THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Typical Structure of a Nerve Cell
The nervous system is divided into the:
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
central nervous system (CNS)
A nerve cell (neuron) consists of a large cell
body and nerve fibersone elongated
extension (axon) for sending impulses and
usually many branches (dendrites) for
receiving impulses. Each large axon is
surrounded by oligodendrocytes in the brain
and spinal cord and by Schwann cells in the
peripheral nervous system. The membranes
of these cells consist of a fat (lipoprotein)
called myelin. The membranes are wrapped
tightly around the axon, forming a
multilayered sheath. This myelin sheath
resembles insulation, such as that around an
electrical wire. Nerve impulses travel much
faster in nerves with a myelin sheath than in
those without one. If the myelin sheath of a
nerve is damaged, nerve transmission slows
or stops
The PNS consists of
Sensory neurons running from stimulus receptors that inform the CNS of the stimuli

Motor neurons running from the CNS to the muscles and glands - called effectors -
that take action.
The CNS consists of the
spinal cord and the

brain
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM IN FOCUS
In the peripheral nervous system, neurons can be functionally divided in three ways:
1. Sensory (afferent) - carry information INTO the central nervous system from
sense organs or motor (efferent) - carry information away from the central
nervous system (for muscle control).
2. Cranial - connects the brain with the periphery or spinal - connects the spinal cord
with the periphery.
3. Somatic - connects the skin or muscle with the central nervous system or visceral
- connects the internal organs with the central nervous system
The peripheral nervous system is subdivided into the
sensory-somatic nervous system and the

autonomic nervous system

The Sensory-Somatic Nervous System
The sensory-somatic system consists of:
12 pairs of cranial nerves and

31 pairs of spinal nerves.

The Cranial Nerves

Nerves Type Function

I
sensory olfaction (smell)
Olfactory

II vision
sensory
Optic (Contain 38% of all the axons connecting to the brain.)
III
motor* eyelid and eyeball muscles
Oculomotor

IV eyeball muscles
motor*
Trochlear

V Sensory: facial and mouth sensation

mixed
Trigeminal Motor: chewing

VI
motor* eyeball movement
Abducens

Sensory: taste
VII
mixed Motor: facial muscles and
Facial
salivary glands

VIII
sensory hearing and balance
Auditory

IX Sensory: taste
mixed
Glossopharyngeal Motor: swallowing

X main nerve of the

mixed
Vagus parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)

XI
motor swallowing; moving head and shoulder
Accessory

XII
motor* tongue muscles
Hypoglossal

*Note: These do contain a few sensory neurons that bring back signals from the muscle spindles
in the muscles they control.
The Spinal Nerves
All of the spinal nerves are "mixed"; that is, they contain both sensory and motor
neurons.
All our conscious awareness of the external environment and all our motor activity to
cope with it operate through the sensory-somatic division of the PNS.
The Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system consists of sensory neurons and motor neurons that run
between the central nervous system (especially the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata) and
various internal organs such as the:
 heart

lungs

viscera

glands (both exocrine and endocrine)

It is responsible for monitoring conditions in the internal environment and bringing about
appropriate changes in them. The contraction of both smooth muscle and cardiac muscle is
controlled by motor neurons of the autonomic system.
The actions of the autonomic nervous system are largely involuntary (in contrast to those of
the sensory-somatic system). It also differs from the sensory-somatic system is using two groups
of motor neurons to stimulate the effectors instead of one.
The first, the preganglionic neurons, arise in the CNS and run to a ganglion in the body.
Here they synapse with
Postganglionic neurons, which run to the effector organ (cardiac muscle, smooth muscle,
or a gland).
The autonomic nervous system has two subdivisions, the
Sympathetic nervous system and the

Parasympathetic nervous system.

The Sympathetic Nervous System
The preganglionic motor neurons of the sympathetic system arise in the spinal cord. They
pass into sympathetic ganglia which are organized into two chains that run parallel to and on
either side of the spinal cord.

The preganglionic neuron may do one of three things in the sympathetic ganglion:
Synapse with postganglionic neurons which then reenter the spinal nerve and
ultimately pass out to the sweat glands and the walls of blood vessels near the
surface of the body.
Pass up or down the sympathetic chain and finally synapse with postganglionic
neurons in a higher or lower ganglion
Leave the ganglion by way of a cord leading to special ganglia (e.g. the solar plexus)
in the viscera. Here it may synapse with postganglionic sympathetic neurons running
to the smooth muscular walls of the viscera. However, some of these preganglionic
neurons pass right on through this second ganglion and into the adrenal medulla.
 Here they synapse with the highly-modified postganglionic cells that make up the
secretory portion of the adrenal medulla.

