Shipbuilding Process: Planning and Production Control in Shipbuilding

Dr.Mostafa M.
Elafandy - Planning and Production Control in Shipbuilding
Planning and Production Control in Shipbuilding
Prepared by: Dr / Mostafa Mohamed El-Afandy
Shipbuilding Process
Alexandria University - Faculty of Engineering
Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering Department
SHIPBUILDING PROCESS
Shipbuilding is an industry that produces products (ships, offshore structures, floating plants, etc) for
customers (private owners, companies, governments, etc.), In most cases, the product is built to order
and customized to the specific requirements of the purchaser.
This applies even in cases where a similar series of ships is being built. The entire process is likely to
vary somewhat, depending on the customer involved, but it generally involves a number of specific
stages. These may be summarized as:
Development of owner's requirements.

Preliminary/concept design.
Contract design.
Bidding/contracting.
Detail design and planning.
Construction.
Contract Signing
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Dr.Mostafa M. Elafandy - Planning and Production Control in Shipbuilding
Owner requirements &

Preliminary Design
Start of Production
Detail Design Delivery
Planning &
Scheduling Production
Main Stages in Shipbuilding Process
The first stage in the shipbuilding process is the formulation of the product requirements by the
customer. The definition of the use or mission of a new ship may be narrow or broad, but the end
product should reflect the owner's needs and intended use.
Once an owner has identified the need for a new ship and defined operational requirements, the next
stage involves preliminary definition of the basic characteristics of the vessel. This preliminary or
concept design stage can be done internally by the owner's staff, by a design agent hired by the owner,
or by the staffs of one or more shipyards Common practice in the United States (but not overseas) has
been to use a design agent for preliminary design. The aim is to develop a design that will meet the
requirements while taking advantage of the building experience and capability of a particular shipyard
to minimize construction time and cost. The end product of this stage is a general definition of the ship,
including dimensions, hull form, general arrangement, powering, machinery arrangement, mission
systems definition (such as cargo capacity and handling equipment, combat systems, or habitability),
capacities of variable weights (such as fuel oil, water, crew, and stores) and preliminary definition of
major systems [such as structural, piping, electrical, machinery, and heating/ ventilation/ air
conditioning (HVAC)].
Based on the general description of the ship to be built, as determined by the end product of the
preliminary design stage, more detailed information is required to permit bids and/or contracts to be
prepared. This information, called the contract design, must be of sufficient detail to permit the
preparation of cost and time-to-build estimates by shipyards interested in the shipbuilding project. As in
the preliminary design stage, this work can be performed by the owner's staff, by design agents, or by
shipyard personnel. Following completion of the contract design stage, a specific shipyard is chosen to
build the vessel.
Unless an owner has involved a shipyard in the preliminary and/or contract design stage and thus is
negotiating a contract based on a mutually agreeable design, competitive bidding based on the contract
design and specifications is common practice, Due to the high cost of a new ship, contracts are
generally very long and complex The most significant factors are cost, delivery date, and performance
requirements,
After the bidding process is complete and a contract has been signed, the fifth stage of the shipbuilding
process, detail design and planning and scheduling. Shipbuilding involves the purchasing of tons of
raw materials and many thousands of components, the manufacturing of thousands of parts from the
raw materials, and the assembly of these parts and components Therefore, complex and very detailed
planning is required Detail design and planning must answer the questions of "what, where, how, when,
and by whom Determining what parts, assemblies, and systems are to be built and what components
are to be purchased is primarily detail design, Where and how are facility- use questions that include
determination of the location within the shipyard and construction tools and techniques to be used.
Considerations of subcontracting and in-house manufacture versus purchasing are also answered here.
These questions are resolved as part of planning. When determines the sequencing of all operations,
including purchasing and manufacturing, as well as need times for information (design, planning,
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approvals, etc.) This is the scheduling function. Finally, by whom relates to the utilization of the
shipyard work force. Clearly, there is considerable interdependence among the answers to these
questions. The success of any shipyard or shipbuilding project is directly related to the answers to the
questions or to the detail design and planning process.
Shipyard Organization:
The final stage of the shipbuilding process is the actual construction of the vessel. Ship construction
can be considered to occur in four manufacturing levels The first is parts manufacturing, using raw
materials (such as steel plate and sections, pipe, sheet metal, and cable) to manufacture individual parts
The purchasing and handling of components can be considered to be a part of this lowest
manufacturing level. The next manufacturing level involves the joining of parts and/or components to
form subassemblies or units These small collections of joined parts are then combined in the third
manufacturing level to form hull blocks Hull blocks are commonly the largest sections of ships built
away from the final building site. Erection, the final manufacturing level, involves the landing and
joining of blocks at the building site (such as launching ways, graving dock, or dry dock).
The actual construction phase of shipbuilding is primarily involved with assembly, whether of parts,
subassemblies, or blocks, to form a completed vessel. An important part of the construction phase is
verification that the ship complies with the contractual requirements. Consequently, the vessel is
subjected to a series of tests and trials prior to delivery to the owner.
Shipbuilding can therefore be viewed as a process that begins when an owner perceives a need for a
vessel to perform some set of' functions, that proceeds through a number of stages of paperwork
(design, contracting, planning, etc), and that culminates in a massive collection and joining of parts and
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components to manufacture the desired vessel. Productive shipbuilding is highly dependent on careful
consideration, control, and performance in each of these stages.
The shipbuilding industry is centuries old, paralleling the history of man. Shipbuilding techniques have
changed in response to changes in vessel design, materials, markets, and construction methods.
As industrial processes became more complex and efficient, shipbuilders kept pace with changing
technology. Shipbuilding began to be subdivided into specialties, such as hull construction, machinery,
outfitting, and painting. More recently, the development of mass production techniques and welding
both had profound impacts on shipbuilding.
SHIPBUILDING MANAGEMENT
Shipbuilding
ShipbuildingEconomic Theory
production
phases
Optimum construction rate is determined by several factors which include fixed costs, work space,
inventory costs, and changes in the construction rate. In addition to the cost of capital and the usual
overhead items, fixed costs include security, fire watches, corrosion control, and some support crafts. A
ship sitting in the yard incurs these costs whether work is being accomplished or not Consequently,
these costs lead to a shortening of the optimum construction time.
This effect is countered by costs associated with increased construction rate As manning and
construction rate are increased, so is interference among the crafts. This effect tends to lengthen the
optimum construction time. Figure 2-1(b) can be interpreted as either production rate (output per unit
time) or required labor hours (manning) per unit time as long as actual production corresponds to
planned (optimum) production.
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Fig (2.1) Production plan for traditional ship construction
Planning and Scheduling
The planning phase of a project is the listing of all jobs that must be performed in order to complete the
project. As part of planning, any required ordering of the jobs must be determined, as well as gross
requirements for material, manpower, and facilities Additionally, estimates of costs and job durations
are developed as a part of the planning process. Figure 7-1 shows the basic management cycle.
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Management Cycle.
Scheduling is the laying-out of the actual time order in which jobs are to be performed in order to
complete the project. Material and manpower requirements needed at each stage of production are
determined, as well as start and finish times for each job Production control is the monitoring of the
difference between actual and scheduled performance.
Networks:
In defining planning and scheduling, the need to identify independent jobs or activities and an order of
precedence for these jobs was described These data represent the prerequisites for employing the
primary techniques of the Critical Path Method (CPM) or the Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT) Both are based on networks Although it is rare in shipbuilding to actually employ
formal CPM or PERT algorithms, networking of subsets of the total project is often used to aid in
planning and scheduling Networks are formed by connecting events, represented by nodes, with
activities, represented by arrows Events occur' at the start or completion of an activity.
The following example of building a steel block (block 1-2) which consists of two subassemblies
(subassemblies 1 and 2), each of which is made up of steel parts fabricated from plate, will serve to
illustrate the generation of a network. Table 7-1 identifies the activities and their precedence
relationships Based on Table 7-1, it is now possible to draw the network representing this project
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(see Figure 7-4) In order to preserve the logical flow of the network, it is occasionally necessary to
utilize one or more dummy activities, shown in Figure 7-'1 as Dr Dummy activities may be used where
different activities have the same immediate predecessor and immediate successor They are also
required when the project contains groups of two or more jobs which have some, but not all, of their
immediate predecessors in common With the duration of each activity known, it is now possible to
determine the minimum project duration by finding the critical path
A path through a network is a set of nodes connected by arrows which begin at the initial node of a
network and end at a terminal node The length of a path is the total time it takes to traverse the path A
critical path is the longest path in a project network. There may be more than one critical path, and the
length of a critical path is the minimum project duration In the example, the path a, b, e, g, i, D2, j, is
the critical path, with a project duration of 23 days. The use of networks, with variations on job
duration options, can provide planning and scheduling with quantitative decision making information
PERT is used to consider activity duration uncertainties and CPM
is used to trade off total cost and the shortening of individual activities. Further extensions of these
techniques exist to evaluate resource limitations, multiple shipbuilding programs, etc. A primary
weakness of network management systems such as PERT and CPM is the cost in time and effort
required to maintain the network. Since resource management is dynamic, the network must be kept
current in order to be effective. This requires constant feedback.
Planning should also address work flow for current work and proposed new bids to serve as a guide for
yard capabilities in the face of actual and projected contracts Figure7-7, indicating a period of
interrupted work flow, should be avoided. Figure 7-8 shows a better planned, smooth work flow,
resulting from the blending of new contracts with existing contracts Such a plan provides guidance in
terms of the need for bidding on new contracts.
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Design Scheduling
Scheduling objectives for design and material definition, as shown in Figure 7-9, [6] are:
drawing issue timing commensurate with material lead times and production schedules
design man-hour control commensurate with a man-hour budget
material quantity control commensurate with a material budget
A shipbuilding master schedule provides dates for fabrication start, keel laying, launching, and delivery
for all ships contracted and/or expected to be built during some reasonable period (see Figure 7-10).
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Design Department Master Schedule
All ships in the order book are addressed plus those for which orders are expected. The format is a
combination of:
a Gantt chart (bar chart) representation of the shipbuilding master schedule showing keel laying,
launching, and delivery dates for each ship.
S-curves, each of which shows the accumulated design man-hours estimated for each ship (see
Chapter II for discussion of shipbuilding S-curves)
a plot of the total estimated design man-hours required by month
Figure 2-2 is an example of a ship production progress curve In this example, the actual time is t' At
this time, planned progress is about 40 percent. Actual progress is about 35 percent, while actual man-
hour expenditures are nearly 60 percent of the total manhour budget. The variance indicates that some
work packages are requiring more manhours than were estimated and budgeted.
Once man-hour budgets are assigned, each group manager is responsible for controlling the man-hour
expenditure rate, in addition to progress. Before design work starts, each group manager plans
expenditures relative to time in accordance with an S-curve . If a significant departure or trend away
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from the S-curve is noted during monthly entries of actual expenditures, as in Figure 7-17, the cause is
identified and manpower shifts are made accordingly.
Fig 7.17 Man-hour control S- curve
Planning and schedule charts

