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G . M. W A L K D E N and J . R . B E R R Y
Department of Geology, University of Aberdeen, Marischal College, Aberdeen A39 IAS, U.K.
ABSTRACT
Lower Carboniferous shallow water limestones of Asbian and Brigantian age in Britain commonly contain
abundant interparticle micrite and characteristically display large syntaxial calcite overgrowths on crinoid
and echinoid grains. These overgrowths appear to have developed at the expense of the micrite and are
widely regarded as neomorphic replacements. However, cathodoluminescence of these has revealed growth
features which indicate that they are not neomorphic but originated as passive cement fills of solution voids
surrounding echinoderm grains.
We introduce the term solution corona for these grain selective voids and consider that three processes
may have contributed to their development, namely : high-Mg calcite stabilization of host grains, crystal
ripening, and meteoric dissolution. Cyclic subaerial emergence was a critical factor in these processes, and
we contrast the morphology of the overgrowths in question with forms produced in basinal limestones
which never experienced comparable early meteoric conditions.
These early-formed solution coronas around echinoderm grains are therefore a useful indicator of
meteoric diagenesis and have important implications for porosity evolution. The syntaxial cements which
fill the solution coronas show distinct phases of growth in cathodoluminescence which reflect a progression
from near-surface meteoric conditions to deep burial with pressure solution.
INTRODUCTION
The problem those of Asbian age (George et al., 1976), but in
A common diagenetic texture in ancient skeletal particular we have studied rocks from the Derbyshire
limestones is the clear syntaxial cement overgrowth Carbonate Platform (Walkden, 1977) in which
developed in optical continuity with monocrystalline Bathurst (1958) first described the texture.
host grains such as crinoid ossicles or echinoid plates. Bathurst (1958, 1975) and Orme & Brown (1963)
Many Palaeozoic and Mesozoic grainstones and considered the overgrowths to be neomorphic replace-
packstones contain an abundance of crinoid syntaxial ments of micrite, and the model developed by Bathurst
overgrowths which have clearly grown into original involves simultaneous dissolution of carbonate mud
intergranular pores as passive cement fills (Evamy & and precipitationofovergrowththrough the migration
Shearman, 1965,1969; Freeman, 1971 ; Meyers, 1974, of ions across a thin (micron-sized) solution film. The
1978). However, in this study we have examined process is initiated and maintained through the
Lower Carboniferous packstones and wackestones in dominance both in size and monocrystalline state of
which the overgrowths are unusual in being generally the crinoid host grain over the surrounding fine
surrounded by a matrix of micrite or microspar (e.g. carbonate mud and Bathurst (1975, p. 493) noted that
Fig. 1). In these rocks a simple model of passive the resultant syntaxial crystals have sometimes inter-
cementation of primary pores cannot be applied (e.g. sected rigid grains such as foraminifera and bryozoa.
Bathurst, 1958, 1975). Using standard petrographic methods it is difficult
The texture is widespread in late Dinantian lime- to challenge the thin film model, but the application
stones of central and southern Britain, particularly of cathodoluminescence reveals details of crystal
25 1
252 G . M . Walkden and J . R . Berry
The sediments
The late Dhantian limestones studied in most detail
come from the 200m sequence of shallow marine
Asbian carbonates that comprise the lagoonal portion
of the Derbyshire Carbonate Platform, central north-
ern England. The sequence consists of 1-10 m thick
cycles built of crinoid peloid packstones with subor-
dinate grainstones and wackestones, and cycle bound-
aries are marked by subaerial omission surfaces
displaying calcretes, palaeokarsts and palaeosols
(Walkden, 1972, 1974). The general characteristics of
these rocks are typical of shelf and platform Asbian
carbonates throughout southern Britain (e.g. Somer-
ville, 1979; Wright, 1982; Walkden, in press), and
representative successions have also been examined
in Cumbria, Yorkshire, North Wales and the Men-
dips, all of which contain rocks displaying the same
problematic texture. Representative samples from the
overlying Brigantian have also been examined where
the sedimentarysettingwascomparable (e.g. Walkden
& Davies, 1983) and samples from contrasting basinal
settings have been investigated for comparison.
