compounds of ammonia.
Nitrogen gas cannot itself be used by plants. When it has been made into a compound of
ammonia, however it can easily be changed to nitrates by other nitrifying bacteria.
 The process of building the gas, nitrogen, into compounds of ammonia is called nitrogen
fixation.
Some of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria live freely in the soil. Others live in the roots of l eguminous
plants (peas, beans, clover), where they causes swellings called r oot nodules.
These leguminous plants are able to thrive in soils where nitrates are scarce, because the
nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their nodules make compounds of nitrogen available for them.
Leguminous plants are also included in crop rotations to increase the nitrate content of the soil.

Lighting:
The high temperature of lightning discharge causes some of the nitrogen and oxygen in the air to
combine and form oxides of nitrogen.
These dissolve in the rain and are washed into the soil as weak acids, where they form nitrates.
Although several million tonnes of nitrate may reach the Earths surface in this way each year,
this forms only a small fraction of the total nitrogen being recycled.

Processes that removes nitrates from the soil:

Uptake by plants:
Plant roots absorb nitrates from the soil and combines them with carbohydrates to make amino
acids, which are built up into proteins.
These proteins are then available to animals, which feed on the plants and digest the proteins in
them.

Leaching:
Nitrates are very soluble and as rainwater passes through the soil it dissolves the nitrates and
carries them away in the run-off or to deeper layers of the soil.

Denitrifying bacteria:
These are bacteria that obtain their energy by breaking down nitrates to nitrogen gas, which then
escapes from the soil into the atmosphere.

19.4) Population size

Population: is a group of organisms of one species, living and interacting in the same area at the same
time.
Community: is all of the populations of different species in an ecosystem.
Ecosystem: is a unit containing the community of organisms and their environment, interacting together,
eg. a decomposing log or a lake.

Factors affecting the rate of population growth for a population of an organism:

Food supply
Predation
Disease - when a disease spreads globally it is called
a pandemic.

Human population:
 About 20 years ago, the human population was increasing at the rate of 2% a year, this means
the world population was doubling every 35 years.
This doubles for demand for food, water, space and other resources.
Infant mortality: the death rate for children less than 1 year old.
Life expectancy: the average age to which a newborn baby can be expected to live.
Fertility rate: the average number of children a woman would have.
Agricultural development and economic expansion led to improvements in nutrition, housing and
sanitation, and to clean water supplies.
These improvements reduced the incidence of infectious diseases in the general population, and
better-fed children could resist these infections when they did meet them.
The social changes probably affect the population growth more than did the discovery of new
drugs or improved medical techniques.
Longer and better education: marriage is postponed and a better-educated couple will have
learned about methods of family limitation.
Application of family planning method: either natural methods of birth control or use of
contraceptives is much more common.
Because of these techniques - particularly immunisation -diphtheria, tuberculosis and polio are
now rare, and by 1977 smallpox had been wiped out by the World Health Organization (WHO)s
vaccination campaign.

Sigmoid population growth curves:

1. Lag phase. The population is small. Although the numbers double at each generation, this does
not result in a large increase.

2. Exponential(l og) phase. Continued doubling of the

population at each generation produces a logarithmic growth
rate (eg. 64-128-256-512-1024). When a population of 4
doubles, it is not likely to strain the resources of the habitat, but
when a population of 1021 doubles there is likely to be
considerable competition for food and space and the growth
rate starts to slow down.

3. Stationary phase. The resources will no longer support

an increasing population. At this stage, limiting factors come
into play. The food supply may limit further expansion of the
population, diseases may start to spread through the dense
population and overcrowding may lead to a fall in reproduction
rate. Now the mortality(death) rate equals the reproduction rate, so the population number stays
the same.

4. Death phase. The mortality rate is now greater than the reproduction rate, so the population
numbers begin to drop Fewer offspring will live long enough to reproduce. The decline in
population numbers can happen because the food supply is insufficient, waste products
contaminate the habitat or disease spreads through the population.