Planning and control are essential parts of project management. Three things occur in the planning and
control process: (1) During the conception and definition phases (before project work actually begins) a
plan is prepared specifying the project requirements, work tasks, responsibilities, schedules, and
budgets; (2) during the execution phase the plan is compared to actual project performance, time, and
cost; if there are discrepancies, (3) corrective actions are taken and the requirements, schedules, and
budgets updated.
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

Complex projects consist of numerous smaller, interrelated tasks and work elements. The procedure for
dividing the overall project into subelements is called the work breakdown structure or WBS. The
purpose of a WBS is to divide the total project into small pieces, sometimes called work packages.
Dividing the project into work packages makes it possible to prepare project schedules and cost
estimates and to assign management and task responsibility.
Atypical WBS might consist of the following five levels (in actuality the number of levels varies; the
name of the element description at each level is arbitrary): Level 1 represents the total project. At Level
2 the project is broken down into several major categories of work.
Table 6-1 gives partial descriptions of time, cost, and labor requirements for all the work packages in
the LOGON project.
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Scheduling
The scheduling of work elements is the most important step in planning because it is the basis for
allocating resources, estimating costs, and tracking project performance. Schedules show the timing for
work elements and denote when specific events and milestones take place.
Kind of schedules
At least two kinds of planning schedules are commonly used: Project schedules and task schedules.
One kind of project schedule is the project master schedule. It is used by project managers and upper
management for planning and reviewing the entire project. It shows the major project activities without
too much detail. Task schedules show the specific activities necessary to complete a task. Task
schedules are prepared by functional managers and incorporate interface and milestone events.
Gantt Charts (or Bar Chart)

The simplest and most commonly used scheduling technique is the Gantt chart (or bar chart), named
after the famous management consultant Henry L. Gantt (18611919). The chart consists of a
horizontal scale divided into time unitsdays, weeks, or monthsand a vertical scale showing project
work elementstasks, activities, work packages, and so forth. Figure 6-10 is an example of a Gantt
chart for the LOGON project using the work times given in Table 6-1. Work packages are listed on the
left-hand side and work weeks are listed along the bottom. The starting and completion times of jobs
are indicated by the beginning and ending of each bar.
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After the project is underway the Gantt chart becomes a means for assessing the status of individual
work elements and the project as a whole. Figure 6-12 shows progress as of week 20, the posted status
date. Work that has been completed is indicated by the heavy portion of the bars. The thinner part of
the bars represents the amount of work unfinished, or the time still needed to complete the tasks. The
delay in work package L, the project in Figure 6-12 is about 4 weeks behind schedule.
Disadvantages of Gantt Charts

One disadvantage of the Gantt chart is that it does not explicitly show interrelationships among work
elements, meaning that it does not reveal the effect of one work element falling behind schedule on
other elements. In most projects, certain work elements must be completed by a specific date to ensure
that the project is completed on target; however, others can fall behind without delaying the project.
Gantt charts alone provide no way of distinguishing elements that can be delayed from those that
cannot. Computerized project systems eliminate this problem as long as the input data is frequently and
periodically revised. The computer-generated Gantt chart in Figure 6-16 is an example; notice the
display of work completed by the darkened portion of the bars.
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Expense Charts
Gantt charts can be used for labor planning, resource allocation, and budgeting. Graphs can be
constructed based upon information from the Gantt chart to show period-by-period and cumulative
figures such as expenditures, labor, and resource requirements. As an example, in Table 6-2 the
activities during the week column (column 2) was derived from the Gantt chart in Figure 6-10.
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Summing across activities in a given week gives the weekly labor requirements (column 3), weekly
direct expense (column 4), and cumulative expense (column 5).
The information in the last two columns is shown graphically in Figure 6-13. Graphs such as this
clearly reveal capital funds, labor, and other requirements and are useful for planning the allocation of
resources and for monitoring work progress.
Hierarchy of Charts
As the size of the project increases, it becomes difficult to present, on one chart, sufficient information
about all of the project work elements. The summary schedule in Figure 6-15. Figure 6-15 is a
multilevel schedule. It shows both the higher-level phases of the project (denoted by summary bars)
and the detailed tasks within each phase (denoted by task bars).
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Basic Hull Construction Production Plans and Schedules
They based on the formally released contract plans, the hull construction planning group prepares basic
hull construction plans and schedules, including:
hull erection layout plan

block predefinition plan
hull construction processes plan
hull erection master schedule
budget control work volume
shipbuilding activity timing schedule
The hull erection layout plan is prepared in bar chart form 1t is based on the shipbuilding master
schedule, which provides dates for start fabrication, keel laying, shifting, launching, and delivery for
each ship under construction. The chart enables the hull construction planning group to check for
adequate shipyard space, such as for the storage of completed blocks and for the assembly of
grand blocks, to fix the positions of temporary cranes for on-unit, on-block, and on-board outfitting,
and to anticipate other problems caused by building ships simultaneously Block predefinition is
performed by production engineers using a midship section, a general arrangement, and sometimes a
machinery arrangement. The objective is to achieve high productivity in the integration of hull
construction, outfitting, and painting Major considerations are special hull structure and other features,
special owner requirements, and master plans for outfitting and painting processes, such as for holds,
engine rooms, etc The block predefinition plan is produced in two parts, a midship section block
predefinition plan and a general arrangement block predefinition plan. A production engineer uses the
block predefinition plan to develop a hull construction processes plan This plan must be developed to
the satisfaction of the hull construction department, shop, and section managers and the senior
production engineer It includes the following sections:
block definition on a midship section
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size, weight, and quantity of blocks by each category (bottom, side, longitudinal bulkhead, upper
deck, etc)
joining blocks to create grand blocks
erection sequence, including sequences by block categories
specific application of nesting, marking, and cutting methods, and a scrap ratio target
block assembly processes and different aspects of the processes for each category of blocks
represented in a midship section which shows main and internal structure
specific application of scaffolding methods and special work units for erection
specific application of automatic welding processes for erection
The hull erection master schedule network is the responsibility of a production engineer assigned to the
erection shop It must coordinate with counterparts in the outfitting shops, the on-board outfitting
schedules. The block predefinition plan provides the principal guidance for this schedule Particular
attention is given to large machinery items, such as diesel generators, which are separately landed
before additional blocks enclose the machinery space. This process requires each such outfit item to be
scheduled for erection just as if it were a block The budget control work volume is prepared using the
midship section and the block predefinition plan. A hull construction production engineer allocates
man-hours by using parameters based on normal past performances that relate man-hours to factors
such as:
hull weight by mild and high-tensile steel, block weight, and sub-block weight
welding length for subassembly and block assembly
parametric welding length for erection (by each weld size and position)
quantities of blocks by hull region (hold and engine room)
quantities of scaffold planks by hull region (aft body, fore body, and engine room)
The shipbuilding activity timing schedule is developed using the block predefinition plan, the erection
master schedule, the basic outfitting and painting plans, and the outfitting master schedule prepared by
production engineers in the outfitting department This schedule is produced in bar chart form by a hull
department production engineer It shows the timing required for each process, including outfitting and
painting processes tram yard plan issue to erection for each block. Further, the shipbuilding activity
timing schedule is sectionalized to separately address each hull region Dates are incorporated for:
erection
start and completion for block assembly
issue 01hull construction and outfitting drawings
requisitioning of steel material
issue of drawings required for material requisitioning
erection of major outfit components (landing large items on-board during blue sky outfitting)
The shipbuilding activity timing schedule becomes a master from which all subsequent schedules are
derived It is a control mechanism for rapid startup and continuing coordination of the build strategy for
which there is general agreement This schedule is approved by the general manager only alter assuring
that department and shop managers are in agreement
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Quality control and management system

Quality:
We all have needs, wants, requirements and expectations. Needs are essential for
life, to maintain certain standards, or essential for products and services, to fulfil
the purpose for which they have been acquired. According to Maslow (Maslow,
Abraham H., 1954)1, man is a wanting being; there is always some need he wants
to satisfy. Once this is accomplished, that particular need no longer motivates him
and he turns to another, again seeking satisfaction. Everyone has basic
physiological needs that are necessary to sustain life. (Food, water, clothing,
shelter). Maslow's research showed that once the physiological needs are fulfilled,
the need for safety emerges. After safety come social needs followed by the need
for esteem and finally the need for self-actualization or the need to realize ones
full potential. Satisfaction of physiological needs is usually associated with money
- not money itself but what it can buy. The hierarchy of needs is shown in Figure
2.1.
These needs are fulfilled by the individual purchasing, renting or leasing
products or services. Corporate needs are not too dissimilar. The physiological
needs of organizations are those necessary to sustain survival. Often profit
Figure 2.1 Hierarchy of needs
comes first because no organization can sustain a loss for too long but
functionality is paramount - the product or service must do the job for which it is
intended regardless of it being obtained cheaply. Corporate safety comes next in
terms of the safety of employees and the safety and security of assets followed by
social needs in the form of a concern for the environment and the community as
well as forming links with other organizations and developing contacts. Esteem is
represented in the corporate context by organizations purchasing luxury cars,
winning awards, badges such as ISO 9000, superior offices and infrastructures and
possessing those things that give it power in the market place and government.
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Self-actualization is represented by an organization's preoccupation with growth,