Over 100 cathodoluminescence slides from Derby-
shire have been examined as part of a systematic
study of the diagenetic history of the platform (Berry,
1984). The packstones containing the problematic
texture are generally poorly sorted and are dominated
by crinoids which comprise an average of 35% of
allochems. Other common allochems include forami-
nifera, dasycladaceans, brachiopods and peloids, and
intergranular space is occupied mainly by mud or by
syntaxial calcite spar.
Compaction in the rocks studied is minimal, with
Fig. 1. Representative crinoid syntaxial overgrowth texture intergranular space averaging at 46.7% of total rock
in two late Dinantian crinoidal packstones. (A) Typical volume over 24 representative slides. Compactive
fabric comprising discontinuous and irregular syntaxial
calcite haloes surrounding most crinoid grains (e.g. A), distortion of grains and grain to grain pressure-
regardless of size. Micritized crinoids (e.g. B) display no solution are generally absent. This lack of significant
overgrowths. Asbian-Hillhead, Derbyshire. Scale bar- compaction, in a succession that eventually developed
0.5 mm. (B) Extreme development of the texture with large major interbed stylolite seams, implies early lithifica-
continuous calcite haloes surrounding all unmicritized
crinoid grains. The sample comes from within 1 m of an
tion and much direct evidence for this is found in the
overlying palaeokarst. Asbian-Buxton, Derbyshire. Scale occurrence of calcretes palaeokarsts and lithoclasts.
b a r 4 . 5 mm. Undeformed mollusc moulds are found throughout.
Syntaxial overgrowths in limestones 253
.
Fig. 2. Syntaxial overgrowth fabric surrounding two large crinoid grains (A and B) in a crinoid/peloid packstone. In plane
light (A) overgrowths surround the grain but are preferentially enlarged downwards. This geopetal texture is unrelated to
shelter porosity because it is not found beneath other large grains such as brachiopods. Under cathodoluminescence (B) early
mostly non-luminescent crystals with irregular morphologies (Zone 1) are followed by more regular growths with bright or
intermediate luminescence (Zones 2 and 3). Comparison of (A) and (B) shows that this zonal pattern is not concordant with
the final external shape of the overgrowth. Asbian-Hillhead, Derbyshire. Scale bar-0.5 mm.
254 G. M . Walkdenand J . R . Berry
Fig. 3. Confluent development of syntaxial overgrowths from two nearby crinoid grains (A and B). In plane polarized light (A)
the larger overgrowth shows clear twin planes, and remnant peloids with matrix, C, occupy the upper surface of the host grain
where overgrowth has failed to develop. The smaller grain, B, still adheres to matrix at the top. Under cathodoluminescence
(B) early non-luminescent (Zone 1) crystal growths are patchily distributed, overgrown by an unusual development of bright
Zone 2 and finally by better organized Zone 3 with intermediate luminescence. Zone 3 cements have developed on areas of the
host grain where there has previously been no overgrowth. The overall zonal pattern clearly illustrates the mismatch between
internal crystal organization and the final irregular outer shape of the overgrowth. Small early non-luminescent (Zone 1)
crystals can be seen grown inwards from the spar/micrite interface, D. Asbian-Buxton, Derbyshire. Scale b a r 4 . 5 mm.
anhedral to subhedral morphologies (Fig. 3B) on Zone 3 cements are uniform and moderately
crinoid hosts and the lack of luminescence may reflect luminescent. Indistinct oscillatory sub-zones in these
minimal uptake of manganese in an oxygenated reflect subhedral to euhedral crystal forms (Figs 4 and
environment (Meyers, 1978). Since they are found in 5) and they comprise the most abundant cements.
secondary cavities in calcretes these cements clearly They are found in sufficient quantities for stable
post-date the first subaerial emergence of the sediment isotope analysis and their composition ranges are
and their general luminescence characteristics suggest 613C-2.1 to +1.8%, and 6'*0-145 to -125%,
fluctuating chemical conditions. They are interpreted PDB (eight separate analyses) averaging at
as representing a relatively shallow largely oxidizing 6 ' 3 C ~ 0 . 0 % 061802:
, - 13.4%,, PDB. These figures
meteoric diagenetic environment. are typical of late burial cements (Dickson &Coleman,
Zone 2 cements comprise a generally thin complexly 1980; Hudson, 1977), and are most likely to reflect
subzoned generation of brightly luminescent calcite. precipitation from a pore water depleted in "0 with
They provide a prominent stratigraphic marker on elevated temperatures, and probably originally meteo-
post large crystals (Figs 3B and 4) and may be ric (e.g. Hudson, 1978).
