o Unlike the female reproductive system, most of the male reproductive system is located

outside of the body. These external structures include the penis, scrotum, and testicles.

Penis: This is the male organ used in sexual intercourse. It has three parts: the root,
which attaches to the wall of the abdomen; the body, or shaft; and the glans, which is
the cone-shaped part at the end of the penis. The glans, also called the head of the
penis, is covered with a loose layer of skin called foreskin. This skin is sometimes
removed in a procedure called circumcision. The opening of the urethra, the tube that
transports semen and urine, is at the tip of the penis. The glans of the penis also
contains a number of sensitive nerve endings.The body of the penis is cylindrical in
shape and consists of three circular shaped chambers. These chambers are made up of
special, sponge-like tissue. This tissue contains thousands of large spaces that fill with
blood when the man is sexually aroused. As the penis fills with blood, it becomes
rigid and erect, which allows for penetration during sexual intercourse. The skin of
the penis is loose and elastic to accommodate changes in penis size during an
erection.Semen, which contains sperm (reproductive cells), is expelled (ejaculated)
through the end of the penis when the man reaches sexual climax (orgasm). When the
penis is erect, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be
ejaculated at orgasm.
Scrotum: This is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind and below the
penis. It contains the testicles (also called testes), as well as many nerves and blood
vessels. The scrotum acts as a "climate control system" for the testes. For normal
sperm development, the testes must be at a temperature slightly cooler than body
temperature. Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to contract and relax,
moving the testicles closer to the body for warmth or farther away from the body to
cool the temperature.
Testicles (testes): These are oval organs about the size of large olives that lie in the
scrotum, secured at either end by a structure called the spermatic cord. Most men have
two testes. The testes are responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex
hormone, and for generating sperm. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called
seminiferous tubules. These tubes are responsible for producing sperm cells.
The internal organs of the male reproductive system, also called accessory organs,
include the following:

Epididymis: The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each
testicle. It transports and stores sperm cells that are produced in the testes. It also is
the job of the epididymis to bring the sperm to maturity, since the sperm that emerge
from the testes are immature and incapable of fertilization. During sexual arousal,
contractions force the sperm into the vas deferens.

Vas deferens: The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that travels from the
epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to just behind the bladder. The vas deferens
transports mature sperm to the urethra, the tube that carries urine or sperm to outside
of the body, in preparation for ejaculation.

Ejaculatory ducts: These are formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal
vesicles (see below). The ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra.
 Urethra: The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of the
body. In males, it has the additional function of ejaculating semen when the man
reaches orgasm. When the penis is erect during sex, the flow of urine is blocked from
the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.

Seminal vesicles: The seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas
deferens near the base of the bladder. The seminal vesicles produce a sugar-rich fluid
(fructose) that provides sperm with a source of energy to help them move. The fluid
of the seminal vesicles makes up most of the volume of a man's ejaculatory fluid, or
ejaculate.

Prostate gland: The prostate gland is a walnut-sized structure that is located below the
urinary bladder in front of the rectum. The prostate gland contributes additional fluid
to the ejaculate. Prostate fluids also help to nourish the sperm. The urethra, which
carries the ejaculate to be expelled during orgasm, runs through the center of the
prostate gland.

Bulbourethral glands: Also called Cowper's glands, these are pea-sized structures
located on the sides of the urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands produce
a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. This fluid serves to
lubricate the urethra and to neutralize any acidity that may be present due to residual
drops of urine in the urethra.

o The main external structures of the female reproductive system include:

Labia majora: The labia majora enclose and protect the other external reproductive
organs. Literally translated as "large lips," the labia majora are relatively large and
fleshy, and are comparable to the scrotum in males. The labia majora contain sweat
and oil-secreting glands. After puberty, the labia majora are covered with hair.

Labia minora: Literally translated as "small lips," the labia minora can be very small
or up to 2 inches wide. They lie just inside the labia majora, and surround the
openings to the vagina (the canal that joins the lower part of the uterus to the outside
of the body) and urethra (the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of
the body).

Bartholin's glands: These glands are located beside the vaginal opening and produce a
fluid (mucus) secretion.

Clitoris: The two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a small, sensitive protrusion that is
comparable to the penis in males. The clitoris is covered by a fold of skin, called the
prepuce, which is similar to the foreskin at the end of the penis. Like the penis, the
clitoris is very sensitive to stimulation and can become erect.

The internal reproductive organs in the female include:

 Vagina: The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the
outside of the body. It also is known as the birth canal.

Uterus (womb): The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is the home to a
developing fetus. The uterus is divided into two parts: the cervix, which is the lower
part that opens into the vagina, and the main body of the uterus, called the corpus. The
corpus can easily expand to hold a developing baby. A channel through the cervix
allows sperm to enter and menstrual blood to exit.

Ovaries: The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of
the uterus. The ovaries produce eggs and hormones.