Abiotic and biotic limiting factors:

 Plant populations will be affected by abiotic ( non-biological) factors such as rainfall, temperature
and light intensity.
Biotic (biological) factors affecting plants include their leaves being eaten by browsing and
grazing animals or by caterpillars and other insects, and the spread of fungus disease.
Animal populations will to be limited by these factors.
The size of an animal population will also be affected by immigration and emigration.

20) Biotechnology and genetic engineering

20.1) Biotechnology and genetic engineering

Biotechnology is the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to manufacturing

and service industries.
Genetic engineering involves the transfer of genes from one organism to (usually) an unrelated
species.
Both processes often make use of bacteria because of their ability to make complex molecules
(eg. proteins) and their rapid reproduction rate.
Bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic engineering because they can be grown and
manipulated without raising ethical concerns.
They have a genetic code that is the same as all other organisms, so genes from other animals or
plants can be successfully transferred into bacterial DNA.
Bacterial DNA is in the form of a circular strand and also small circular pieces called plasmids.
Scientists have developed techniques to cut open these plasmids and insert sections of DNA
from other organisms into them.
When the bacterium divides, the DNA in the modified plasmid is copied, including the foreign
DNA.
This may contain a gene to make a particular protein such as insulin, which can be extracted and
used as a medicine to treat diabetes.

20.2) Biotechnology

Don't know what to write so,

giving you kids a DIY project,
Make sure to follow the syllabus
Email ur biotech notes to chentim233@gmail.com

20.3) Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering: is changing the genetic material of an organism by removing, changing or

inserting individual genes.

Examples of genetic engineering:

The insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce human insulin.
The insertion of genes into crop plants to
confer resistance to herbicides and insect
pests.
 The insertion of genes into crop plants to provide additional vitamins.

Bacterial production of a human protein such as insulin:

1. Isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using r estriction enzymes, forming sticky ends.
2. Cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same RE, forming c
omplementary sticky ends.
3. Insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using l igase enzymes to form a
recombinant plasmid.
4. Insertion of plasmid into bacteria.
5. Replication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmid which make human protein as they
express the gene.

Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sites, rather than just in random places along the DNA
molecule. Eg. between the A and the T in the sequence GAA-TTC.
ligase enzymes join pieces of DNA together at specific sites.
The plasmids are said the be v ectors that carry the human DNA into the bacteria and the
techniques are sometimes called g ene-splicing.
The bacteria are cultured in special vessels called f ermenters and the insulin that they produce
can be extracted from the culture medium and purified for use in treating diabetes.

Golden rice:
Advantages
Produces beta carotene which is needed by humans in order to make vitamin A.
Used in areas where vitamin A deficiency is common, so it can help prevent night blindness.
Disadvantages
beta carotene levels in golden rice may not be high enough to make a difference.
there are fears that it will cross-breed with and contaminate wild rice.
there are concerns that food from GM plants might harm people.
seed for GM plants can be expensive.

Soya and Maize:

Disadvantages
Can contain pesticide residues or substances that causes allergies (allergens).

Herbicide-resistant crops:
Disadvantages
The potential development of herbicide-resistant weeds.
Loss of biodiversity because fewer weeds survive - resulting in reduced food and shelter for
animals.

21) Human influences on ecosystems

21.1) Food supply

Modern technology has resulted in increased food production:

Agricultural machinery is used to clear the land, prepare the soil and plant, maintain and
harvest crops to improve efficiency.
 Chemical fertilisers are used to provide minerals to increase the yield of crops.
Pesticide is a chemical that destroys agricultural pests or competitors:
Herbicides are chemicals that kills plants that compete with the crop plant for root space, soil
minerals and sunlight.
Insecticides are chemicals that destroy the insects that eat the damage the plants.
Selective breeding to improve production by crop plants and livestock, eg. cattle, fish and
poultry.