genetically related to Zone 3. Zone 4 cements consist of brightly luminescent
Syntaxial overgrowths in limestones 255
Fig. 6. Secondary cavities with centripetally grown passive cement fills in cathodoluminescence. The cements comprise Zones
1-3 and thus display the same succession of generations as in crinoid syntaxial overgrowths. (A) Mollusc mould. Asbian-
Dowlow, Derbyshire. Scale bar-0.5 mm. (B) Horizontal vug within a dense micritic calcrete. Asbian-Hillhead, Derbyshire.
Scale b a r 4 . 5 mm.
Syntaxial overgrowths in limestones 257
calcite found not only within pores (Fig. 5 ) but along crinoidal grainstones. Applied to Dinantian pack-
stylolite seams and intercrystalline boundaries (Fig. stones and wackestones it creates considerable diffi-
4) within earlier cements. They are not developed culty as it requires that all syntaxial overgrowths
everywhere. Staining with potassium ferricyanide should be interpreted as the sites of original empty
shows these to be mainly ferroan calcite and they pore space, so that all such primary porosity was
either co-date or post-date local stylolitization. concentrated only in the immediate vicinity of
echinoderm grains and no others (Fig. 1).
T H E O R I G I N OF THE The presence of enlarged overgrowths beneath
OVERGROWTH TEXTURE: some crinoid grains might suggest that syntaxial
T H I N FILM N E O M O R P H I S M AND ITS cements merely filled shelter pores underlying the
ALTERNATIVES crinoids. However, in the great majority of cases a
continuous or discontinuous overgrowth completely
The application of cathodoluminescence in the study surrounds grains (e.g. Fig. 3), and shelter pores are
of these overgrowths has revealed features that are rare beneath other more suitable grains such as
difficult to explain by the thin film neomorphism brachiopod valves. Even if preferentialcement growth
model. had taken place in shelter pores beneath crinoids, but
(1) The growth zonation in the syntaxial crystals not beneath other allochems, subsequent compactive
(Figs 2-5) reflects a progressive change from initially collapse would have buried and preserved good crystal
anhedral to increasingly euhedral crystal forms faces where pores had not been completely filled by
throughout growth, and yet the outer margins of the syntaxial cement. In addition there should be more
overgrowths in contact with the micrite are never evidence of compaction in the rocks throughout.
euhedral but are irregular and cut across zonal Instead mechanical compaction was largely prevented
boundaries. There is thus a considerable mismatch by early induration and all primary and secondary
between the internal growth morphology and the final pores, whether filled by crinoid overgrowths or not,
overgrowth shape. show the same succession of cements and therefore
( 2 ) Amongst the earliest growth zones there is filled synchronously.
commonly evidence of solutional erosion of the Other explanations for such an unusual distribution
growing crystal (Fig. 4). Such dissolution could not of primary porosity such as substrate-selective organic
affect a coarse syntaxial crystal without also eroding coatings or gas generation seem contrived and the
back the finer grained and presumably more soluble primary pore model for the origin of the syntaxial
enveloping micrite. This implies the creation of a haloes can therefore be rejected.
space between the crystal and the micrite but the
neomorphism model of Bathurst (1975) requires the (b) Displacement of mud matrix by growing syntaxial
maintenance of a thin solution film at this interface. crystals
(3) Four distinct phases of syntaxial crystal growth
can be determined (Figs 2-5) which reflect an evolving The principal objection to the displacement alterna-
diagenetic environment from shallow meteoric todeep tive as applied to the Dinantian rocks in question is,
burial with pressure solution, and all of these post- as stated in (3)above, that by the time theovergrowths
date early lithification phenomena such as calcretes started to develop the rocks were already lithified.
and palaeokarsts. Neomorphism would thus have Displacement would thus be most unlikely. In addi-
been initiated in a lithified rock and have continued tion, as noted in (1) above, the outer boundaries of the
through considerable changes in diagenetic environ- overgrowths are clearly not normal outward grown
ment and rock geochemistry. crystal faces as might be expected in mud-displacive
growth.