Fallopian tubes: These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of the
uterus and serve as tunnels for the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the
uterus. Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the
fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants into the
lining of the uterine wall.

o Mitosis and meiosis

Cells divide and reproduce in two ways, mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis results in two
identical daughter cells, whereas meiosis results in four sex cells. Below we highlight the
keys differences and similarities between the two types of cell division.

Differences :
Mitosis
Involves one cell division
Results in two daughter cells
Results in diploid daughter cells (chromosome number remains the same as parent
cell)
Daughter cells are genetically identical
Occurs in all organisms except viruses
Creates all body cells (somatic) apart from the germ cells (eggs and sperm)
Prophase is much shorter
No recombination/crossing over occurs in prophase.
In metaphase individual chromosomes (pairs of chromatids) line up along the
equator.
During anaphase the sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.
Meiosis
Involves two successive cell divisions
Results in four daughter cells
Results in haploid daughter cells (chromosome number is halved from the parent
cell) Daughter cells are genetically different
Occurs only in animals, plants and fungi
Creates germ cells (eggs and sperm) only
Prophase I takes much longer
Involves recombination/crossing over of chromosomes in prophase I
 In metaphase I pairs of chromosomes line up along the equator.
During anaphase I the sister chromatids move together to the same pole.
During anaphase II the sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.

Similarities :
Mitosis
Diploid parent cell
Consists of interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
In metaphase individual chromosomes (pairs of chromatids) line up along the
equator.
During anaphase the sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.
Ends with cytokinesis.

Meiosis
Diploid parent cell
Consists of interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase (but twice)
In metaphase II individual chromosomes (pairs of chromatids) line up along the
equator.
During anaphase II the sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.
Ends with cytokinesis.

o
Dragonfly Courtship

As you might imagine, dragonflies don't engage in elaborate courtship rituals. In a

few families, the male dragonfly may display his colors, or fly over his territory to show a
potential mate what a good oviposition site he's chosen for their offspring, but that's about it.
Dragonfly foreplay leaves much to be desired. Because dragonflies have extraordinarily good
vision, the males rely mostly on their eyesight to find appropriate female partners. Since a
typical pond or lake habitat will support many species of dragonflies and damselflies, he must
be able to distinguish females of his own species from all the other Odonates flying around. A
male can recognize a conspecific female by observing her flight style, her colors and patterns,
and her size.

Dragonfly Mating

As with many insects, male dragonflies make the first move to initiate sex. When a
male spots a female of his own species, he must first subdue her. He'll approach her from
behind, usually while they are both in flight, and hold onto her thorax with his legs. If he's
feeling feisty, he might bite her, too. If he hopes to mate successfully, he must get a firmer
grip on her quickly. The male dragonfly will pull his abdomen forward and use his anal
appendages, a pair of cerci, to clasp her by the neck (her prothorax). Once he has her tightly
by the neck, he can extend his body and continue to fly with her, in tandem. This position is
known as tandem linkage.

Now that he's got a hold of a mate, the male dragonfly needs to prepare for sex.
Dragonflies have secondary sex organs, meaning they don't store sperm near the copulatory
organ. He must transfer some sperm from a gonopore on his ninth abdominal segment to his
penis, which is located under his second abdominal segment. Once he's charged his seminal
vesicle with sperm, he's ready to go.

Now for the acrobatics. The female's genital opening is near the tip of her abdomen,
while the male's penis is closer to his thorax (on the underside of his second abdominal
segment). The female must bend her abdomen forward, sometimes with coaxing from the
male, to bring her genitalia into contact with his penis. This position during copulation,
known as a wheel formation because the couple forms a closed circle with their joined
bodies, is unique to the order Odonata. In dragonflies, the sex organs lock together briefly
(not so for damselflies). Some dragonflies will mate in flight, while others will retire to a
nearby perch to consummate their relationship.

Competition Among Male Dragonflies

Female dragonflies operate by the "last in, first out" rule of fertilization. If given the
opportunity, she might mate with multiple partners, but the sperm from her final sexual
partner will fertilize her eggs, in most cases. Male dragonflies, therefore, have an incentive to
make sure their sperm is the last to be deposited in her.

A male dragonfly can increase his chances of fatherhood by destroying the sperm of
his competitors, and he's well equipped to do so when he mates. Some dragonflies have
backwards-facing hooks or barbs on their penises, which they can use to scoop out any sperm
they find inside their partner before depositing their own. Other dragonflies use their penises
to tamp down or move the offending sperm, pushing it aside before he places his own in the
ideal location for fertilization. Still other dragonfly males will dilute any existing sperm they
find. In all cases, his goal is to ensure that his sperm supersedes that of any prior partners she
has had.

Just to provide an added measure of security for his sperm, the male dragonfly will
often guard the female until she oviposits her eggs. He tries to prevent her from mating with
any other males, so his sperm is assured the "last in" position that will make him a father.
Male damselflies will often continue to grasp their partners with their cerci, refusing to let go
until she oviposits. He'll even endure a dunking in the pond if she submerges to place her
eggs. Many dragonflies prefer to guard their partners by simply chasing off any approaching
males, even engaging in wing-to-wing combat if necessary.