The negative impact of monocultures:

The whole point of crop farming is to remove a mixed population of trees, shrubs, wildflowers and
grasses and replace it with a dense population of only one species such as wheat or beans.
Monoculture: when a crop of a single species is grown on the same land, year after year.
In a monoculture, every attempt is made to destroy organisms that feed on, compete with or
infect the crop plant.
So, the balanced life of a natural plant and animal community is displaced from farmland and left
to survive only in small areas of woodland, health or hedgerow.

The negative impact of livestock production:

Intensive livestock production is also known as factory farming.
Chickens and calves are often reared in large sheds instead of in open fields.
Their urine and faeces are washed out of the sheds with water forming slurry.
If this slurry gets into streams and rivers it supplies an excess of nitrates and phosphates for the
microscopic algae.
This starts a chain of events, which can lead to e utrophication of the water system.
Overgrazing can result if too many animals are kept in a pasture.
They eat the grass down almost to the roots, and their hooves trample the surface soil into a hard
layer.
As a result, the rainwater will not penetrate the soil so it runs off the surface, carrying the soil with
it.
The soil becomes eroded.

The problems of world food supplies:

There is not always enough food available in a country to feed the people living there.
A severe food shortage can lead to famine.
Food may have to be brought in (imported).
The redistribution of food from first world countries to a poorer one can have a detrimental effect
on that countrys local economy by reducing the value of food grown by local farmers.
Some food grown by countries with large debts may be exported as cash crops, even though the
local people desperately need the food.

Problems which contribute to famine:

Climate change and natural disasters such as flooding or drought; waterlogged soil can become
infertile due to the activities of denitrifying bacteria, which break down nitrates.
Pollution.
Shortage of water through its use for other purposes, the diversion of rivers, building dams to
provide hydroelectricity.
 Eating next years seeds through desperation for food.
Poor soil, lack or inorganic ions of fertiliser.
Desertification due to soil erosion as a result of deforestation.
Lack of money to buy seeds, fertilizers, pesticides or machinery.
War, which can make it too dangerous to farm, or which removes labour.
Urbanisation (building on farmland); the development of towns and cities makes less and less
land available for farmland.
An increasing population.
Pest damage or disease.
Poor education of farmers and outmoded farming practices.
The destruction of forests, so there is nothing to hunt and no food to collect.
Use of farmland to grow cash crops, or plants for biofuel.

21.2) Habitat destruction

Removal of habitats:
Farmland is not natural habitat but, at one times, hedgerow, hay meadows and stubble fields
were important habitats for plants and animals.
Intensive agriculture has destroyed many of these habitats; hedges have been grubbed out to
make fields larger, a monoculture of solage grasses has replaced the mixed population of a hay
meadow and planting of winter wheat has denied animals access to stubble fields in autumn.
As a result, populations of butterflies, flowers and birds have cashed.
The development of towns and cities (urbanisation) makes a great demand on land, destroying
natural habitats.
The crowding of growing populations into town leads to problems of waste disposal.
The sewage and domestic waste from a town of several thousand people can cause disease and
pollution in the absence of effective means of disposal, damaging surrounding habitats.

Extraction of natural resources:

An increasing population and greater demands on modern technology means we need more raw
materials for the manufacturing industry and greater energy supplies.
Fossil fuels such as coal can be mined, but this can permanently damage habitats, partly due to
the process of extraction, but also due to dumping of the rock extracted in spoil heaps.
Oil spillages around oil wells are extremely toxic.
Once the oil seeps into the soil and water systems, habitats are destroyed.
Mining for raw materials such as gold, iron, aluminium and silicon leaves huge scars in the
landscape and destroys large areas of natural habitat.

Marine pollution:
Marine habitats around the world are becoming contaminated with human debris.
This includes untreated sewage, agricultural fertilisers and pesticides.
Oil spills still cause problems but is gradually reducing.
Plastics are a huge problem: many are non-biodegradable so they persist in the environment.
Others form micro-particles as they break down and these are mistaken by marine organisms for
food and are indigestible. They stay in the stomach, causing sickness, or prevent the gills from
working efficiently.
 Where fertilisers and sewage enter the marine environment, dead zones develop where there is
insufficient oxygen to sustain life.
Any form of habitat destruction by humans, even where a single species is wiped out, can have
an impact on food chains and food webs because other organisms will use that species as a food
source, or their numbers will be controlled through its predation.