becoming bigger rather than better, seeking challenges and taking risks.
However, it is not the specific product or service that is needed but the benefits
that possession brings that is important. This concept of benefits is most
important and key to the achievement of quality.
Requirements are what we request of others and may encompass our needs but
often we don't fully realize what we need until after we have made our request.
For example, now that we own a mobile phone we discover we really need hands-
free operation when using the phone while driving a vehicle. Our requirements at
the moment of sale may or may not therefore express all our needs. By focusing
on benefits resulting from products and services, needs can be converted into
wants such that a need for food may be converted into a want for a particular
brand of chocolate. Sometimes the want is not essential but the higher up the
hierarchy of needs we go, the more a want becomes essential to maintain our
social standing, esteem or to realize our personal goals. Our requirements may
therefore include such wants - what we would like to have but are not essential for
survival.
Expectations are implied needs or requirements. They have not been requested
because we take them for granted - we regard them to be understood within our
particular society as the accepted norm. They may be things to which we are
accustomed, based on fashion, style, trends or previous experience. One therefore
expects sales staff to be polite and courteous, electronic products to be safe and
reliable, policemen to be honest, coffee to be hot etc. One would like politicians to
be honest but in some countries we have come to expect them to be corrupt,
dishonest or at least, economical with the truth!
In supplying products or services there are three fundamental parameters that

determine their saleability. They are price, quality and delivery. Customers require
products and services of a given quality to be delivered by or be available by a
given time and to be of a price that reflects value for money. These are the
requirements of customers. An organization will survive only if it creates and
retains satisfied customers and this will only be achieved if it offers for sale
products or services that respond to customer needs and expectations as well as
requirements. While price is a function of cost, profit margin and market forces,
and delivery is a function of the organization's efficiency and effectiveness, quality
is determined by the extent to which a product or service successfully serves the
purposes of the user during usage (not just at the point of sale). Price and delivery
are both transient features, whereas the impact of quality is sustained long after
the attraction or the pain of price and delivery has subsided.
Quality
The degree to which a
set of inherent
characteristics fulfils a
need or expectation
that is stated, general
implied or obligatory.
The word quality has many meanings:
A degree of excellence
Conformance with requirements
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The totality of characteristics of an entity that bear on its ability to satisfy stated
or implied needs
Fitness for use
Fitness for purpose
Freedom from defects imperfections or contamination
Delighting customers
These are just a few meanings; however, the meaning used in the context of ISO
9000 was concerned with the totality of characteristics that satisfy needs but in
the 2000 version this has changed. Quality in ISO 9000:2000 is defined as the
degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils requirements.
The former definition focused on an entity that was described as a product or

service but with this new definition, the implication is that quality is relative to
what something should be and what it is. The something maybe a product,
service, decision, document, piece of information or any output from a process. In
describing an output, we express it in terms of its characteristics. To comment on
the quality of anything we need a measure of its characteristics and a basis for
comparison. By combining the definition of the terms quality and requirement in
ISO 9000:2000, quality can be expressed as the degree to which a set of inherent
characteristics fulfils a need or expectation that is stated, generally implied or
obligatory.
Quality System Documentations
Having made the comparison we can still assess whether the output is 'fitness
for use'. In this sense the output may be of poor quality but remain fit for use. The
specification is often an imperfect definition of what a customer needs; because
some needs can be difficult to express clearly and it doesn't mean that by not
conforming, the product or service is unfit for use. It is also possible that a product
that conforms to requirements may be totally useless.
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It all depends on whose requirements are being met. For example, if a company
sets its own standards and these do not meet customer needs, its claim to
producing quality products is bogus. On the other hand, if the standards are well
in excess of what the customer requires, the price tag may well be too high for
what customers are prepared to pay - there probably isn't a market for a gold-
plated mousetrap, for instance, except as an ornament perhaps!
The interested parties
The customer
A product that possesses features that satisfy customer needs is a quality
product. Likewise, one that possesses features that dissatisfy customers is not a
quality product. So the final arbiter on quality is the customer. The customer
is the only one who can decide whether the quality of Customer
the products and services you supply is satisfactory and
you will be conscious of this either by direct feedback or Organization that
by loss of sales, reduction in market share and, receives a
ultimately, loss of business. This brings us back to product or service
benefits. The customer acquires a product for the includes:
benefits that possession will bring. Therefore if the Purchaser,
product fails to deliver the expected benefits it will be consumer, client,
considered by the customer to be of poor quality. So when making judgements
about quality, the requirement should be expressed in terms of benefits not a
set of derived characteristics. In the foregoing it was convenient to use the term
customer but the definition of quality does not only relate to customers.
Employees
Employees may not be interested in the products and services, but are
interested in the conditions in which they are required to work. Employees are
stakeholders because they can withdraw their labour.
Suppliers
Suppliers are interested in the success of the organization because it may in
turn lead to their success. However, suppliers are also stakeholders because
they can withdraw their patronage. They can choose their customers. If you
treat your suppliers badly such as delaying payment of invoices for trivial
mistakes, you may find they terminate the supply at the first opportunity
putting your organization into a difficult position relative to its customer
commitments.
Investors
Often the most common type of stakeholder, owners, investors including banks
and shareholders are interested in protecting their stake in the business. They
will withdraw their stake if the organization fails to perform. Poorly conceived
products and poorly managed processes and resources will not yield the
expected return and the action of investors can directly affect the supply chain -
although they are not customers, they are feeding the supply chain with much
needed resources.
In the event that this supply of resource is terminated, the organization ceases
to have the capability to serve its customers.
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The success of any organization therefore depends upon understanding the

needs and expectations of all the interested parties, not just its customers and
upon managing the organization in a manner that leads to the continued
satisfaction of all parties.
Quality and price
Most of us are attracted to certain products and services by their price. If the
price is outside our reach we don't even consider the product or service,
whatever its quality, except perhaps to form an opinion about it. We also rely on
price as a comparison, hoping that we can obtain the same characteristics at a
lower price. In the luxury goods market, a high price is often a mark of quality
but occasionally it is a confidence trick aimed at making more profit for the
supplier. When certain products and services are rare, the price tends to be high
and when plentiful the price is low, regardless of their quality.
One can purchase the same item in different stores at different prices, some as
much as 50% less, many at 10% less than the highest price. You can also
receive a discount for buying in bulk, buying on customer credit card and being
a trade customer rather than a retail customer. Travellers know that goods are
more expensive at the airport than from the country craft shop. However, in the
country craft shop, defective goods or 'seconds' may well be on sale, whereas at
the airport the supplier will as a rule, want to display only the best examples.
Often an increase in the price of a product may indicate a better after-sales
service, such as free on-site maintenance, free delivery, free telephone support
line. The discount shops may not offer such benefits.
Quality and cost
Philip Crosby published his book Quality Is Free in 1979 and caused a lot of raised
eyebrows among executives because they always believed the removal of defects
was an in-built cost in running any business. To get quality you had to pay for
inspectors to detect the errors! What Crosby told us was that if we could eliminate
all the errors and reach zero defects, we would not only reduce our costs but also
increase the level of customer satisfaction by several orders of magnitude. In fact
there is the cost of doing the right things right first time and the cost of not doing
the right things right first time.
The latter are often referred to as quality costs or the cost incurred because failure
is possible. Using this definition, if failure of a product, a process or a service is not
possible, there would be no quality costs. It is rather misleading to refer to the
cost incurred because failure is possible as quality costs because we could classify
the costs as avoidable costs and unavoidable costs. We have to pay for labour,
materials, facilities, machines, transport etc. These costs are unavoidable but we
are also paying in addition some cost to cover the prevention, detection and
removal of errors.
Quality characteristics
Any feature or characteristic of a product or service that is needed to satisfy
customer needs or achieve fitness for use is a quality characteristic. When dealing
with products the characteristics are almost always technical characteristics,
whereas service quality characteristics have a human dimension. Some typical
quality characteristics are given below.
Product characteristics
21
Accessibility Functionality Size

Availability Interchangeability Susceptibility
Appearance Maintainability Storability
Adaptability Odour Strength
Cleanliness Operability Taste
Consumption Portability Testability
Durability Producibility Traceability
Disposability Reliability Toxicity
Emittance Reparability Transportability
Flammability Safety Vulnerability
Flexibility Security Weight
Service quality characteristics

Accessibility Credibility Honesty
Accuracy Dependability Promptness
Courtesy Efficiency Responsiveness
Comfort Effectiveness Reliability
Competence Flexibility Security
Quality, reliability and safety
There is a school of thought that distinguishes between quality and reliability
and quality and safety. Quality is thought to be a non-time-dependent
characteristic and reliability a time-dependent characteristic. Quality is thought
of as conformance to specification regardless of whether the specification
actually meets the needs of the customer or society. If a product or service is
unreliable, it is clearly unfit for use and therefore of poor quality. If a product is
reliable but emits toxic fumes, is too heavy or not transportable when required
to be, it is of poor quality. Similarly, if a product is unsafe it is of poor quality
even though it may meet its specification in other ways. In such a case the
specification is not a true reflection of customer needs.
Figure 2.2 shows some of the characteristics of product quality - others have
been identified previously.
Quality management
Eight management principles

1- Customer focus
2- Leadership
3- Process approach
4- Involvement of people
5- System approach to management
6- Continual improvement
7- Factual approach to decision making
8- Mutually beneficial supplier relationship
22
There are two schools of thought on quality management. One views quality
management as the management of success and the other the elimination of
failure. They are both valid. Each approaches the subject from a different angle.
The 'success' school is characterized by five questions (Hoyle, David and
Thompson, John, 2001)3:
1 What are you trying to do?

2 How do you make it happen?
3 How do you know it's right?
4 How do you know it's the best way of doing it?
5 How do you know it's the right thing to do?
The 'failure elimination' school is characterized by five different questions
1 How do you know what is needed?

2 What could affect your ability to do it right?
3 What checks are made to verify achievement?
4 How do you ensure the integrity of these checks?
5 What action is taken to prevent a recurrence of failure?
In an ideal world, if we could design products, services and processes that could
not fail we would have achieved the ultimate goal. Success means not only that
products, services and processes fulfil their function but also that the function is
what customers' desire. Failure means not only that products, services and
processes would fail to fulfil their function but also that their function was not
what customers desired. A gold-plated mousetrap that does not fail is not a
success if no one needs a gold-plated mousetrap!
The introductory clause of ISO 9001:1994 contained a statement that the aim of
the requirements is to achieve customer satisfaction by prevention of
nonconformities. (This was indicative of the failure school of thought.) The
introductory clause of ISO 9001:2000 contains a statement that the aim is to
enhance customer satisfaction through the effective application of the quality
management system and the assurance of conformity to customer and applicable
regulatory requirements. (This is indicative of the success school of thought.)
In reality you cannot be successful unless you know of the risks you are taking
and plan to eliminate, reduce or control them. A unification of these approaches is
what is therefore needed for organizations to achieve, sustain and improve
quality. You therefore need to approach the achievement of quality from two
different angles and answer two questions. What do we need to do to succeed and
what do we need to do to prevent failure?
Quality parameters
Quality is a composite of three parameters: quality of design, quality of
conformance and quality of use:
Quality of design is the extent to which the design reflects a product or service
that satisfies customer needs and expectations. All the necessary characteristics
should be designed into the product or service at the outset.
Quality of conformance is the extent to which the product or service conforms to
the design standard. The design has to be faithfully reproduced in the product or
service.
23
Quality of use is the extent by which the user is able to secure continuity of use
from the product or service. Products need to have a low cost of ownership, be
safe and reliable, maintainable in use and easy to use.
Did you know?

