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Introduction
121
Advantages of Sampling
o Less expensive
o Reduced damage
o Reduces the amount of inspection error
Disadvantages of Sampling
o Risk of accepting bad lots, rejecting good lots.
o Less information generated
o Requires planning and documentation
Lot Formation
122
Random Sampling
The units selected for inspection should be chosen at random.
Random samples are not used, bias can be introduced.
If any judgment methods are used to select the sample, the statistical
basis of the acceptance-sampling procedure is lost.
123
The OC Curves
The operating-characteristic (OC) curve measures the performance of
an acceptance-sampling plan.
The OC curve plots the probability of accepting the lot versus the lot
fraction defective.
c
n!
Pa P{d c} p d (1 p ) nd
d 0 d ! ( n d )!
Example. If the lot fraction defective is p 0.01 , n=89 and c=2, then
2
89!
Pa P{d 2} (0.01) d (0.99) 89 d
d 0 d ! (89 d )!
124
Effect of OC curves
125
Type-A OC curves based on Hypergeometric distribution
Type-B OC curves based on binomial distribution
126
AQL and LTPD
Acceptable quality level (AQL, p1 ) - poorest level of quality for the
vendors process that the consumer would consider to be acceptable
as a process average. The probability of such a process not being
accepted is the Producers risk.
Lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD, p2 ) poorest level of quality
that the consumer is willing to accept in an individual lot. The
probability that a lot with lower quality level is accepted is the
Consumers risk. Also called rejectable quality level (RQL) or
limiting quality level (LQL)
AQL and LTPD can be used for the design of sampling plans
c
n!
p2d (1 p2 ) n d
d 0 d ! ( n d )!
127
Example. For p1 = 0.01, =0.05 (or 1 0.95 ), p2 = 0.06, = 0.10,
use computer software or a graphical approach, it can be shown that the
necessary values of n and c are 89 and 2, respectively.
128
Rectifying inspection
Following a particular sampling plan
Accepted lots are passed with non-conforming units replaced
Rejected lots are screened with 100% inspection, non-conforming
units are replaced
129
Example. N=10,000, n=89, c=2 and p =0.01. From binomial
distribution or the OC curve, we found that Pa = 0.9397
Then:
Pa p( N n ) (0.9397 )(0.01)(10,000 89)
AOQ 0.0093
N 10,000
or simply:
AOQ Pa p (0.9397)(0.01) 0.0094
130
AOQL is the
maximum point on
the curve
131
Double Sampling Plans
Procedure
o n1 = sample size of the first sample
o c1 = acceptance number of the first sample
o n2 = sample size of the second sample
o c2 = acceptance number for both samples
132
Example. For the plan with n1 =50, c1 =1, n2 =100, c2 =3, a random sample
of 50 will be taken from the lot. If d1 1 , the lot will be accepted. If
d1 3 , the lot will be rejected. If d1 2 or d1 3 , the second sample of
Remarks
o Possible less inspection
o Second chance
o More complicated
o Less inspection may not be realized
133
Multiple Sampling Plans
Similar to double sampling
Possible less inspection
More complicated
May be further discussed later
134
Military Standard 105E (ANSI/ASQC Z1.4, ISO 2859)
Developed during World War II
Widely used acceptance-sampling system for attributes
Gone through four revisions since 1950.
a collection of sampling schemes to make a sampling system
Based on AQL
135
Switching Rules
1. Normal to tightened 2 out of five lots are rejected
2. Tightened to normal 5 lots are accepted
3. Normal to reduced
10 lots have been accepted under normal inspection
total number of defectives of the 10 lots is less than
given limit
stable production
authorized
4. Reduced to normal
a lot is rejected
procedure terminates without meeting acceptance or
rejection criteria. Accept the lot and change to normal
production is not stable
other conditions
5. Discontinuance of inspection 10 consecutive lots remain on
tightened inspection. Discontinue and take actions.
136
Procedure
1. Choose the AQL
2. Choose the inspection level
3. Determine the lot size
4. Find the appropriate sample size code letter from Table 15-4
5. Determine the appropriate type of sampling plan to use
(single, double, multiple)
6. Enter the appropriate table to find the type of plan to be used.
7. Determine the corresponding normal and reduced inspection
plans to be used when required
137
Example
Suppose a product is submitted in lots of size N = 2000. The
AQL is 0.65%. Assume that we want to generate normal single-
sampling plans. For lots of size 2000 and general inspection level II,
Table 15-4 indicates the appropriate sample size code letter is K.