Deforestation:
The removal of large numbers of trees results in habitat destruction on a massive scale.
Reasons why: for timber, to make way for agriculture, roads and settlements and for firewood.
Animals living in the forest lose their homes and sources of food; species of plant become extinct
as the land is used for other purposes such as agriculture, mining, housing and roads.
Soil erosion is more likely to happen as there are no roots to hold the soil in place. The soil can
end up in rivers and lakes, destroying habitats there.
Flooding becomes more frequent as there is no soil to absorb and hold rainwater. Plant roots rot
and animals drown, destroying food chains and webs.
Carbon dioxide builds up in the atmosphere as there are fewer trees to photosynthesis,
increasing global warming. Climate change affects habitats.

21.3) Pollution

Sources and effect of pollution of land and water.

Insecticides:
eg DDT controls spread of malaria by killing mosquitos which carry the protoctist parasites that
cause the disease.
Remains in the environment after it has been sprayed and can be absorbed in sub-lethal doses
by microscopic organisms - can enter food chains and accumulate as it moves up them.
Persist for a long time in the soil, rivers, lakes and bodies of animals, including animals.

Herbicides:
If herbicides do not break down straight away, they can leach from farmland into water systems.
such as rivers and lakes, where they kill aquatic plants, removing the producers from food chains.
Herbivores lose their food source and die or migrate. Carnivorous animals are then affected as
well.
May blow onto surrounding land and kill plants other than weeds putting rare species of wild
flowers at risk.

Nuclear fall-out:
Leak from a nuclear power station or nuclear explosion
Radioactive particles carried by the wind or water and gradually settle in the environment.
If radiation has long half-life, it remains in the environment and is absorbed by living organisms.
The radioactive material bioaccumulates in food chains and can cause cancer in top carnivores.

Sources and effects of pollution of water.

Chemical waste:
Many industrial processes produce poisonous waste products.
 Electroplating produces waste containing copper and cyanide. If these chemicals are released
into rivers they poison the animals and plants and could poison humans who drink the water.
Any factory getting rid of its effluent into water systems risks damaging the environment.
Some detergents contain a lot of phosphate. This is not removed by sewage treatment and is
discharged into rivers.
The large amount of phosphate encourages growth of microscopic plants (algae).

Discarded rubbish:
The domestic waste from a town of several thousand people can cause disease and pollution in
the absence of effective means of disposal.
Much ends up in landfill sites, taking up valuable space, polluting the ground and attracting
vermin and insects, which can spread disease.
Air pollution can be caused by burning waste.

Sewage:
Diseases like typhoid and cholera are caused by certain bacteria when they get into the human
intestine.
The faeces passed by people suffering from these diseases will contain the harmful bacteria.
If this bacteria get into drinking water they may spread the disease to hundreds of other people.
For this reason, among others, untreated sewage must not be emptied into rivers.

Fertilisers:
When nitrates and phosphates from farmland and sewage escape into water they cause excessive
growth of microscopic green plants.
This may result in a serious oxygen shortage in the water, resulting in the death of aquatic animals - a
process called eutrophication.

Eutrophication:
A major problem with the use of fertilisers occurs
when they are washed off the land by rainwater
into rivers and lakes.
This leaching causes an increase in the levels of
minerals such as nitrate and phosphate in the
water, a process called eutrophication.
Eutrophication encourages the growth of algae.
These form a green bloom over the water
surface, preventing sunlight reaching other water
plants.
These plants die because they are unable to
carry out photosynthesis.
Bacteria decompose the dead plants, respiring
and using up the oxygen in the water as they do
this.
The low oxygen levels make it difficult for aquatic
insects and fish to live, and eventually the lake
may be left completely lifeless.
 iochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
The degree of pollution of river water is often measured by its b
This is the amount of oxygen used up by a sample of water in a fixed period of time.
The higher the BOD, the more polluted the water is likely to be.
It is possible to reduce eutrophication by using:
Detergents with less phosphates.
Agricultural fertilisers that do not dissolve so easily.
Animal wastes on the land instead of letting them reach rivers.