Despite these difficulties the alternatives hitherto
considered (e.g. Bathurst, 1975; Evamy & Shearman,
1965) seem even less promising. These are: (c) Late introduction of micrite
Examining Bajocian packstones from the French
(a) PassiveJill of primary pore systems by an early Jura, Evamy & Shearman (1965) concluded that the
cement micritic matrix was a late arrival that followed the
This is the standard primary void cementation model development of syntaxial overgrowths. Their over-
introduced earlier, that applies to overgrowths in growths were perfectly euhedral and the texture was
258 G . M . Walkden and J . R . Berry
so limited in extent that it was possible to demonstrate but it is readily interpreted as the remaining contact
a likely overlying source for the micrite. between a crinoid fragment and the walls of a solution
In contrast the anhedral nature of the Dinantian cavity (Figs 2 and 3).
overgrowths and the large volume of interparticle (v) Instances where syntaxial overgrowths can be
carbonate mud make it extremely difficult to apply the interpreted as having eaten into surrounding grains
micrite infiltration model. The major objection, during growth are in fact rare and usually grains stand
however, is that a close examination of micritic or proud at the crystal/sediment interface suggesting that
microspar components (e.g. Fig. 4), especially under the matrix was more susceptible to destruction. A
high magnification, reveals that these have undergone good example is figured by Bathurst (1958, fig. 2) but
the same overgrowth history as the crinoids. Late the relationship is very difficult to prove conclusively
arrival of micrite is therefore most improbable. in rocks consisting largely of irregular peloids and
already fragmented grains. However, where an inter-
sected grain can be demonstrated the evidence is
equivocal as it could result from solution prior to the
SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTHS AS emplacement of the overgrowth.
FILLS (vi) The syntaxial crystals sometimes show clear
OF SECONDARY P O R E SPACE: signs of periodic solution which must in any case have
T H E S O L U T I O N CORONA MODEL been accompanied by the development of a solution
space between the crystal and the inferentially more
An alternative process not hitherto considered is that
soluble micrite wall (Fig. 4).
the syntaxial crystals grew freely into secondary pore
(vii) Other textural features worth noting are an
spaces formed by dissolution of surrounding micrite.
absence of undulose extinction, thought by Jacka &
This proposal involves the opening of an irregular
Brand (1977) to be a useful criterion of neomorphic
solution cavity (solution corona) around each echino-
replacements. Instead the overgrowths show clear
derm grain, either during or after the initial induration
zonal expansion into pores and zonal restriction near
of the sediment. The syntaxial overgrowths developed
grain contacts (Fig. 2) considered by Meyers (1974) to
as passive fills of these cavities. This would account
be characteristic of void-filling cement.
for the contrast between the irregular outer boundary
of syntaxial crystals and their well organized internal These observations create a clear demonstration
structure revealed through cathodoluminescence. Sev- that a cavity was present around crinoids in advance
eral other points are critical: of the development of the syntaxial overgrowths-a
cavity for which we have introduced the term solution
(i) The sequence of zones within syntaxial over-
corona. These cavities were then filled by syntaxial
growths is identical to that of cements which are
calcites which are zonally indistinguishable from
passive fills of primary and secondary pore spaces
nearby cements. Nevertheless, the model offers no
(e.g. voided mollusc grains, shelter pores and cavern-
explanation for the exact cause of the dissolution, or
ous calcrete, Fig. 6) demonstrating that growth in
for the centering of coronas exclusively upon crinoids
each occurred synchronously.
as opposed to other grains such as foraminifera or
(ii) Small crystals commonly line the crystal/micrite
brachiopod?. Since solution coronas were initiated
interface having apparently grown inwards from the
early during diagenesis, and the factors causing their
surface of the micrite (Fig. 3). This relationship would
grain selective nature must have operated at the same
be almost impossible to achieve through a neomorphic
time, it is useful to examine the general evidence for
replacement process but it can be explained as
the early diagenetic environment of the rocks before
nucleation on the walls of a solution cavity.
returning to the causes of the solution corona phenom-
(iii) There are cases where empty porespace still
enon.