Neither the
definition of a
quality
management
principle nor the
eight principles
themselves
contain the
word QUALITY
Quality management principles
As explained at the beginning of this chapter, we need principles to help us
determine the right things to do and understand why we do what we do. The more
prescription we have the more we get immersed in the detail and lose sight of our
objectives - our purpose - our reason for doing what we do. Once we have lost
sight of our purpose, our actions and decisions follow the mood of the moment.
CUSTOMER CONTINUAL
FOCUS IMPROVEMENT
LEADERS
HIP
MUTUALLY
PROCESS BENEFICIAL
APPROACH SUPPLIER
RELATIONSHIPS
INVOLVEME
SYSTEM NT OF
PEOPLE
APPROACH
Customer focus FACTUAL
Figure 2.3 The eight quality management
Customer focus means putting your energy into satisfying customers and
principles
understanding that profitability or avoidance of loss comes from satisfying
customers. Profit is not the reason for an organization's existence. Profit is needed
in order to grow the organization so that it may satisfy more customers. A profit
focus is an inward seeking focus, a customer focus is an outward seeking focus.
Customer focus means organizing work as a process that converts customers
needs into satisfied customers. It means that all processes possess a customer
focus.
The customer focus principle is reflected in ISO 9001 through the requirements
addressing:
Communication with the customer

Care for customer property
The determination of customer needs and expectations
Appointment of a management representative
24
Management commitment
Leadership
This principle is expressed as follows:
Leaders establish unity of purpose and direction for the organization. They should
create and maintain the internal environment in which people can become fully
involved in achieving the organization's objectives.
Leaders exist at all levels in an organization - they are not simply the ones at the
top. Within every team there needs to be a leader - one who provides a role-model
consistent with the values of the organization. It is the behaviour of leaders (our
role models) that influence our lives - not just in the business world but also in our
family and leisure activities.
The leadership principle is reflected in ISO 9001 through the requirements
addressing:
The setting of objectives and policies

Planning
Internal communication
Creating an effective work environment
Audit classification
1- Internal Audit: Conducted by the organization for the benefits of the

organizations management.
2- External Audit :
a- 2nd Party Audit: Conducted by the organization on its suppliers.
b- 3rd Party Audit : Conducted by independent external party for the
purpose of certification only.
Internal audits
Auditing for conformance with planned arrangements
The standard requires the organization to conduct internal audits at planned
intervals to determine whether the quality management system conforms to
the planned arrangements.
Why is this necessary?
The purpose of quality audits is to establish, by an unbiased means, factual
information on quality performance. Quality audits are the measurement
component of the quality system. Having established a quality system it is
necessary to install measures that will inform management whether the system is
being effective. Installing any system without some means of being able to verify
whether it is doing its intended job is a waste of time and effort. Audits gather
facts, they should not change the performance of what is being measured and
should always be performed by someone who has no influence over what is being
measured.
Strategic audit
The strategic audit should establish that:
25
there is a defined process for establishing the organizations goals and

objectives
an analysis of current and future needs of customers and other interested
parties has been carried out
the requirements which the organization needs to meet to fulfil its mission
have been determined
objectives have been established for achieving these requirements
priorities for action have been set
the products, services and projects that need to be developed or abandoned
to achieve these objectives have been identified
the risks to success have been quantified
the processes for achieving the objectives have been designed and
constructed
the information, resources, criteria and methods for effective operation of
these processes have been identified, developed and provided
the necessary monitoring, measurement, analysis and improvement pro-
cesses have been designed and installed
Project or product audit
The project audit should be conducted for each new project (i.e. an undertaking
that requires the development of new or modified products, processes, services).
The project audit should establish that:
any changes to the management system processes that are needed to
achieve specific product requirements have been identified
the processes have been modified or new processes designed
the information, resources, criteria and methods for effective operation and
control of these processes have been identified, developed and provided
the necessary monitoring, measurement, analysis and improvement pro-
cesses have been designed and installed
Quality control (QC)
The ISO definition states that quality control is part of quality management
focused on fulfilling requirements.
Control is sometimes perceived as undesirable as it removes freedom, but if
everyone were free to do just as they liked there would be chaos. Controls prevent
change and when applied to quality they regulate quality performance and
prevent undesirable changes being present in the quality of the product or service
being supplied. When operations are under control they are predictable and
predictability is a factor that is vital for any organization to be successful. If you
cannot predict what might happen when a process is initiated, you are relying on
chance. The quality of products and services cannot be left to chance.
The simplest form of quality control is illustrated in Figure 2.4. Quality control
can be applied to particular products, to processes that produce the products or to
Figure 2.4 Generic

control model 26
the output of the whole organization by measuring the overall quality

performance of the organization.
Control before the event
Some failures cannot be allowed to occur and so must be prevented from
happening through rigorous planning and design.
Control during the event
Some failures must be corrected immediately using automatic controls or mistake
proofing. By continuous monitoring of parameters in a processing plant the
temperature, pressure, quantities etc, are adjusted to maintain output within
specified limits.
Control after the event
Where the consequences of failure are less severe or where other types of sensors
are not practical or possible, output verification can be used as a means of
detecting failure. Product inspection and test is control after the event because it
occurs after the product is produced.
Quality control as a label
'Quality control' is also the term used as the name of a department. In most cases
Quality Control Departments perform inspection and test activities and the name
derives from the authority that such departments have been given. They sort
good products from bad products and authorize the release of the good products.
It is also common to find that Quality Control Departments perform supplier
control activities, which are called Supplier Quality Assurance or Vendor Control.
Universal sequence of steps
The following steps can accomplish control of quality, or anything else for that
matter:
1 Determine what parameter is to be controlled.

2 Establish its criticality and whether you need to control before, during or
after results are produced.
3 Establish a specification for the parameter to be controlled which provides
limits of acceptability and units of measure.
4 Produce plans for controls that specify the means by which the character-
istics will be achieved and variation detected and removed.
5 Organize resources to implement the plans for quality control.
6 Install a sensor at an appropriate point in the process to sense variance
from specification.
7 Collect and transmit data to a place for analysis.
8 Verify the results and establish whether the variance is within the range
expected for a stable process (the status quo).
9 Diagnose the cause of any variance beyond the expected range.
10 Propose remedies and decide on the action needed to restore the status
quo.
11 Take the agreed action and check that process stability has been restored.
Variation
Variation is present in all systems. Nothing is absolutely stable. If you monitor the
difference between the measured value and the required value of a characteristic
and plot it on a horizontal timescale in the order the products were produced, you
27
would notice that there is variation over time. There does not have to be a
required value to spot variation. If you monitor any parameter over time (duration,
resource consumption, strength, weight etc) you will see a pattern of variation
that with an appropriate scale will show up significant deviations from the
average.
Common cause variation is random and therefore adjusting a process on
detection of a common cause will destabilize the process. The cause has to be
removed, not the process adjusted. When dealing with either common cause or
special cause problems the search for the root cause will indicate whether the
cause is random and likely to occur again or a one-off event. If it is random, only
action on the system will eliminate it. If it is a one-off event, no action on the
system will prevent its recurrence - it just has to be fixed. Imposing rules will not
prevent a nonconformity caused by a worn out tool that someone forgot to
replace. A good treatment of common cause and special cause variation is given
in (Deming, W. Edwards, 1982)5.
With a stable process the spread of common cause variation will be within
certain limits. These limits are not the specification limits but are limits of natural
variability of the process. These limits can be calculated and are referred to as the
Upper and Lower Control Limits (UCL & LCL). The control limits may be outside the
upper and lower specification limits to start with but as common causes are
eliminated, they close in and eventually the spread of variation is all within the
specification limits. Any variation outside the control limits will be rare and will
signal the need for corrective action. This is illustrated in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 Control limits and specification limits
Keeping the process under control is process control. Keeping the process within
the limits of the customer specification is quality control. The action needed to
make the transition from process control to quality control is an improvement
action and this is dealt with next.
Example the sales data now plotted with control limits in Figure 4.4. We can see that this process was
stable and it is unwise to ask, 'Why were sales so low in Yr 5 Month 1?' or 'Why were sales so high in
Yr 5 Month 4?' Trying to find the answers to these questions could waste much time and effort, but
would not change or improve the process. It would be useful, however, to ask, 'Why was the sales
average so low and how can we increase it?'
28
Consider now a different set of sales data (Figure 4.5). This process was unstable and it is wise to ask,
'Why did the average sales increase after week 18?' Trying to find an answer to this question may
We
Figure 4.5 ek
Monthly sales
data
help to identify a special cause of variation. This in turn may lead to action which ensures that the
sales do not fall back to the previous average. If the cause of this beneficial change is not identified, the
managers may be powerless to act if the process changes back to its previous state.
The use of run charts and control limits can help managers and process operators to ask useful
questions which lead to better process management and improvements. They also discourage the asking
of questions which lead to wasted effort and increased cost. Control charts (in this case a simple run
chart with control limits) help managers generally to distinguish between common causes of variation
and real change, whether that be for the worse or for the better.
People in all walks of working life would be well advised to accept the inherent common cause
variation in their processes and act on the special causes. If the latter are undesirable and can be
prevented from recurring, the process will be left only with common cause variation and it will be
stable. Moreover, the total variation will be reduced and the outputs more predictable.
Accuracy and precision