The neurotransmitter of the preganglionic sympathetic neurons is acetylcholine (ACh). It

stimulates action potentials in the postganglionic neurons.
The neurotransmitter released by the postganglionic neurons is noradrenaline (also called
norepinephrine).
The action of noradrenaline on a particular gland or muscle is excitatory is some cases, inhibitory
in others. (At excitatory terminals, ATP may be released along with noradrenaline.)

The release of noradrenaline

stimulates heartbeat

raises blood pressure

dilates the pupils

dilates the trachea and bronchi

stimulates the conversion of liver glycogen into glucose

shunts blood away from the skin and viscera to the skeletal muscles, brain,
and heart
inhibits peristalsis in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract

inhibits contraction of the bladder and rectum

and, at least in rats and mice, increases the number of AMPA receptors in the
hippocampus and thus increases long-term potentiation (LTP).
In short, stimulation of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system prepares the
body for emergencies: for "fight or flight" (and, perhaps, enhances the memory of the event that
triggered the response).
Activation of the sympathetic system is quite general because
a single preganglionic neuron usually synapses with many postganglionic
neurons;
The release of adrenaline from the adrenal medulla into the blood ensures that
all the cells of the body will be exposed to sympathetic stimulation even if no
postganglionic neurons reach them directly.
The Parasympathetic Nervous System
The main nerves of the parasympathetic system are the tenth cranial nerves, the vagus nerves.
They originate in the medulla oblongata. Other preganglionic parasympathetic neurons also
extend from the brain as well as from the lower tip of the spinal cord.
Each preganglionic parasympathetic neuron synapses with just a few postganglionic neurons,
which are located near - or in - the effector organ, a muscle or gland. Acetylcholine (ACh) is the
neurotransmitter at all the pre- and many of the postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic
system. However, some of the postganglionic neurons release nitric oxide (NO) as their
neurotransmitter.