exists between a syntaxial crystal and the micrite wall
(Fig. 5). This is impossible to explain through thin
film neomorphism, but clearly can be interpreted as T H E EARLY DIAGENETIC
incomplete occlusion of a secondary cavity. E N V I R O N M E N T OF LATE
(iv) Some matrix micrite can usually be seen lying D I N A N T I A N S H E L F A N D PLATFORM
directly against a crinoid fragment where overgrowth CARBONATES
hgs evidently been inhibited. It is hard to explain such
a relationship through a selective neomorphic process A reliable indicator of early diagenetic conditions is
Syntaxial overgrowths in limestones 259
S O L U T I O N CORONAS AND THEIR would have become enlarged. If this occurred in the
C E M E N T FILLS vadose environment, the downward percolation of the
fluids may have created a geopetal corona. Dissolu-
Integrating the development of the solution coronas tion/precipitation may still have been continuing, and
with the sequence of cements that fills them, we cement overgrowths became well established. These
reconstruct the diagenetic evolution of the rocks (Fig. earliest cements are the generation of mostly non-
7) as follows : luminescent calcites with thin bright subzones and
solution hiatuses (Zone 1) described earlier.
Stage 1-unaltered marine sediment They are considered to have grown in a relatively
near-surface freshwater phreatic environment where
The sediment was in its depositional environment and conditions were sufficientlyfluctuating to permit both
consisted of crinoid fragments and other grains in a precipitation and dissolution. These cements devel-
matrix of unlithified carbonate mud, peloids and fine oped within all accessible porespaces including mol-
bioclastic debris. All constituents had their original lusc moulds and calcrete fenestrae. The bright sub-
mineralogies of aragonite and high- and low-Mg zones within these cements usually have individually
calcite. recognizable characteristics and can be correlated
laterally over distances of up to 10 km, indicating that
Stage 2-introduction into the meteoric environment : they represent widespread events rather than random
development of an initial marginal cavity around crinoid local fluctuations. It is likely that the Zone 1 cements
Marine sediments were uplifted into the meteoric grew in increments over more than one period of
environment and an initial marginal cavity developed subaerial emergence (Berry, 1984), and the bright
by one or both of the two possible alternative processes subzones could represent intervening stagnation in
already discussed viz., the water table during marine submergence or they
may record actual pore water interchange events.
(i) Phase stabilization-high-Mg calcite stabiliza- Ostwald ripening may have been most active during
tion began and proceeded rapidly. Pore fluids in the stagnant phases.
vicinity of crinoids became enriched in magnesium
and depleted in calcium and this in turn led to solution
of the immediately surrounding micrite to produce a Stage 4-stable 'deep' phreatic conditions :passive
laminar pore space. occlusion of the solution coronas
(ii) Dissolution/precipitation-crinoid canal sys- This stage involved the development of the well-
tems began to fill with syntaxial cement. The necessary organized syntaxial cement overgrowths of interme-
calcium carbonate for this cement was supplied either diate luminescence (Zone 3) which passively filled the
through the dissolution of nearby aragonite, or by solution coronas and other primary and secondary
Ostwald Ripening, or both. This led to the develop- pores. The cements are everywhere uniform and free
ment of a laminar pore space at the crinoid/micrite from growth hiatuses or dissolution effects and there
interface which, if the process continued, progres- was no return to Stage 3 growth conditions. On textural
sively increased in size ahead of the growing syntaxial grounds alone these cements must have grown in a
crystal. stable phreatic environment, where water chemistry
By the end of this stage all matrix aragonite and was uniform for long periods of time and no dissolution
larger skeletal aragonite had dissolved releasing took place. There was no further enlargement of the
CaCO, for cementation, and initial lithification of the coronas at this stage so their walls sometimes became
sediment was thus probably complete. the sites for nucleation of small inward growing
crystals where these had not already been established.
Their isotopic composition suggests a moderately
Stage 3-the further enlargement of porosity around
deep diagenetic environment sealed off from surface
crinoid: production of a solution corona
effects. However, they are unlikely to be pressure-
At this stage there are several processes which may solution derived since they make up approximately
have operated depending on the diagenetic environ- 30% of the whole rock whilst stylolites produce only
ment and the fluid chemistry. Meteoric dissolution is an estimated 10% loss to the succession (Berry, 1984).
one effect and during periods of groundwater under- In any case Stage 4 cements are very obviously cut by
saturation the initial marginal cavity around crinoids stylolites.