29
In the examination of process data, confusion often exists between the accuracy and precision of a
process. An analogy may help to clarify the meaning of these terms.
Two men with rifles each shoot one bullet at a target, both having aimed at the bull's eye. By a highly
improbable coincidence, each marksman hits exactly the same spot on the target, away from the bull's
eye (Figure 4.6). What instructions should be given to the men in order to improve their performance?
Figure 4.6 The first coincidental shot from

each of two marksmen
Some may feel that each man
should be told to alter his gun-sights to adjust the aim: ' down a little and to the right' . Those who have
done some shooting, however, will realize that this is premature, and that a more sensible instruction is
to ask the men to fire again - perhaps using four more bullets, without altering the aim, to establish the
nature of each man's shooting process.
If this were to be done, we might observe two different types of pattern (Figure 4.7). Clearly, marksman
1 (Fred) is precise because all the bullet holes are clustered together - there is little spread, but he is not
accurate since on average his shots have missed the bull's eye.
It should be a simple job to make the adjustment for accuracy - perhaps to the gun-sight - and improve
his performance to that shown in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.7 The results of five shots each for Fred and Jim their first
identical shots are ringed
30
Marksman 1 (Fred)
Figure 4.8 Shooting process, after adjustment of the gun-sight
Marksman 2 (Jim) has a completely different problem. We now see that the reason for his first wayward
shot was completely different to the reason for Fred's. If we had adjusted Jim's gun-sights after just one
shot, ' down a little and to the right' , Jim's whole process would have shifted, and things would have
been worse (Figure 4.9).
Table 4.3 Lengths of 100

steel rods (mm)
14414615414615115013415314
51391431521541461521481571
53155157157150145147149144
13715514114714915515815014
91561451481521541511501541
53155145152148152146152142
14416015014915014614815714
71441481491551501531481571
48149153153155149151155142
15015014615614816015214715
81541431561511511511521571
49154140157151
Marksma
Figure 4.9 Marskmann22(Jim)
(Jim)after
incorrect adjustment of gun-sight
Jim's next shot would then have been even further away from the bull's eye, as the adjustment affects
only the accuracy and not the precision. Jim's problem of spread or lack of precision is likely to be a
much more complex problem than Fred s lack of accuracy. The latter can usually be amended by a
simple adjustment, whereas problems of wide scatter require a deeper investigation into the causes of
the variation.
Several points are worth making from this simple analogy:
There is a difference between the accuracy and the precision of a process;
The accuracy of a process relates to its ability to hit the target value;
The precision of a process relates to the degree of spread of the values (variation);
The distinction between accuracy and precision may be assessed only by looking at a number of
results or values, not by looking at individual ones;
Making decisions about adjustments to be made to a process, on the basis of one individual result,
may give an undesirable outcome, owing to lack of information about process accuracy and
precision;
The adjustment to correct lack of process accuracy is likely to be 'simpler' than the larger
investigation usually required to understand or correct problems of spread or large variation.
31
Figure 4.10 Histogram of 100 steel rod lengths

The shooting analogy is useful when we look at the performance of a manufacturing process producing
goods with a variable property. Consider a steel rod cutting process which has as its target a length of
150 mm. The overall variability of such a process may be determined by measuring a large sample - say
100 rods - from the process (Table 4.3), and shown graphically as a histogram (Figure 4.10). Another
method of illustration is a frequency polygon which is obtained by connecting the mid-points of the
tops of each column (Figure 4.11).
Figure 4.11 Frequency

polygon of 100 steel rod
32
lengths
When the number of rods measured is very large and the class intervals small, the polygon
approximates to a curve, called the frequency curve (Figure 4.12). In many cases, the pattern would
take the symmetrical form shown - the bell-shaped curve typical of the ' normal distribution . The
greatest number of rods would have the target value, but there would be appreciable numbers either
larger or smaller than the target length. Rods with dimensions further from the central value would
occur progressively less frequently.
Figure 4.12 The normal distribution of a continuous variable

It is possible to imagine four different types of process frequency curve, which correspond to the four
different performances of the two marksmen -see Figure 4.13. Hence, process 4 is accurate and
relatively precise, as the average of the lengths of steel rod produced is on target, and all the lengths are
reasonably close to the mean.
If only common causes of variation are present, the output from a process forms a distribution that is
stable over time and is, therefore, predictable (Figure 4.14a). Conversely, if special causes of variation
are present, the process output is not stable over time and is not predictable (Figure 4.14b). For a
detailed interpretation of the data, and before the design of a process control system can take place, this
intuitive analysis must be replaced by more objective and quantitative methods of summarizing the
histogram or frequency curve. In particular, some measure of both the location of the central value and
of the spread must be found.
Variation and management
So how should John, David and Sheila, whom we met at the beginning of this chapter, manage their
respective processes? First of all, basing each decision on just one result is dangerous. They all need to
get the 'big picture', and see the context of their data/information. This is best achieved by plotting a run
chart, which will show whether or not the process has or is changing over time.
The run chart becomes a control chart if decision lines are added and this will help the managers to
distinguish between:
common cause variation - inherent in the process

special cause variation - due to real changes.
These managers must stop blaming people and start examining processes and the causes of variation.
33
Fig. 4.14 common and special causes

of variation
34
The purpose of a control chart is to detect change in the performance of a process. A control chart
illustrates the dynamic performance of the process, whereas a histogram gives a static picture of
variations around a mean or average. Ideally these should be used together to detect:
changes in absolute level (centring/accuracy)
changes in variability (spread/precision).
Generally pictures are more meaningful than tables of results. It is easier to detect relatively large
changes, with respect to the underlying variation, than small changes and control limits help the
detection of change.
Measures of accuracy or centering
In particular a measure of the central value is necessary, so that the accuracy or centring of a process
may be estimated. There are various ways of doing this:
Mean (or arithmetic average)

This is simply the average of the observations, the sum of all the measurements divided by the number
of the observations. For example, the mean of the first row of four measurements of rod lengths in
Table 4.3: 144 mm, 146 mm, 154 mm, and 146 mm is obtained:
35
1-Median
If the measurements are arranged in order of magnitude, the median is simply the value of the middle
item. This applies directly if the number in the series is odd. When the number in the series is even, as
in our example of the first four rod lengths in Table 4.1, the median lies between the two middle
numbers. Thus, the four measurements arranged in order of magnitude are:
144, 146, 146, 154.
The median is the middle item; in this case 146. In general, about half the values will be less than the
median value, and half will be more than it. An advantage of using the median is the simplicity with
which it may be determined, particularly when the number of items is odd.
2- Mode
A third method of obtaining a measure of central tendency is the most commonly occurring value, or
mode. In our example of four, the value 146 occurs twice and is the modal value. It is possible for the
mode to be nonexistent in a series of numbers or to have more than one value. When data are grouped
into a frequency distribution, the mid-point of the cell with the highest frequency is the modal value.
During many operations of recording data, the mode is often not easily recognized or assessed.
36
3-Relationship between mean, median and mode
Some distributions, as we have seen, are symmetrical about their central value. In these cases, the
values for the mean, median and mode are identical. Other distributions have marked asymmetry and
are said to be skewed. Skewed distributions are divided into two types. If the tail of the distribution
stretches to the right the higher values, the distribution is said to be positively skewed; conversely in
negatively skewed distributions the tail extends towards the left the smaller values. Figure 5.1
illustrates the relationship between the mean, median and mode of moderately skew distributions. An
approximate relationship is:
Mean Mode = 3 (Mean Median).
Thus, knowing two of the parameters enables the third to be estimated
Measures of precision or spread

Measures of the extent of variation in process data are also needed. Again there
are a number of methods:
1- Range
The range is the difference between the highest and the lowest observations and
is the simplest possible measure of scatter. For example, the range of the first four
rod lengths is the difference between the longest (154 mm) and the
37
The range offers a measure of scatter which can be used widely, owing to its
simplicity. There are, however, two major problems in its use:
(i) The value of the range depends on the number of observations in the sample.
The range will tend to increase as the sample size increases.
This can be shown by considering again the data on steel rod lengths
in Table 4.3:
The range of the first two observations is 2 mm.
The range of the first four observations is 10 mm.
The range of the first six observations is also 10 mm.
The range of the first eight observations is 20 mm.
(ii) Calculation of the range uses only a portion of the data obtained. The range
remains the same despite changes in the values lying between the lowest and the
highest values.
It would seem desirable to obtain a measure of spread which is free from these
two disadvantages.
2 - Standard deviation
The standard deviation takes all the data into account and is a measure of the
deviation of the values from the mean. It is best illustrated by an example.
Consider the deviations of the first four steel rod lengths from the mean:
Measurements above the mean have a positive deviation and measurements

below the mean have a negative deviation. Hence, the total deviation from the
mean is zero, which is obviously a useless measure of spread. If, however, each
deviation is multiplied by itself, or squared, since a negative number multiplied by
a negative number is positive, the squared deviations will always be positive:
38
The standard deviation, normally denoted by the Greek letter sigma is the
square root of the variance, which then measures the spread in the same units as
the variable, i.e., in the case of the steel rods, in millimetres.
The true standard deviation like , can never be known, but for simplicity, the
conventional symbol will be used throughout this book to represent the process
standard deviation. If a sample is being used to estimate the spread of the
process, then the sample standard deviation will tend to under-estimate the
standard deviation of the whole process. This bias is particularly marked in small
samples. To correct for the bias, the sum of the squared deviations is divided by
the sample size minus one. In the above example, the estimated process standard
deviation s is
The normal distribution

The meaning of the standard deviation is perhaps most easily explained in terms
of the normal distribution. If a continuous variable is monitored, such as the
lengths of rod from the cutting process, the volume of paint in tins from a filling
process, the weights of tablets from a pelletizing process, or the monthly sales of
a product, that variable will usually be distributed normally about a mean . The
spread of values may be measured in terms of the population standard deviation,
which defines the width of the bell-shaped curve. Figure 5.2 shows the
proportion of the output expected to be found between the values of ,2
and 3 .
39
Suppose the process mean of the steel rod cutting process is 150 mm and that the
standard deviation is 5 mm, then from a knowledge of the shape of the curve and
the properties of the normal distribution, the following facts would emerge:
We may be confident then that almost all the steel rods produced will have
lengths between 135 mm and 165 mm. The approximate distance between the
two extremes of the distribution, therefore, is 30 mm, which is equivalent to 6
standard deviations or 6 .
The mathematical equation and further theories behind the normal distribution
are given in Appendix A. This appendix includes a table on page 368 which gives
the probability that any item chosen at random from a normal distribution will fall
outside a given number of standard deviations from the mean. The table shows
that, at the value + 1.96 , only 0.025 or 2.5 per cent of the population will
exceed this length. The same proportion will be less than 1.96 . Hence 95
per cent of the population will lie within 1.96 .
In the case of the steel rods with mean length 150 mm and standard deviation 5
mm, 95 per cent of the rods will have lengths between:
150 (1.96 _ 5) mm
40
i.e. between 140.2 mm and 159.8 mm. Similarly, 99.8 per cent of the rod lengths
should be inside the range:
3.09 ,
i.e. 150 (3.09 _ 5) or 134.55 mm to 165.45 mm.
Quality improvement (QI)

Firstly we need to put quality improvement in context because it is minefield of
terms and concepts that overlap one another. There are three things that are
certain in this life, death, taxes and change! We cannot improve anything unless
we know its present condition and this requires measurement and analysis to tell
us whether improvement is both desirable and feasible. Improvement is always
relative.
This leads us to ask four key questions:
1 Are we doing it right?
2 Can we keep on doing it right?
3 Are we doing it in the best way?
4 Is it the right thing to do?
Are we doing it right?