Plastics and the environment:

Plastics that are non-biodegradable are not broken down by decomposers when dumped in
landfill sites or left as litter.
This means that they remain in the environment, taking up valuable space or causing visual
pollution.
Discarded plastic bottles can trap small animals; nylon fishing lines and nets can trap birds and
mammals such as seals and dolphins.
As the plastic in water gradually deteriorate, they fragment into tiny pieces, which are eaten by
fish and birds, making them ill.
When plastic is burned, it can release toxic gases.

The greenhouse effect and global warming:

Carbon dioxide is produced by burning of fossil fuels.
Methane is produced from the decay of organic matter and as a waste gas from digestive
processes in cattle.
Carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases.
They are called greenhouse gases as they trap heat in the earths atmosphere in the same way
a greenhouse traps heat.
As the concentration of these gases increase in the atmosphere more heat is trapped, making
the atmosphere warmer. This is called enhanced greenhouse effect.
It is causing global warming Earths average temperature is rising.

Global warming is causing the following problems:

Melt polar ice caps, causing flooding of low-lying land;
Change weather conditions in some countries by increasing flooding or reducing rainfall;
Cause the extinction of some species that cannot survive at higher temperatures.

Causes and effects on the environment of acid rain:

The greenhouse effect and global warming:
Increase in carbon dioxide and methane concentrations in the atmosphere have caused an
enhanced greenhouse effect.
With emissions being produced daily, a large imbalance is being created which is enhancing the
greenhouse effect and making it stronger.
As there are naturally occurring greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that help keep the Earth
warm, additional amounts of these gases leads to more heat being trapped on the planet.
This extra heat is causing global warming as well as affecting the Earth's weather patterns.

Pollution by contraceptive hormones:

When women use the contraceptive pill, the hormones in it (oestrogen or progesterone) are
excreted in urine and become present in sewage.
The process of sewage treatment does not extract the hormones, so they end up in water
systems such as rivers, lakes and the sea.
Their presence in this water affects aquatic organisms as they enter food chain.
Eg. male frogs and fish can become feminised (they can start producing eggs in their testes
instead of sperm).
This causes an imbalance between numbers of male and female animals.
Drinking water, extracted from rivers where water from treated sewage has been recycled, can
also contain the hormones.
This has been shown to reduce the sperm count in men, causing a reduction in fertility.

21.4) Conservation

Sustainable resource: is one that is produced as rapidly as it is removed from the environment so that it
does not run out.
Sustainable development: is development providing for the needs of an increasing human population
without harming the environment.

Non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels need to be conserved because the stocks of them on the
planet are finite.
It can be conserved in the following ways:
By increasing the use of renewable energy (wind energy, solar energy, hydroelectric power).
By improving the efficiency of energy use (better insulation, smaller car engines, more public
transport).

Sustaining forest and fish stocks:

Some resources, such as forests and fish stocks can be maintained with careful management.
This may involve replant land with new seedlings as mature trees are felled and controlling the
activities of fishermen operating where fish stocks are being depleted.
There are three main ways of sustaining the numbers of key species. These are:
1) Education
Local communities need to be educated about the need for conservation. One they understand its
importance, the environment they live in is more likely to be cared for and the species in it
protected.
2) Legal quotas
In Europe the Common Fisheries Policy is used to set quotas for fishing, to manage fish stocks
and help protect species that were becoming endangered through overfishing.
Quotas were set for each species of fish taken commercially and also for the size f fish. This was
to allow fish to reach breeding age and maintain or increase their populations.
3) Restocking
Where populations of a fish species are in decline, their numbers may be conserved by a
restocking programme.
This involves breeding fish in captivity, then releasing them into the wild.
However, the reasons for the decline in numbers need to be identified first.
Eg. if pollution was the cause of the decline, the restocked fish will die as well, issue of pollution
needs to be addressed first.