262 G . M . Walkdenand J. R. Berry
( i ) P e r i o d i c meteoric d i s s o l u t i o n enlarges a l l v o i d s
and creates s o l u t i o n coronas. Any e a r l y c r y s t a l growth
i s a l s o a f f e c t e d by s o l u t i o n .
( i i ) Continued dissolution/precipitation by c r y s t a l
r i p e n i n g creates s o l u t i o n coronas which grow i n advance
of expanding overgrowths. P e r i o d i c meteoric d i s s o l u t i o n
a f f e c t s b o t h voids and growing c r y s t a l s .
STAGE 4 Passive o c c l u s i o n i n s t a b l e b u r i a l p h r e a t i c
conditions.
Fig. 7. Alternative paths of evolution of solution coronas and their cement fills.
Stage 1 : marine sediment. Grains and mud show original textures and mineralogies. A, crinoid grain-high-Mg calcite; B,
brachiopod fragments-low-Mg calcite; C, bivalve fragment-aragonite; D, peloids-mixed composition; E, mud matrix-mixed
composition.
Stage 2: introduction to meteoric environment. Grain and matrix aragonite starts to dissolve. Laminar cavity around crinoid
gmins begins to develop by: (i) Solution of micrite during high-Mg calcite stabilization. (ii) Dissolution of micrite and
precipitation within crinoid canal system through aragonite diagenesis and/or crystal ripening.
Syntaxial overgrowths in limestones 263
Fig. 8. Spired syntaxial overgrowths under cathodoluminescence. These early spires of brightly luminescent calcite contrast
strongly with the patchy poorly organized early stages of the non-luminescent initial overgrowths in Figs 2 4 . Such spires
normally quickly coalesce to form fewer and larger terminations. Bright specks within the crinoid itself are microdolomites
with a distinct red luminescence. Basinal turbidite, Asbian, Clitheroe, Lancashire. Scale b a r 4 . 5 mm.
By the end of this stage of diagenesis approximately stylolitization. These cements are considered to have
95% of the original porosity has been filled by cement. formed under conditions of deep burial, probably in
excess of 1 km (Berry, 1984).
A more fully documented history of the cement
Stage 5-jinalpore occluding cementation (not
sequences discussed in the preceding sections will be
illustrated in Fig. 7, see Fig. 5 )
presented elsewhere.
This stage of cementation is characterized by the
generally very brightly luminescent generation of
mostly ferroan Zone 4 calcite. These bright cements OVERGROWTH MORPHOLOGY A N D
make up less than 5% of the total and so are DIAGENETIC ENVIRONMENT
volumetrically and chemically in accord with an origin
by pressure solution (cf. Oldershaw & Scoffin, 1967). It has been suggested by Freeman (1971) and Walkden
Since they line both stylolites and intercrystalline & Berry (1984) that morphology of syntaxial over-
boundaries of earlier cements, but are never cut by growths on crinoids can provide a useful indicator of
stylolites, they must be synchronous with or post-date former diagenetic conditions. In the classic work of
Stage 3 : cavity enlargement and passive cementation in shallow meteoric environment. (i) Periodic meteoric dissolution
enlarges all voids and creates solution coronas. Any early crystal growth is also affected by solution. (ii) Continued dissolution/
precipitation by crystal ripening creates solution coronas which grow in advance of expanding overgrowths. Periodic meteoric
dissolution affects both voids and growing crystals. (iii) By the end of this stage solution coronas are fully expanded and
meteoric cements with solution hiatuses partially fill all voids.
Stage 4: passive occlusion in stable burial phreatic conditions. Uniform cements display an increasing degree of crystal
organization and occlude solution coronas and other voids. No further dissolution effects and microspar grows from corona
walls.