Would the answer be this? No we are not because every time we do it we get it
wrong and have to do it again.
Or would it be this? Yes we are because every time we do it we get it right -
we never have to do it over again.
Quality improvement in this context is for better control and is about improving
the rate at which an agreed standard is achieved. It is therefore a process for
reducing the spread of common cause variation so that all products meet agreed
standards. This is illustrated in Figure 2.9. It is not about removing special cause
variation - this requires the corrective action process.
41
A typical quality improvement of this type might be to reduce the spread of

variation in a parameter so that the average value coincides with the nominal
value. Another example might be to reduce the defect rate from three sigma to
six sigma. The changes that might be needed to meet this objective can be simple
changes in working practices or complex changes that demand a redesign of the
process or a change in working conditions. These might be achieved using
existing methods or technology but it may require innovation in management or
technology to accomplish.
Six sigma
In a perfect world, we would like the range of variation to be well within the upper
and lower specification limits for the characteristics being measured but invariably
we produce defectives. If there were an 80% yield from each stage in a 10-stage
process, the resultant output would be less than 11% and as indicated in Table
2.3. we would obtain only 4 good products from an initial batch of 1 million.
Even if the process stage yield was 99% we would still only obtain half of the
products we started with. It is therefore essential that multiple stage processes
have a process stage yield well in excess of 99% and it is from this perspective
that the concept of six sigma emerges.
Table 2.3 10 Step
process yield
StageYield/stageTotal % yieldInitial population 1
million10.8080800000.0020.8064512000.0030.8051.2262144.
0040.8041107374.1850.8032.835184.3760.8026.29223.3770.
80211934.2880.8016.8324.5290.8013.443.56100.8010.74.68
Can we keep on doing it right?

Would the answer be this? No we can't because the supply of resource is
42
unpredictable, the equipment is wearing out and we can't

afford to replace it.
Or would it be this? Yes we can because we have secured a continual
supply of resources and have in place measures that will
provide early warning of impending changes.
Are we doing it in the best way?
Would the answer be this? We have always done it this way and if it isn't
broke why fix it?
Or would it be this? Yes we think so because we have compared our
performance with the best in class and we are as good as
they are.
One might argue that any target can be met providing we remove the constraints
and throw lots of money at it. Although the targets may be achieved, the
achievement may consume too much resource; time and materials may be
wasted - there may be a better way of doing it. By finding a better way you
release resources to be used more productively.
Is it the right thing to do?
Would the answer be this? I don't know - we always measure customer
satisfaction by the number of complaints
Or would it be this? Yes I believe it is because these targets relate very
well to the organizations objectives.
Quality improvement in this context is accomplished by raising standards and is

about setting a new level of performance, a new target that brings additional
benefits for the interested parties. These targets are performance targets for
products, processes and the system. They are not targets established for the level
of errors such as nonconformities, scrap, and customer complaints.
Improving quality by better control or raising standards can be accom-
plished by the following steps.
1 Determine the objective to be achieved, e.g. new markets, products or

technologies, or new levels of organizational efficiency or managerial
effectiveness, new national standards or government legislation. These
provide the reasons for needing change.
2 Determine the policies needed for improvement, i.e. the broad guidelines to
enable management to cause or stimulate the improvement.
3 Conduct a feasibility study. This should discover whether accomplishment of
the objective is feasible and propose several strategies or conceptual
solutions for consideration. If feasible, approval to proceed should be
secured.
4 Produce plans for the improvement that specifies the means by which the
objective will be achieved.
1 Organize the resources to implement the plan.
2 Carry out research, analysis and design to define a possible solution and
credible alternatives.
3 Model and develop the best solution and carry out tests to prove it fulfils the
objective.
4 Identify and overcome any resistance to the change in standards.
43
5 Implement the change, i.e. put new products into production and new
services into operation.
6 Put in place the controls to hold the new level of performance.
This improvement process will require controls to keep improvement projects on

course towards their objectives. The controls applied should be designed in the
manner described previously.
Quality assurance (QA)

The ISO definition states that quality assurance is part of quality management
focused on providing confidence that quality requirements will be fulfilled. Both
customers and managers have a need for quality assurance because they are not
in a position to oversee operations for themselves. They need to place trust in the
producing operations, thus avoiding constant intervention. Customers and
managers need:
1 Knowledge of what is to be supplied. (This may be gained from the sales

literature, contract or agreement.)
2 Knowledge of how the product or service is intended to be supplied (This may be
gained from the supplier's proposal or offer.)
3 Knowledge that the declared intentions will satisfy customer requirements if
met. (This may be gained from personal assessment or reliance on independent
certifications.)
4 Knowledge that the declared intentions are actually being followed. (This may be
gained by personal assessment or reliance on independent audits.)
5 Knowledge that the products and services meet the specified requirements.
(This may be gained by personal assessment or reliance on independent audits.)
The following steps can obtain an assurance of quality:

1 Acquire the documents that declare the organization's plans for achieving
quality.
2 Produce a plan that defines how an assurance of quality will be obtained, i.e.
a quality assurance plan.
3 Organize the resources to implement the plans for quality assurance.
4 Establish whether the organization's proposed product or service possesses
characteristics that will satisfy customer needs.
5 Assess operations, products and services of the organization and determine
where and what the quality risks are.
6 Establish whether the organization's plans make adequate provision for the
control, elimination or reduction of the identified risks.
7 Determine the extent to which the organization's plans are being imple-
mented and risks contained.
8 Establish whether the product or service being supplied has the prescribed
characteristics.
Quality management systems
Philosophy
44
Quality management systems are like air conditioning systems - they need to be
designed. All the components need to fit together, the inputs and outputs need to
be connected, sensors need to feed information to processes which cause
changes in performance and all parts need to work together to achieve a common
purpose.
The quality management system must exist to achieve the organization's quality
objectives. This concept was unclear in the 1994 version with the result that many
quality systems were focused on procedures for their own sake rather than on
serving objectives. It would appear therefore that other parts of the management
system are intended to serve the achievement of specific objectives. For example
we could establish:
Safety systems to serve safety objectives

Environmental systems to serve environmental objectives
Security systems to serve security objectives
Human resource systems to serve human resource objectives
Marketing systems to serve marketing objectives
Innovation systems to serve innovation objectives
Financial systems to serve financial objectives
Process results
The outputs are things, they do result from a process - of that there is no doubt -
but the measurable results of the process are the outcomes:
Is the process delivering outputs that meet the input requirements?

Is the process operating efficiently?
Is the process effective?
These questions are not answered by a single process output but by monitoring
and measurement taken of the outcomes - not the output.
Relationship of business process to work

processes
Scope Business process Work process
Relationship to Unrelated Closely related
organization
hierarchy
Ownership of No natural owner Departmental
process head or supervisor
Level of Executive level Supervisory or
attention operator level
Relationship to Directly related Indirectly related
business goals and sometimes
(incorrectly)
unrelated
Responsibility Multifunctional Single function
Customers Generally external Other departments
or other business or personnel in
processes same department
Suppliers Generally external Other departments
or other business or personnel in
45
processes same department

Measures Quality, cost Errors, quantities,
delivery response time
Units of Customer % Defective, %
measure satisfaction, Sales cancelled, %
shareholder value, Throughput
cycle time
Summary :
ISO 9001:2008 requirements as per
ANSI/ISO/ASQ(E)Q9001-2008
4. Quality Management System
4.1.General Requirements.
4.2.Documentation Requirements.
4.2.1. General
4.2.2. Quality Manual
4.2.3. Control of Documents
4.2.4. Control of Records
5. Management Responsibility.
5.1.Management Commitment.
5.2.Customer Focus.
5.3.Quality Policy.
5.4.Planning.
5.4.1. Quality Objectives.
5.4.2. QMS Planning.
5.5.Responsibility, Authority & Communication.
5.5.1. Responsibility and Authority.
5.5.2. Management Representative.
5.5.3. Internal Communication.
5.6.Management Review.
5.6.1. General.
5.6.2. Review Inputs.
5.6.3. Review Outputs.
6. Recourse Managements.
6.1.Provision of Recourses.
6.2.Human Recourses.
6.2.1. General
6.2.2. Competence, Awareness and Training.
6.3.Infrastructure.
6.4.Work environment.
7. Product Realization.
7.1.Planning of Product Realization
7.2.Customer Related Process.
7.2.1. Determination of Requirements Related to the Product.
7.2.2. Review of Requirements Related to the Product.
7.2.3. Customer Communication.
7.3.Designing & Developments.
7.3.1. Designing & Developments Planning.
7.3.2. Designing & Developments Inputs.
7.3.3. Designing & Developments Outputs.
7.3.4. Designing & Developments Review.
7.3.5. Designing & Developments Verification.
7.3.6. Designing & Developments Validation.
46
7.3.7. Control of Designing & Developments Changes.