Parasympathetic stimulation causes

slowing down of the heartbeat

lowering of blood pressure

constriction of the pupils

increased blood flow to the skin and viscera

peristalsis of the GI tract

In short, the parasympathetic system returns the body functions to normal after they have been
altered by sympathetic stimulation. In times of danger, the sympathetic system prepares the body
for violent activity. The parasympathetic system reverses these changes when the danger is over.
The vagus nerves also help keep inflammation under control. Inflammation stimulates nearby
sensory neurons of the vagus. When these nerve impulses reach the medulla oblongata, they are
relayed back along motor fibers to the inflamed area. The acetylcholine from the motor neurons
suppresses the release of inflammatory cytokines, e.g., tumor necrosis factor (TNF), from
macrophages in the inflamed tissue.
Although the autonomic nervous system is considered to be involuntary, this is not entirely true.
A certain amount of conscious control can be exerted over it as has long been demonstrated by
practitioners of Yoga and Zen Buddhism. During their periods of meditation, these people are
clearly able to alter a number of autonomic functions including heart rate and the rate of oxygen
consumption. These changes are not simply a reflection of decreased physical activity because
they exceed the amount of change occurring during sleep or hypnosis.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
 The immune system is composed of many interdependent cell types that collectively
protect the body from bacterial, parasitic, fungal, viral infections and from the growth of tumor
cells. Many of these cell types have specialized functions. The cells of the immune system can
engulf bacteria, kill parasites or tumor cells, or kill viral-infected cells. Often, these cells depend
on the T helper subset for activation signals in the form of secretions formally known as
cytokines, lymphokines, or more specifically interleukins.
The Organs of the Immune System
Bone Marrow -- All the cells of the immune system are initially derived from the bone marrow.
They form through a process called hematopoiesis. During hematopoiesis, bone marrow-derived
stem cells differentiate into either mature cells of the immune system or into precursors of cells
that migrate out of the bone marrow to continue their maturation elsewhere. The bone marrow
produces B cells, natural killer cells, granulocytes and immature thymocytes, in addition to red
blood cells and platelets.
Thymus -- The function of the thymus is to produce mature T cells. Immature thymocytes, also
known as prothymocytes, leave the bone marrow and migrate into the thymus. Through a
remarkable maturation process sometimes referred to as thymic education, T cells that are
beneficial to the immune system are spared, while those T cells that might evoke a detrimental
autoimmune response are eliminated. The mature T cells are then released into the bloodstream.
Spleen -- The spleen is an immunologic filter of the blood. It is made up of B cells, T cells,
macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells and red blood cells. In addition to capturing
foreign materials (antigens) from the blood that passes through the spleen, migratory
macrophages and dendritic cells bring antigens to the spleen via the bloodstream. An immune
response is initiated when the macrophage or dendritic cells present the antigen to the
appropriate B or T cells. This organ can be thought of as an immunological conference center. In
the spleen, B cells become activated and produce large amounts of antibody. Also, old red blood
cells are destroyed in the spleen.
Lymph Nodes -- The lymph nodes function as an immunologic filter for the bodily fluid known
as lymph. Lymph nodes are found throughout the body. Composed mostly of T cells, B cells,
dendritic cells and macrophages, the nodes drain fluid from most of our tissues. Antigens are
filtered out of the lymph in the lymph node before returning the lymph to the circulation. In a
similar fashion as the spleen, the macrophages and dendritic cells that capture antigens present
these foreign materials to T and B cells, consequently initiating an immune response.
The Cells of the Immune System
T-Cells -- T lymphocytes are usually divided into two major subsets that are functionally
and phenotypically (identifiably) different. The T helper subset, also called the CD4+ T cell, is a
pertinent coordinator of immune regulation. The main function of the T helper cell is to augment
or potentiate immune responses by the secretion of specialized factors that activate other white
blood cells to fight off infection.
Another important type of T cell is called the T killer/suppressor subset or CD8+ T cell.
These cells are important in directly killing certain tumor cells, viral-infected cells and
sometimes parasites. The CD8+ T cells are also important in down-regulation of immune
responses. Both types of T cells can be found throughout the body. They often depend on the
secondary lymphoid organs (the lymph nodes and spleen) as sites where activation occurs, but
they are also found in other tissues of the body, most conspicuously the liver, lung, blood, and
intestinal and reproductive tracts.
Natural Killer Cells -- Natural killer cells, often referred to as NK cells, are similar to
the killer T cell subset (CD8+ T cells). They function as effector cells that directly kill certain
tumors such as melanomas, lymphomas and viral-infected cells, most notably herpes and
cytomegalovirus-infected cells. NK cells, unlike the CD8+ (killer) T cells, kill their targets
without a prior "conference" in the lymphoid organs. However, NK cells that have been activated
by secretions from CD4+ T cells will kill their tumor or viral-infected targets more effectively.
B Cells -- The major function of B lymphocytes is the production of antibodies in
response to foreign proteins of bacteria, viruses, and tumor cells. Antibodies are specialized
proteins that specifically recognize and bind to one particular protein that specifically recognize
and bind to one particular protein. Antibody production and binding to a foreign substance or
antigen, often is critical as a means of signaling other cells to engulf, kill or remove that
substance from the body.
Granulocytes or Polymorphonuclear (PMN) Leukocytes -- Another group of white
blood cells is collectively referred to as granulocytes or polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs).
Granulocytes are composed of three cell types identified as neutrophils, eosinophils and
basophils, based on their staining characteristics with certain dyes. These cells are predominantly
important in the removal of bacteria and parasites from the body. They engulf these foreign
bodies and degrade them using their powerful enzymes.
Macrophages -- Macrophages are important in the regulation of immune responses.
They are often referred to as scavengers or antigen-presenting cells (APC) because they pick up
and ingest foreign materials and present these antigens to other cells of the immune system such
as T cells and B cells. This is one of the important first steps in the initiation of an immune
response. Stimulated macrophages exhibit increased levels of phagocytosis and are also
secretory.
Dendritic Cells -- Another cell type, addressed only recently, is the dendritic cell.
Dendritic cells, which also originate in the bone marrow, function as antigen presenting cells
(APC). In fact, the dendritic cells are more efficient apcs than macrophages. These cells are
usually found in the structural compartment of the lymphoid organs such as the thymus, lymph
nodes and spleen. However, they are also found in the bloodstream and other tissues of the body.
It is believed that they capture antigen or bring it to the lymphoid organs where an immune
response is initiated. Unfortunately, one reason we know so little about dendritic cells is that they
are extremely hard to isolate, which is often a prerequisite for the study of the functional
qualities of specific cell types. Of particular issue here is the recent finding that dendritic cells
bind high amount of HIV, and may be a reservoir of virus that is transmitted to CD4+ T cells
during an activation event.
 Non-specific defense mechanisms work against a wide variety of invaders. These
defense mechanisms include the barrier formed by our skin; chemicals in perspiration, skin oil,
saliva, tears, etc.; the hairs in our nostrils; the ciliary escalator (the cilia and mucus that clean
out dust and debris from our lungs and trachea) in our respiratory tracts; the inflammatory
response which is the dilation of blood vessels and accumulation of WBCs at the site of an
injury (the signs of which are that the area is red, hot, and swollen); and fever, a raised body
temperature to inhibit the growth of pathogens. Note that a fever is caused by your body to
inhibit the growth of bacteria, etc., not by the germs themselves, per se.
Specific defense mechanisms are effective against specific pathogens. This involves
various WBCs called lymphocytes or leukocytes. There are several kinds of WBCs involved in
the immune system, all of which originate in the bone marrow. Leukemia is a cancer of the bone
marrow, thus it typically is treated by killing all of the persons bone marrow. Unfortunately, this
leaves the person with no immune system and must be extremely careful during that time to
avoid all possible pathogens. There are two main types of specific defense mechanisms involved
in the immune system.