Recycling:
Products such as paper, glass, plastic and metal can be reused or recycled.

Sewage treatment:
Microorganisms, mainly bacteria and protoctista, play an essential part in the treatment of
sewage to make it harmless.
Sewage contains bacteria from the human intestine that can be harmful.
These bacteria must be destroyed in order to prevent the spread of intestinal diseases.
Sewage also contain substances such as soap and detergent from household wastes and
chemicals from factories. These too must be removed before the sewage effluent is released into
the rivers.
Inland towns have to make their sewage harmless in a sewage treatment plant before
discharging the effluent into rivers.
A sewage works removes solid and liquid waste from the sewage, so that the water leaving the
works is safe to drink.
In a large town, the main method of sewage treatment is by the activated sludge process.

Sustainable development:
This is a complex process, requiring the management of conflicting demands. As the worlds
population grows, so does the demand for the extraction of resources from the environment.
However, this needs to be carried out in a controlled way to prevent environmental damage and
strategies need to be put in place to ensure habitats and species diversity are not threatened.
Planning the removal of resources need to be done at local, national and international levels.
This is to make sure that everyone involved with the process is aware of the potential
consequences of the process on the environment, and that appropriate strategies are put in
place, and adhered to, to minimise any risk.

Endangering species and causing their extinction:

Anything that reduces the population of a species endangers it (puts it at risk of extinction).

Climate change:
This is a natural, uncontrollable process, but processes like global warming are made worse by
human activity.
Habitat destruction:
Can be caused by a number of things - pollution biggest factor, fishing activity and dredging
ships.
Lead to destruction of habitats leaving species homeless.

Pollution:
Global warming caused by pollution leading to rapid changes in climate in certain.
As a result the conditions will change, causing the environment to change and the species being
no longer suited to it and struggle to survive.
Eg polar bear - arctic ice melting - cannot swim very well.

Introduced species:
Some species of animal are not introduced deliberately into different ecosystem, but find they
way in due to mans activities and then upset food chains.

Hunting:
Extreme hunting species of animals can cause extinction.

Conservation programmes:
If the population of a species drop, the range of variation within the species drops, making it less
able to adapt to environmental change.
The species could, therefore, be threatened with extinction.
When animal populations fall, there is less chance of individuals finding each other to mate.

Habitats can be conserved in a number of ways:

Using laws to protect the habitat.
Using wardens to protect the habitat.
Reducing or controlling public access to the habitat.
Controlling factors, such as water drainage and grazing, that may otherwise contribute to
destruction of the habitat.
Monitoring and protecting species and habitats.
Education.
Captive breeding and reintroductions - possible to boost a species numbers by breeding in
captivity and releasing the animals back into the environment.
Seed banks - way of protecting plant species from extinction. They include seed from food crops
and rare species. They act as gene banks.

Reasons for conservation programmes (CP - not pokemongo related, word just too long cbf writing it):
Reducing extinction:
CP strive to prevent extinction. Once a species become extinct its genes are lost forever.
So we are also likely to deprive the world of genetic resources.
The chances are that we will deprive ourselves not only of the beauty and diversity of species but
also of potential sources of valuable products such as drugs.

Protecting vulnerable environments:

 CP are often set up to protect threatened habitats so that rare species living there are not
endangered.
Maintaining ecosystem functions:
There is a danger of destabilising food chains of a single species in that food chain is removed.
Crops are grown for food, extraction of drugs and the manufacture of fuel.
Crop growth has major impacts in ecosystems, causing the extinction of many species and
reducing the gene pool.

Materials used:
Cambridge IGCSE Biology Third Edition
http://www.xtremepapers.com/revision/gcse/biology/
http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/subjects/z9ddmp3