264 G.M . Walkden and J . R . Berry
Evamy & Shearman (1965) the earliest stages of by fluctuating water table levels and rapidly changing
overgrowth in c-axial directions comprised well- water chemistry. Under these conditions a combina-
distributed crystal spires, probably reflecting the tion of surface tension effects and repeated solution
surface distribution of stereom walls in the original could have inhibited or repeatedly destroyed any early
echinoid grain (e.g. Fig. 8), which progressively spire growth. In the later stages of corona fill, uniform
coalesced during growth to produce fewer and larger cements reflect a more stable cementing environment,
terminations. This spired pattern contrasts strongly in which the crystals were able to become better
with that observed within all the late Dinantian organized and evolved towards a more euhedral
shallow water carbonates we have examined, where morphology.
c-axial overgrowths are initially irregular, closely In order to test this model we collected and examined
contouring the original substrate, and develop no limestone turbidites of Asbian age from the Craven
euhedral pattern until late. Freeman (1971) and Basin of northern England, which from their geologi-
Meyers (1978) have described similar forms and we cal setting are most unlikely to have experienced early
regard the differences between the two styles as meteoric alteration of the type seen on the shelves and
significant. platforms. In these rocks spired overgrowths of the
The syntaxial crystals within solution coronas grew Evamy and Shearman type are commonplace in c-
initially in an unstable meteoric environment affected axial directions (Fig. 8) and in the examples studied
Fig. 9. The age relationship between aragonite removal and syntaxial overgrowths on crinoids in a basinal limestone turbidite.
Asbian-Clitheroe, Lancashire. Scale bar-0.5 mm. (A) In plane light a shelter pore created by a mollusc fragment, A,
contains a small echinoderm grain, B. The mollusc shows relics of original structure and the crinoid is enclosed by an euhedral
syntaxial crystal. The pore is filled by coarse blocky calcite. (B) Under crossed polars the mollusc fragment is evidently replaced
by coarse neomorphic spar showing undulose extinction which extends into the shelter pore and surrounds the crinoid
overgrowth. (C) In cathodoluminescence bright cements surround the crinoid and have grown as microspar fringes and
overgrowths on micrite and larger grains. These bright cements overlie the top surface of the mollusc and can be seen as small
discrete crystals nucleated on its underside.
The crinoid overgrowth grew initially as fine spires (e.g. on surface C) but the early growth zones in this crystal are hard to
diFjnguish owing to their lack of significantly contrasting luminescence. This syntaxial crystal was then buried by non-
luminescent non-syntaxial cement of the same generation as that responsible for the neomorphism of the mollusc.
Syntaxial overgrowths in limestones 265
the overgrowths clearly predate aragonite diagenesis than by the development of solution voids and their
(Fig. 9). Furthermore replacement of aragonitic grains subsequent fill by centripetal cement. These observa-
was achieved by neomorphism, producing coarse tions suggest that it was only relatively late in the
blocky spar with undulose extinction (Fig. 9B) rather history of diagenesis that pore fluids became suffi-
266 G . M . Walkdenand J . R. Berry
ciently undersaturated with respect to aragonite to derived hydrocarbons, at a time when oil generation
enable the conversion to calcite. Confirmation that had not yet begun on the platform.
the early flushing out of magnesium, inferred in the
shelf and platform limestones, never affected the
basinal limestones is provided by the presence of CONCLUSIONS
microdolomites (confirmed by probe analyses) within
the crinoid cores (Fig. 8). (1) Seen in cathodoluminescence syntaxial over-
In none of the muddy basinal limestones studied growths on crinoid grains in late Dinantian packstones
can any case be made for growth of syntaxial crystals and wackestones display characteristics inconsistent
into secondary porespaces, along the lines of the with any of the existing models for the development
solution corona process, since internal zones closely of such textures. We thus discount primary pore fill,
match the final overgrowth shape. Instead, displace- thin film neomorphism and late infiltration of mud as
ment or replacement must have operated as syntaxial likely processes and offer a new model involving
spires extended out into the interparticle matrix (Fig. selective solution around crinoid grains followed by
8). These overgrowths may represent an early marine passive growth of syntaxial crystals within the result-
cement similar to some possible Pleistocene analogues ant cavities. We have termed these solution cavities
(Evamy & Shearman, 1969) although they may more solution coronas.
plausibly represent precipitation from deeper forma- (2) The evidence provided by textural and geologi-
tion brines. cal relationships suggests that dissolution operated
early during near-surface meteoric diagenesis, and
three processes have been examined which might
GEOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF account for the development of solution coronas.