7.4.Purchasing
7.4.1. Purchasing Process.
7.4.2. Purchasing Information.
7.4.3. Verification of Purchased Product.
7.5.Production and Services Provision.
7.5.1. Control Production and Services Provision.
7.5.2. Validation of Process.
7.5.3. Identification & Traceability.
7.5.4. Customer Property.
7.5.5. Preservation of Product.
7.6.Control of Monitoring and Measuring Devises.
8. Measurement, Analysis and Improvement.
8.1.General.
8.2.Monitoring & Measurements.
8.2.1. Customer Satisfaction.
8.2.2. Internal Audit.
8.2.3. Monitoring & Measurements of the Processes.
8.2.4. Monitoring & Measurements of the Product.
8.3.Control of Non-Conforming Product.
8.4.Analysis of Data.
8.5.Improvement.
8.5.1. Continual Improvement.
8.5.2. Corrective Action.
8.5.3. Preventive Action.
Production Control
Production control is responsible for monitoring cost and schedule adherence while work is in progress.
The production control organization is generally responsible for issuing man-hour budgets to be used to
control the shipbuilding process and upon which progress will be judged Progress relates actual work
completed and actual man-hours spent. Consequently, there is need for evaluation which involves
sorting, analyzing, and reorganizing performance data. These data are collected by control groups in
order to monitor expended man-hours, production progress, and productivity, and to feed back system-
oriented data for estimating future shipbuilding projects.
Accuracy Control
A shipbuilding system based on group technology, using a product-oriented work breakdown structure
and integrated hull construction, outfitting, and painting, requires that accuracy be controlled.
Otherwise, work in succeeding stages of production is adversely affected by inaccurate interim
products. Consequently, a system is needed to control the accuracy of interim products Accuracy
control is defined as "the use of statistical techniques to monitor, control and
continuously improve shipbuilding design details planning, and work methods so as to maximize
productivity"
For example, fabricated flat bars will exhibit variations from design dimensions. These variations,
when plotted by the number of times they occur, approximate a normal distribution (see Figure 8-1)
Two parameters describe the relative shape of a normal distribution (N) They are:
mean, , the arithmetical average of variations in a sample, which describes the central tendency of
the distribution
standard deviation, which classes the sizes of variations from the mean value by their frequencies
of occurrence, and thus is a measure of the relative scatter of points around the mean.
47
For a normal distribution, 67 percent of the values fall within one standard deviation of the mean, 95
percent fall within two standard deviations, 99. 7 percent fall within three standard deviations, and so
on. Both parameters are obtainable from mathematical formulas Note that in the remainder of this
chapter, discussion centers on sampling from normal distributions.
The normal distribution of samples from a normally distributed population is described by the sample
mean, , and the sample standard deviation, as described above Similar considerations can be
applied to each work process Thus, spacings between longitudinals will vary, and another normal
distribution having its own mean value and standard deviation applies (see Figure 8-2) Whether the
variations in both flat bar lengths and longitudinal spacings impose requirements for rework depends
upon their merger during a later assembly process.
Fig.8.1 Normal distribution of variation from design dimension of cut flat bars
Control Charts
The most common tool used in statistical quality control is the Shewhart control chart Control charts
apply the concept of expected and measurable variation in work processes and are used to distinguish
between common cause variations and special cause errors The control charts, a related set of one
and one R chart, are plots of the mean and range (R) of random samples of measurements from a
specific work process over time (see Figure 8-3)[3] Like the standard deviation, the range of a random
sample is a measure of scatter R is the difference between the
largest and smallest value in the sample, and although it is a less rigorous measure of variability than
the standard deviation, its simplicity has led to its widespread use in control charts.
Control chart theory is based on the statistical central limit theorem The central limit theorem states that
the distribution of he means of random samples taken from a normal distribution is another normal
distribution with the same mean as the original distribution and a standard deviation equal to the
standard deviation of the original distribution divided by the square root of the random sample size (see
Figure 84) It also states that the distribution of means of random samples will follow a normal
distribution, even if the samples are taken from a non-normal population. This result can be used to
detect changes in the original distribution, which would indicate the presence of special causes of
variation.
48
The control charts provide information about a particular work process. Since some dimensional
variation is a regular result of any work process, it is important to be able to distinguish between
expected chance or random variations, and other variations Thus the control charts are a tool to monitor
work processes to assure that action need not be taken to maintain the usually achieved accuracy of the
process.
49
Example:
Study the Tail-shaft works in dry docking and calculate :

A- planning of Tail-shaft removal and return fixation
B- Man hours needed
C- Schedule time
D- Put the quality standards for all steps
E- Quality control management
Solution :
(a) Planning of tail shaft removal & return fixation & (B) Man-hours needed
Assumption: Tail shaft diameter is 200 mm with fixed pitch propeller & the
tail shaft will be withdrawing outboard Referance : "Guide to ship repair
estimate" Don Butler, 1st published 2000
Man Hours Job

I- Tailshaft/sterntube clearances (Table 2.7 page 17) (MH) Code
Removing rope-guard, measuring and recording wear-down of

tailshaft and refitting rope-guard, including erection of staging for
access, by:
(a) Feeler gauge.
15 MH TS01
(b) Poker gauge coupled with jacking up shaft.
22 MH TS02
(c) Repacking internal sterngland using owner's supplied soft
11 MH TS03
greasy packing.
II- Removal of Tail shaft for survey (Table 2.8 page 18)
Disconnecting and removing fixed-pitch propeller and landing in s n
dock bottom
(a) Disconnecting and removing tapered, keyed, inboard tailshaft t
coupling, drawing tailshaft outboard and landing in dock bottom for e
survey, cleaning, calibrating and refitting all on completion. r
Includes erection of staging for access. Includes repacking inboard n
gland using owner's supplied, conventional soft greasy packing. g
Excludes any repairs. Excludes any work on patent gland seals l

a
n
III- Crack Detection
d
Magnaflux testing of tailshaft taper and key way. ,
(a)Testing works, which is performed after all removals for access. c
8 MH TS05 l
e
IV- Gland & Simplex type seal (Table 2.9 Page 19) a
n
(a) Removing gland follower, removing existing packing from internal
i
12 MH TS06
50
g out stuffing box and repacking gland

using owner's supplied conventional soft greasy packing.
Excluding all machining works. 120 TS04
Assuming previous withdrawing of tailshaft MH
.
Total man-hours = 188 MH
8MH TS05
12MH TS06
51
Bar chart
(d)& (e) Quality Control & Standard allowance during tail shaft Removal.
1) Survey records
Engine power
Speed at which the engine is rated rpm
Reduction ratio of the gearbox
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of shaft material N/mm2
Shaft material specification.
The following information should always be stated on the surveyors report
1. if the propeller shaft was removed or not,
2. if yes, was it subsequently renewed or reconditioned,
3. if not, the date of the last removal or partial withdrawal, and if renewed or
reconditioned, and
4. if the propeller shaft has been accepted below rule size.
5. tail shaft and intermediate shaft clearances
2) Shaft removal considerations
Removal of a propeller shaft is to be anticipated whenever the vessel is dry-docked for

renewal survey, in accordance with the survey schedule.
However, where there is evidence available to indicate that the stern gear is in good
working order, it may not be necessary to insist on removal. The following checks are
designed to ensure that, when completed, the surveyor should be satisfied that the
stern gear, including the propeller shaft, will continue in a serviceable condition for the
period covered by his declaration. If there is any reasonable doubt, the propeller shaft
should be removed, either partially or fully. In order to assist surveyors arrive at a
decision the following points should be considered:-
(a) Evidence of recent maintenance work carried out on the stern gear, and
52
(b) Any other relevant comments by the owner/skipper on the running

condition of the stern gear.
In both of these cases the surveyor should make a judgment taking into account the
following items:-
(a) Date the propeller shaft was last withdrawn,
(b) Date the propeller shaft was last replaced or reconditioned,
(c) Any records of excessive noise/vibration,
(d) Indication that the propeller shaft is bent,
(e) Any evidence of the intermediate bearings (if any) between the engine (or
gearbox) and the stern tube running hot,
(f) In an oil lubricated stern gear system any evidence of oil consumption over a
known period of time,
(g) Any evidence of water in the oil reservoir
(h) Any evidence of oil leakage past an internal seal.
Table 1 indicates which checks are applicable. Wherever possible advice should be sought
and taken, from competent repair technicians on how to proceed with examination of the
stern gear.
On larger vessels, the wear is measured using a wear down gauge.
Table 1 - Applicability of
checks
CHECK forBEARING TYPE
WATER LUBRICATEDGREASE LUBRICATEDOIL
LUBRICATED(a) WearYesYesYes(b) Bent shaftYesYesYes(c)
Corrosion/pittingYesYesYes(d) GroovingYesYesYes(e) Seal/cutlass
bearingYesYesYes(f) Grease supplyN/AYesN/A(g) Oil analysisN/AN/AYes
Note:
Water lubricated propeller shaft bearings
This type of stern gear has many variations in operating conditions which can affect its
serviceability, including whether the shaft material is corrosion resistant or not. The stern
gear should be checked as detailed in Table 1.
53
3) Corrodible tail shafts
Sample 60 mm shaft corrodible
Some tail shafts are made from corrodible steel which are liable to corrosion anywhere, but
especially prone to severe corrosion/wastage in the hidden section between the outer
bearing and inner bearing (or gland). In some cases brass or similar protective liners are
fitted in way of the bearing surfaces, but any unprotected surface will remain hidden from
view. In such cases, the tail shaft will need be withdrawn to the extent necessary for the
unprotected section to be examined.
At this point the surveyor should make a decision based on evidence already available
and that obtained from the above checks whether to remove, or partially remove the
stern gear for examination.
4) Calculation of propeller shaft allowable wear
The manufacturers' recommended allowable tolerances for wear between the stern tube
and propeller shaft should be consulted. Where these are not available, the permissible
clearance will vary depending on shaft diameter, but should not normally exceed 6 to 10mm
in the case of lignum vitae.
The following points should be considered when making a judgment on
acceptability and period before re-survey or otherwise:
54
1) The rate of wear obtained between successive dockings in the past;

consideration being given for initial high rates of wear that can be experienced
after re-wooding.
2) Past and prospective future service of the vessel.
3) Next probable occasion when renewal of the bearings could be carried out.
4) Any recent history of excessive stern-gland leakage which may make it necessary to
limit the wear to less than the general limits specified in the following table.
5) Whether the shaft exceeds the required diameter for its material strength.
6) As a rule of thumb, for on the spot decisions, shaft wear of 2%, with a
maximum of 5mm should be considered for replacement.
5) Shaft survey
Shafts should be carefully examined for cracks, particularly at keyways. The