The cell-mediated immune system consists of T-cells which originate in the bone marrow, but
go to the Thymus to finish their development.

T-cells are highly-specialized cells in the blood and lymph to fight bacteria, viruses, fungi,
protozoans, cancer, etc. within host cells and react against foreign matter such as organ
transplants.

There are three kinds of T-cells. Cytotoxic T-cells directly kill invaders. Helper T-cells aid B
and other T-cells to do their jobs, and HIV lives in and kills them. Suppressor T-cells suppress
the activities of B- and other T-cells so they dont overreact. Allergy injections are supposed to
increase the number of supressor T-cells to make the person less sensitive to allergens.

Immunity is the ability to remember foreign substance previously encountered and

react again, promptly. There are two kinds of immunity: active immunity, when the body is
stimulated to produce its own antibodies, and passive immunity, where the antibodies come
from outside the persons body. Active immunity is usually permanent, and can be induced due
to actual illness or vaccination. Passive immunity is not permanent because the antibodies are
introduced from outside the body, thus the B-cells never learn how to make them. Some
examples of passive immunity include antibodies passed across the placenta and in milk from a
mother to her baby, some travelers shots, and the Rhogam shots we we discussed earlier this
quarter. Because antibodies are only protein, they dont last very long and must be replaced if the
immunity is to continue.
Cranial Nerves
The 12 pairs of cranial nerves are so named because they pass through various foramina in the
bones of the cranium and arise from the brain inside the cranial cavity. Like the 31 pairs of spinal
nerves, they are part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Each cranial nerve has both a
number, designated by a roman numeral, and a name. The numbers indicate the order, from
anterior to posterior, in which the nerves arise from the brain. The names designate a nerves
distribution or function. Three cranial nerves (I, II, and VIII) carry axons of sensory neurons and
thus are called special sensory nerves. These nerves are unique to the head and are associated
with the special senses of smelling, seeing, and hearing. The cell bodies of most sensory neurons
are located in ganglia outside the brain.

Five cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, XI, and XII) are classified as motor nerves because they
contain only axons of motor neurons as they leave the brain stem. The cell bodies of motor
neurons lie in nuclei within the brain. Motor axons that innervate skeletal muscles are of two
types:

1. Branchial motor axons innervate skeletal muscles that develop from the pharyngeal
(branchial) arches (see Figure 14.28). These neurons leave the brain through the mixed cranial
nerves and the accessory nerve.

2. Somatic motor axons innervate skeletal muscles that develop from head somites (eye muscles
and tongue muscles). These neurons exit the brain through five motor cranial nerves (III, IV, VI,
XI, and XII). Motor axons that innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands are called
autonomic motor axons and are part of the parasympathetic division.

The remaining four cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, and X) are mixed nervesthey contain
axons of both sensory neurons entering the brain stem and motor neurons leaving the brain stem.

Each cranial nerve is covered in detail in Exhibits 14.A through 14.J. Although the
cranial nerves are mentioned singly in the exhibits with regard to their type, location, and
function, remember that they are paired structures.

Table 14.4 presents a summary of the components and principal functions of the cranial
nerves, including a mnemonic to help you remember their names.