C R I N O I D S O L U T I O N CORONAS These are: (a) local undersaturation of pore fluids
A N D THEIR CEMENTS during ionic exchange when high-Mg calcite was
being converted to low-Mg calcite; (b) dissolution/
Solution coronas are useful indicators of early meteoric precipitation across a fluid-filled pore, driven by
diagenesis and their cement fills record a full diage- inherent stability contrasts between fine particulate
netic history of the events leading up to final porosity carbonate and large crystalline objects; and (c)
occlusion. In fact owing to the favourable character- dissolution by undersaturated meteoric water. The
istics of crinoids as growth substrates they effectively first two models may help to explain why solution
magnify details of cement stratigraphy not seen coronas are centred exclusivelyon echinoderm grains.
elsewhere, and enable valuable observations to be (3) The earliest zones within the syntaxial over-
made. growths are generally non-luminescent and are iden-
From a petrographic standpoint the removal of tical to those seen in cements filling mollusc moulds
micrite replacive overgrowths from the realm of thin and calcrete cavities. The overgrowths themselves
film neomorphism leaves their significance as regards therefore post-date initial lithification. However, the
microfacies interpretation unchanged, provided that conditions recorded within these earliest zones reflect
coronas are counted as micrite. Whether they are fluctuating near-surface conditions and the solution
recognized as secondary pores or regarded as replace- coronas are therefore a useful indicator of such
ments has little bearing on conclusions regarding the diagenetic environments.
nature of the original sediment. However, from an (4) Later phases of overgrowth involve uniform
economic standpoint the new model for the origin of cements with dull luminescence and reflect conditions
crinoid syntaxial overgrowths has useful implications. of stable burial diagenesis with elevated temperatures
Rather than representing neomorphism of an origi- and isotopically light pore waters. No further enlarge-
nally microporous and unpromising reservoir rock the ment of the coronas took place. The final phase of
overgrowths represent the passive fill of a secondary overgrowth seen within coronas post-dates local
porosity of considerable reservoir potential. In the late stylolitization and the cements are iron-rich. They are
Dinantian rocks early diagenetic oxygenation prob- likely to have been derived from pressure-solution,
ably removed all potential for local hydrocarbon but are volumetrically unimportant.
generation, but final pore occluding cementation was (5) The growth morphologies of syntaxial over-
sufficiently delayed for these secondary pore systems growths in solution coronas are quite distinct from
to have been available for laterally migrating, basin- those developed in basinal limestones of the same age
Syntaxial overgrowths in limestones 267
which never experienced contemporaneous meteoric JACKA,A.D. & BRAND,J.P. (1977)Biofacies and develop-
diagenesis. The latter overgrowths show well-organ- ment and differential occlusion of porosity in a Lower
Cretaceous (Edwards) reef. J . sedim. Petrol. 47,366-381.
ized serrated growth patterns which developed prior LAND,L.S. (1967)Diagenesisof skeletal carbonates. J.sedim.
to aragonite diagenesis and m a y therefore reflect Petrol. 37,914-930.
precipitation from marine or marine derived fluids. LAND, L.S., MACKENZIE,F.T. & COULD, S.J. (1967)
Pleistocene history of Bermuda. Bull. geol. SOC.Am. 78,
993-1006.
LONGMAN, M. W. (1980)Carbonate diagenetic textures from
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS nearsurface diagenetic environments. Bull. Am. Ass.
Petrol. Geol. 64,461487.
We thank Robin Bathurst (Liverpool), Tony Dickson LORENS,R.B. (1981) Sr, Cd, Mn and Co distribution
(Cambridge), Ian Fairchild (Birmingham), John Hud- coefficients in calcite as a function of calcite precipitation
rate. Geochim. cosmochim. Acta, 45,553-561.
son (Leicester) and Bill Meyers (Stony Brook) for MAHAN, B.H. (1969) University Chemistry, pp. 88-89.
helpful criticisms, a n d gratefully acknowledge finan- Addison-Wesley, London.
cial assistance from the N.E.R.C. (GMW and J R B ) MEYERS, W.J. (1974)Carbonate cement stratigraphy of the
and the Royal Society (JRB). Mississippian Lake Valley Formation, Sacramento Moun-
tains, New Mexico. J. sedim. Petrol. 44,1078-1088.
MEYERS,W.J. (1978) Carbonate cements: their regional
distribution and interpretation in Mississippian limestones
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