From Table 15-5 for single-sampling plans under normal
inspection, the normal inspection plan is n = 125, c = 2. This means that
we accept the lot if there are 2 or less defective units in a random sample
of 125. We reject the lot if there are 3 or more defective units.
If tightened inspection is to be used after inspecting 5 lots with
normal inspection, then Table 15-6 shows that n = 125, c =1 for
tightened inspection. This means that we accept the lot if there is 1 or 0
defective units in a random sample of 125. We reject the lot if there are
2 or more defective units.
If reduced inspection can be used after accepting 10 consecutive
lots with normal inspection, and all other conditions satisfied, then Table
15-7 shows that in the reduced inspection, the sample size is n =50 Ac=1
and Re=3. This means that:
If there are 1 or less defectives in the sample, we will accept the lot
If there are 3 or more defective units, we will reject the lot and use
normal inspection for inspecting the next lot.
If there are 2 defective units, we will accept the lot and use normal
inspection for inspecting the next lot.
138
139
140
Discussion
Several points to be emphasized:
MIL STD 105E is AQL-oriented
The sample sizes selected for use in MIL STD 105E are limited
The sample sizes are related to the lot sizes.
Switching rules from normal to tightened and from tightened to
normal are subject to some criticism.
A common abuse of the standard is failure to use the switching rules
at all.
ANSI/ASQC Z1.4 or ISO 2859 is the civilian standard counterpart of
MIL STD 105E.
Differences include:
1. Terminology nonconformity, nonconformance, and
percent nonconforming is used
2. Switching rules were changed slightly to provide an option for
reduced inspection without the use of limit numbers
3. Several tables that show measures of scheme performance were
introduced
4. A section was added describing proper use of individual
sampling plans when extracted from the system
5. A figure illustrating switching rules was added
141
Dodge-Romig Sampling Plans
Based on AOQL or LTPD
Use developed tables
AOQL plans
o Minimize average total inspection
o Rejected lots will be 100% inspected
o Fraction nonconforming is known or can be estimated
o The plan also presents the LTPD values corresponding to
Pa 0.10 on the OC curve of the plan. Or 90% of the lots will
142
If the incoming quality is indeed at the level of p=1%, we can calculate
or check the corresponding OC curve to see that the acceptance
probability is Pa 0.9957 for p=1%. Then the average total inspection
will be: ATI n (1 Pa )( N n ) 65 (1 0.9957)(5000 65) 86.22
LTPD plans
o Provide plans for different LTPD values with lot acceptance
probability of 10%.
143
Similarly, we can find that if indeed that the incoming percent defective
is p=0.25%, we can calculate or check the corresponding OC curve to
see that the acceptance probability is Pa 0.9541 for p=0.25%. Then the
average total inspection will be:
ATI n (1 Pa )( N n ) 770 (1 0.9547 )(5000 770 ) 961.62
X A h1 sn (acceptance line)
X R h2 sn (rejection line)
144
If the total number of nonconforming units is less than or equal to the
integer part of X A , we accept the lot.
1 1 p (1 p1 )
h1 log / k , h2 log / k , k log 2 and
p1 (1 p 2 )
1 p1
s log / k
1 p 2
p2 (1 p1 ) 0.06 0.99
k log log 0.80066
p1 (1 p2 ) 0.01 0.94
1 0.95
h1 log / k log / 0.80066 1.22
0.10
1 0.90
h2 log / k log / 0.80066 1.57
0.05
1 p1 0.99
s log / k log / 0.80066 0.028
1 p 2 0 .94
Then we have:
When n = 1, we have:
X A h1 sn = 1.22 0.028n = 1.22 0.028 1.192
X R h2 sn 1.57 0.028n 1.57 0.028 1.598
145
As we just take one sample, these results tell us nothing. When n = 2, we
have: X A h1 sn = 1.22 0.028 2 1.22 0.056 1.164
X R h2 sn 1.57 0.028 2 1.57 0.056 1.626
So it says nothing about accepting the lot but the lot will be rejected if
both items are bad.
As the process continues, if there are int[ X R ] 1 bad ones, reject the lot.
If the first 44 are all good ones, accept the lot. Otherwise, continue and
stop sampling when you reach 89 3 267 items. The number of 89
corresponds to the single sampling plan for p1 =0.01, =0.05 , p2 =0.06
and =0.10.
146
A similar example is to assume that p1 =0.01, =0.05 , p2 =0.10
and =0.10. In this case, we have:
The corresponding single sampling plan is (52, 2) and the sampling may
stop after 156 sample items are taken.
147