forward and aft ends of liners where corrosion may sometimes be found should be
examined. Signs of fretting are occasionally evident on the shaft cone, owing
possibly to unsatisfactory fit of the propeller or inadequate hardening up of the nut.
Areas of corrosion, sometimes in the form of a circumferential band at the large end
of the cone, should be viewed with suspicion. In extreme cases, circumferential
stress corrosion cracking has developed from such areas. This defect is usually
attributable to the presence of sea water.
Where screw shafts require examination at the forward part of the cone or the
fillet in flanged propeller attachments by an efficient crack detection method, this
should be of the magnetic particle type (MPI) for shafts of ordinary steel. Facilities for
MPI are available at most dry-docks but where they are not, the shaft can be readily
magnetized by encircling it with a few turns of cable connected to a suitable low
voltage, high amperage electric current.
Any cracks found will generally be the result of fatigue. The extent and depth
of any crack should be determined by grinding out the affected area until it has been
confirmed by MPI that the crack has been entirely removed. Where defects are
situated near the end of a liner, it must be
verified that these do not continue under the liner. The liner should be machined
back if necessary.
The threaded end and nut should be carefully examined.
6) Replacement shafting
Only materials known to be suitable for the manufacture of shafts, shaft

couplings and coupling bolts are to used for that purpose. A test certificate for the
material must be produced, in order that strength calculations may be undertaken.
Where the diameter of a forged steel shaft is 250 mm or greater it should be

subjected to ultrasonic tests.
55
Shaft couplings should be forged from the solid shaft or may be formed by
upsetting the ends by hydraulic pressure. Couplings, when separate from the shaft,
may be steel castings or forged from ingot steel.
Shaft coupling bolts should be manufactured from ingot steel having an

ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of 430 to 780 N/mm2 or equivalent UTS of the shaft
material used. The makers' guarantee regarding the quality of the material may be
accepted.
If calculations are required for components dimensions, these can be obtained from class
rules.
7) Repairs
Localized corrosion damage or gland wear, up to a depth of 3mm, may be

repaired by a class approved spray welding process. However, this repair would not
be acceptable in way of bearing contact.
If the shaft was oversize, it may be machined down to that required for the
power rating. Where the shaft has been machined to remove surface cracks, and the
shaft is to be refitted, the material around the depressions must be carefully blended
into the adjacent surface of the shaft to avoid stress raisers. Machining in way of
bearings would require that new bearings would be fitted.
Bronze liners worn in way of stern gland packing may be repaired by welding,
in accordance with a class approved procedure.
References:
1- Don Butler "Guide to ship repair estimate", 1st published 2000.
2- David Hoyle, ISO 9000 Quality Systems Handbook, Fourth Edition, 2001.
3- Shipbuilding and Repair Quality Standard, (Rev.4, Aug. 2008).
4- Richard Lee Storch, Colinp. Hammon, Howard M. Bunch & Richard C. Moore, Ship
Production, Second edition, Book, 1995.
5- John S. Oakland, Statistical Process Control, Fifth Edition, book, 2003.
6- John M. Nicholas, Project Management for Business and Engineering, 2nd Edition,
book, Loyola University Chicago, 2004.
56
The End
57
Dr.Mostafa.M. Elafandy - Planning and Production Control 2009
in Shipbuilding
Sample 60 mm shaft corrodible
Some tail shafts are made from corrodible steel which are liable to corrosion anywhere, but
especially prone to severe corrosion/wastage in the hidden section between the outer bearing
and inner bearing (or gland). In some cases brass or similar protective liners are fitted in way of
the bearing surfaces, but any unprotected surface will remain hidden from view. In such cases,
the tail shaft will need be withdrawn to the extent necessary for the unprotected section to be
examined.
At this point the surveyor should make a decision based on evidence already available
and that obtained from the above checks whether to remove, or partially remove the
stern gear for examination.
4) Calculation of propeller shaft allowable wear
The manufacturers' recommended allowable tolerances for wear between the stern tube and
propeller shaft should be consulted. Where these are not available, the permissible clearance
will vary depending on shaft diameter, but should not normally exceed 6 to 10mm in the case of
lignum vitae.
The following points should be considered when making a judgment on acceptability
and period before re-survey or otherwise:
7) The rate of wear obtained between successive dockings in the past;

consideration being given for initial high rates of wear that can be experienced
after re-wooding.
8) Past and prospective future service of the vessel.
9) Next probable occasion when renewal of the bearings could be carried out.
58 | P a g e
in Shipbuilding
10) Any recent history of excessive stern-gland leakage which may make it necessary to limit
the wear to less than the general limits specified in the following table.
11) Whether the shaft exceeds the required diameter for its material strength.
12) As a rule of thumb, for on the spot decisions, shaft wear of 2%, with a maximum
of 5mm should be considered for replacement.
5) Shaft survey
Shafts should be carefully examined for cracks, particularly at keyways. The

forward and aft ends of liners where corrosion may sometimes be found should be
examined. Signs of fretting are occasionally evident on the shaft cone, owing possibly to
unsatisfactory fit of the propeller or inadequate hardening up of the nut. Areas of
corrosion, sometimes in the form of a circumferential band at the large end of the cone,
should be viewed with suspicion. In extreme cases, circumferential stress corrosion
cracking has developed from such areas. This defect is usually attributable to the
presence of sea water.
Where screw shafts require examination at the forward part of the cone or the
fillet in flanged propeller attachments by an efficient crack detection method, this should
be of the magnetic particle type (MPI) for shafts of ordinary steel. Facilities for MPI are
available at most dry-docks but where they are not, the shaft can be readily magnetized
by encircling it with a few turns of cable connected to a suitable low voltage, high
amperage electric current.
Any cracks found will generally be the result of fatigue. The extent and depth of
any crack should be determined by grinding out the affected area until it has been
confirmed by MPI that the crack has been entirely removed. Where defects are situated
near the end of a liner, it must be
verified that these do not continue under the liner. The liner should be machined back if
necessary.
The threaded end and nut should be carefully examined.
6) Replacement shafting
Only materials known to be suitable for the manufacture of shafts, shaft

couplings and coupling bolts are to used for that purpose. A test certificate for the
material must be produced, in order that strength calculations may be undertaken.
Where the diameter of a forged steel shaft is 250 mm or greater it should be

subjected to ultrasonic tests.
59 | P a g e
in Shipbuilding
Shaft couplings should be forged from the solid shaft or may be formed by
upsetting the ends by hydraulic pressure. Couplings, when separate from the shaft, may
be steel castings or forged from ingot steel.
Shaft coupling bolts should be manufactured from ingot steel having an ultimate
tensile strength (UTS) of 430 to 780 N/mm2 or equivalent UTS of the shaft material used.
The makers' guarantee regarding the quality of the material may be accepted.
If calculations are required for components dimensions, these can be obtained from class rules.
7) Repairs
Localized corrosion damage or gland wear, up to a depth of 3mm, may be

repaired by a class approved spray welding process. However, this repair would not be
acceptable in way of bearing contact.
If the shaft was oversize, it may be machined down to that required for the power
rating. Where the shaft has been machined to remove surface cracks, and the shaft is to
be refitted, the material around the depressions must be carefully blended into the
adjacent surface of the shaft to avoid stress raisers. Machining in way of bearings would
require that new bearings would be fitted.
Bronze liners worn in way of stern gland packing may be repaired by welding, in
accordance with a class approved procedure.
References:
7- Don Butler "Guide to ship repair estimate", 1st published 2000.
8- David Hoyle, ISO 9000 Quality Systems Handbook, Fourth Edition, 2001.
9- Shipbuilding and Repair Quality Standard, (Rev.4, Aug. 2008).
10- RICHARD LEE STORCH, COLIN P. HAMMON, HOWARD M. BUNCH, & RICHARD C.
MOORE, SHIP PRODUCTION, SECOND EDITION, Book, 1995.
11- John S. Oakland, Statistical Process Control, Fifth Edition, book, 2003.
12- John M. Nicholas, Project Management for Businessand Engineering, 2nd Edition,
book, Loyola University Chicago, 2004.
60 | P a g e
in Shipbuilding
61 | P a g e

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Dr.Mostafa M.

Elafandy - Planning and Production Control in Shipbuilding

Planning and Production Control in Shipbuilding

Prepared by: Dr / Mostafa Mohamed El-Afandy

Development of owner's requirements.

Owner requirements &

Detail Design Delivery

Main Stages in Shipbuilding Process

Fig (2.1) Production plan for traditional ship construction

Planning and Scheduling

Design Department Master Schedule

Fig 7.17 Man-hour control S- curve

Planning and schedule charts

Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

Gantt Charts (or Bar Chart)

Disadvantages of Gantt Charts

Basic Hull Construction Production Plans and Schedules

hull erection layout plan

block definition on a midship section

Quality control and management system

Figure 2.1 Hierarchy of needs

Self-actualization is represented by an organization's preoccupation with growth,

In supplying products or services there are three fundamental parameters that

The former definition focused on an entity that was described as a product or

Quality System Documentations

The success of any organization therefore depends upon understanding the

Accessibility Functionality Size

Service quality characteristics

Eight management principles

1 What are you trying to do?

The 'failure elimination' school is characterized by five different questions

1 How do you know what is needed?

Did you know?

Communication with the customer

The setting of objectives and policies

1- Internal Audit: Conducted by the organization for the benefits of the

there is a defined process for establishing the organizations goals and

Figure 2.4 Generic

the output of the whole organization by measuring the overall quality

1 Determine what parameter is to be controlled.

Figure 2.7 Control limits and specification limits

Accuracy and precision

Figure 4.6 The first coincidental shot from

Table 4.3 Lengths of 100

Figure 4.10 Histogram of 100 steel rod lengths

Figure 4.11 Frequency

Figure 4.12 The normal distribution of a continuous variable

Variation and management

common cause variation - inherent in the process

Fig. 4.14 common and special causes

changes in absolute level (centring/accuracy)

changes in variability (spread/precision).

Mean (or arithmetic average)

144, 146, 146, 154.

3-Relationship between mean, median and mode

Mean Mode = 3 (Mean Median).

Thus, knowing two of the parameters enables the third to be estimated

Measures of precision or spread

Measurements above the mean have a positive deviation and measurements

The normal distribution

Quality improvement (QI)

Are we doing it right?

A typical quality improvement of this type might be to reduce the spread of